106 Energy Harvesting: Solar, Wind, and Ocean Energy Conversion Systems

TABLE 2.2
Friction Coefficient
Terrain Characteristics Friction Coefficient (α)

Smooth hard ground, calm weather 0.10

Tall grass on level ground 0.15
High cops, hedges, and shrubs 0.20
Wooded countryside, many trees 0.25
Small town with trees and shrubs 0.30
Large city with tall buildings 0.40

The reduced wind speed rate with respect to the friction coefficient and terrain height
can be expressed as
   α
v H
= , (2.4)
v0 H0

where v0 is the original wind speed associated with the terrain height of H0 and v is the
reduced wind speed at a terrain height of H.
Roughness classes for different roughness lengths are provided in Table 2.3 with specific
description of the terrains.
The reduced wind speed rate for different terrain heights and roughness lengths can be
expressed as
 
v ln(H/z)
= , (2.5)
v0 ln(H0 /z)

where z is the length of the roughness.

Wind speed increases exponentially with altitude. Therefore, the speed of wind at 10 m
will be totally different from its speed at 100 and 200 m heights. The formula that gives
exact information on actual wind speed at a certain height level above the earth’s surface

TABLE 2.3
Roughness Classes
Roughness Class Description Roughness Length [z (m)]

0 Water surface 0.0002

1 Open areas with a few windbreaks 0.03
2 Farm land with some windbreaks 0.1
more than 1 km apart
3 Urban districts and farm land with 0.4
many windbreaks
4 Dense urban or forest 1.6

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