STEEL TRUSS, GIRDER, BRIDGE

I. HISTORY
The worlds first cast iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale, Telford in 1779. It is still in use today
carrying occasional light transport and pedestrians. Until 1840, the construction material used was
either cast iron or wrought iron or a combination of both. In the early 1800s cast iron was beginning to
be replaced by wrought iron and many of the early railway bridges were built of riveted wrought iron
construction. It was not until the late 1800s that steel began to replace wrought iron and by the early
1900s wrought iron was no longer available, as worldwide, steel makers had moved to producing carbon
steel, a much more reliable material.

Steel Truss – Made of individual members with equal counteracting tensile and compressive forces, its
purpose is designed to behave as a single object which carries/supports a load over a span. Truss, a
structure of connected elements usually forming triangular units. Within the truss structure itself
interior members further support the loads through axial tension and compression resistance. Trusses
have been used in a similar way to beams in composite decks (Oresund Approach Spans), as arches
(Sydney Harbour Bridge), as cantilevers (Forth Rail Bridge) or as stiffening girders to suspension bridges
(Forth Road Bridge). Today, the truss girder form of construction usually proves expensive to fabricate
because of the large amount of labour-intensive work in building up the members and making the
connections, so they are seldom used for ordinary highway bridges. However, for through or half-
through forms, truss bridges do offer a very stiff, lightweight solutions with minimum structural depth.
Hence, they are widely used in the UK for footbridges, demountable bridges (Bailey bridges), gantries
and longer span railway bridges (over 50m).

Steel Girder – Steel girders are a type of steel beams. Girders are collector beams, they are the main
horizontal supports of a structure which support the smaller beams. So “all girders are beams but all
beams are not girders”. Steel girders and beams differ from each other in various aspects. Essentially, a
beam and a girder have the same function. Girders have an I-shaped cross section or they can be box-
shaped or Z-shaped. The main function of a steel girder is to transfer the load to the columns on which it
rests. A steel beam transfers load to the steel girder. This is another key distinguishing factor between a
steel girder and a steel beam. Girders are often used for constructing bridges.

Figure 10.1. Girder components.

 Figure 10.3. Box-girder component types.

Figure 10.4. Steel-r.c. composite box-girder components.

Steel Bridge – Steel bridges are widely used around the world in different structural forms with different
span length, such as highway bridges, railway bridges, and footbridges. The main advantages of
structural steel over other construction materials are its strength, ductility, easy fabrication, and rapid
construction. It has a much higher strength in both tension and compression than concrete, and
relatively good strength to cost ratio and stiffness to weight ratio. Steel is a versatile and effective
material that provides efficient and sustainable solutions for bridge construction, particularly for long
span bridges or bridges requiring enhanced seismic performance.

II. TYPES OF PREFABRICATED SYSTEMS

Temporary Bridges: As an alternative to costly detours, maintenance of traffic, and increased traffic
volume, prefabricated steel bridges are utilized to divert traffic during bridge repair, rehabilitation,
construction, or replacement. These bridges are installed as a temporary structure during construction
and then disassembled and stored until used again as a temporary structure.

Emergency Bridges: also are needed from a security standpoint, and due to man-made non-terrorist
hazards like ship impact, truck impact, fire, and blast. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, mudslides,
fires, and tornados can destroy a bridge by washout or collapse. Typical prefabricated bridges can be
erected much faster than the time of constructing a cast-in-place structure. Moreover, with the
increased threat to our nation's infrastructure due to terrorism, these systems could be utilized in a time
of national emergency.
Permanent Bridges: A permanent structure requires a design service life of 75 years in accordance with
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, third edition (2004). A major objective of this study is to
provide recommendations that will increase the use of prefabricated steel bridges as permanent
bridges.

Figure 2.1: A.M.Hamilton Patent Information, Elevation

Figure 2.7: Full Cantilever Launching of a Bailey Bridge

Figure 2.8: Acrow Patent Information, 1990

Figure 2.18: Quadricon Bridge System

III. CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BRIDGE

1. Classification based on type of traffic carried:
a. Highway or road bridges
b. Railway or rail bridges
 c. Road – cum – rail bridges
2. Classification based on the main structural system:
a.) Girder Bridges - Flexure or bending between vertical supports is the main Structural action in
this type.
b.) Rigid Frame Bridges - In this type, the longitudinal girders are made structurally continuous
with the vertical or inclined supporting member by means of moment carrying joints
c.) Arch bridges - The loads are transferred to the foundations by arches acting as the main
structural element.
d.) Cable stayed - Cables in the vertical or near vertical planes support the main longitudinal
girders.
e.) Suspension bridges - The bridge deck is suspended from cables stretched over the gap to be
bridged, anchored to the ground at two ends and passing over tall towers erected at or near the
two edges of the gap.
3. Classification based on the position of carriageway:
(i) Deck type bridge - The carriageway rests on the top of the main load carrying members. In
the deck type plate girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed on the top flanges. In the
deck type truss girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at the top chord level
(ii) Through type bridge - The carriageway rests at the bottom level of the main load carrying
members [Fig. 8(b)]. In the through type plate girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at
the level of bottom flanges. The bracing of the top flange or lateral support of the top chord
under compression is also required.
(iii) Semi through type bridge - The deck lies in between the top and the bottom of the main
load carrying members. The bracing of the top flange or top chord under compression is not
done and part of the load carrying system project above the floor level as shown in Fig. 8(c). The
lateral restraint in the system is obtained usually by the U-frame action of the verticals and cross
beam acting together.

IV. Types of Truss

- The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for
roof construction.
- The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is often
used for floor construction.
*MOST COMMON YUNG PRATT, HOWE, WARREN
V. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
To ensure that a steel bridge design can be safely, economically and reliably executed (fabricated,
assembled and erected), designers should be aware of the processes of fabrication and erection, the
capabilities and limitations of the steelwork contractor and how the design choices affect those
processes.

The objectives of ‘design for construction’ are:

• To maximize the efficiency of the construction process
• To minimize the need for clarification and change

Achieving these objectives will reduce costs, reduce the construction period, enhance quality and
increase the safety of the work.
The activities for the steelwork contractor include planning, ordering, modelling, fabricating,
assembling, coating and erecting.

PLANNING
Two basic approaches to design and construction:
• Traditional approach – the Designer makes the structural choices and the Steelwork Contractor
builds to the drawings
• Early contractor involvement (ECI) – The Designer and Steelwork Contractor liaise at an early
stage to optimize the construction process

Constraints
The site can have a considerable influence on the structural form and how it can be erected. Particular
factors include:
• Location of the structure
• Constraints of the site
• Access
• Phasing of the erection
• Availability and size of erection plant
• Requirements for rapid installation, e.g. during possession
• Working over or adjacent to water

CDM Regulations (Construction, Design and Management)

The CDM regulations[4] require everyone involved in the project to identify hazards early on so that
they can be eliminated or reduced at design stage. It is pointless to complete a design first and then try
to address the risks associated with the design. By then, all decisions will have been made and any
changes will cost time and money. Eliminating hazards from the design, so far is reasonably practicable,
will remove the associated risk and is therefore the best option.
Getting the concept method of erection right at the commencement of the project is fundamental to the
overall success of the project.

ORDERING
The most economical way to procure plate and section is from the mills in sizes to suit the project.
Stockholders charge much more per tonne and the use of stock sizes will require additional butt welds
and more waste. It is important therefore that the provision of the information for material ordering is
timed to suit the lead times required by the mills. The information that the steelwork contractor needs
to prepare orders is as follows:
 Geometry
-Plan layout
-Levels at bearings
-Final profile of top flange
-Haunch definition (if any)
-Dead load precamber – total and breakdown
-Camber tolerance (if any)
-Web to flange weld sizes (for shrinkage and camber)
-Orientation of splices and girder ends

Make-up
-Plate and section dimensions
-bolts – quantity, type, diameter, plating
-Shear stud – quantity, length, diameter

Specification
-Steel grade for different thicknesses of plate and sections
-Restrictions on butt weld positions (if any)
-Options on geometric tolerances (see GN 5.03), surface quality, testing, CEV etc (if any)

MODELLING THE STRUCTURE

Once the steelwork requirements are fully defined, the information can be used by the steelwork
contractor to create a two-dimensional or three-dimensional model of the steelwork using CADCAM
software such as Strucad.
This software will create the list of components (girder webs and flanges, stiffeners, bracing members
etc) required for the structure and produce the programs for each of the machines to be used in the
fabrication process.
The model can also be used as a ‘virtual trial erection’ of the steelwork, allowing the steelwork
contractor to look at the steelwork details from any angle. This is particularly useful when dealing with
complicated details, for example, the ends of tied-arch bridges, as it enables the steelwork contractor to
check the accessibility of the detail as part of design development prior to the commencement of
fabrication.

FABRICATING THE STEELWORK

The principal activities at the fabrication works are:
• Pre-assembly butt welding
• Cutting and profiling
• Drilling and edge preparation
• Assembly
• Welding
• Fitting of stiffeners
• Shear connectors
• Trial erection (rarely carried out)
• Coating application

Pre-assembly butt welding

The steelwork contractor usually butt welds the flanges and web plates to full length in the shop
before assembly of the girder. This means that such shop joints can be in different positions in
the two flanges and do not have to line up with any shop joint in the web. If possible, the full
width of plate supplied (from which several components will be cut) will be butt welded, as this
will reduce the number of run-on/run-off plates and minimise butt weld testing requirements.
Cutting and drilling
Flame or plasma cutting equipment is used to cut flanges to length and width, webs to profile
and camber, and stiffeners to shape. Plates up to 35 mm thick can be profiled using plasma
cutting equipment. Plates greater than 35 mm thick will usually be cut using oxy-propane, which
is safer than using oxy-acetylene.
In addition to the geometric requirements of plan curvature and precamber defined by the
designer, the steelwork contractor will also take into account the allowances required for
thermal cutting, and shrinkage such that the final girder geometry matches that required.
Some plate cutting machines also have the ability to mark stiffener positions on web and flange
plates, and drill bolt holes for splice connections. Otherwise, the cut plates are hand marked and
drilled later.

Assembly
The ability of a steelwork contractor to use his automated equipment to fabricate steelwork can
greatly reduce fabrication costs and improve the quality of the finished product. This is probably
most important in the assembly of flat plates into fabricated components.
On particularly complex fabrications, a designer is very unlikely to produce the most cost
effective detail without the input of the steelwork contractor who will be carrying out the work.
It is useful to bear in mind that different steelwork contractors have different equipment, and
therefore different capabilities.
Some steelwork contractors have T & I machines which are used to assemble flat plates into ‘T’
sections and then ‘I’ sections. These machines will have limits on girder length, height, width,
weight, curvature (in plan and elevation) and haunching which can be accommodated, which
will differ between steelwork contractors. The larger machines can produce girders up to 4 m
deep and 1.5 m wide. Welds can be built up in multiple passes through the machine but short
lengths of built-up weld have to be done by hand.

As mentioned above, the more suited a structure is to automated assembly, the more cost-
effective its fabrication will be. Designing beams as ‘I’ girders rather than box girders will make
them more suited to automated assembly. Typically, an ‘I’ girder will involve 85% automated
assembly, with only the stiffening being carried out manually (unless robot technology is used).
An open top box will involve 70% automated assembly, with automated welds between the
webs and the top flanges, welding of the stiffeners to the webs and bottom flanges to formed
stiffened plates by robot, and with welding of the bottom flange to the webs being carried out
manually. A closed top box will involve 35% automated profiling and marking of plates only, and
all other fabrication (box assembly and stiffening) being carried out manually.

Welding
Section stiffening
https://youtu.be/HrHjagdZ9Zw

Stiffeners and bracing

Post-fabrication welded splice
https://youtu.be/689Cl5-Kzp8
DETAILING FOR ASSEMBLY
The assembly of steelwork can have a considerable influence on the detailing of steelwork. For example,
bolts should not be positioned within 100 mm of the face of a girder web or stiffener to enable them to
be tightened using standard equipment. Special consideration should also be given when attaching
bracing members to skewed stiffeners, as access for tightening equipment to the back of the stiffener
will be limited.
"Web and stiffener verticality"
"Alignment of surfaces"
"Joint gaps"
"Connections"
"Bolting"
"Welding"
"Shear studs on cover plates"
"Cover plate thickness"
"Pack plate thickness and material"
"Enclosed spaces"

ACCESS FOR PAINTING

Designers should consider the access required to apply protective treatment to all areas of exposed
steelwork where required. This can often be an issue at the ends of skewed bridges, where a
combination of skewed bearing / bracing stiffeners and square end plates / jacking stiffeners can
produce semi-enclosed steelwork which is difficult to access for painting.

TRANSPORTATION
To maximize the amount of work carried out within the fabrication works, thus achieving the highest
quality, the steel structure is fabricated in pieces as large as can reasonably be transported to site. The
designer should anticipate how the structure will be split into separate components for delivery to site,
particularly in considering member sizes and splice positions.
Access to the site and positioning of the erection plant has to be planned and sequenced to ensure that
disruption to adjacent services / infrastructure is minimized. Access onto site has to be coordinated with
the traffic management scheme to ensure that craneage and steelwork can be brought onto site and
mobilized with minimum disruption.

BRIDGE ERECTION
Methods of erecting steel bridge structures vary considerably from site to site and from project to
project. The subject of erection aspects is therefore a wide and varied subject. This section focuses on
the aspects that should be considered during the initial design and detailed design phases.

- Installation of bearings
The first pieces of steelwork to be erected on site are the bridge bearings. The function
of a bearing is to transfer weight of the superstructure to the substructure. They may
also transfer transverse and longitudinal forces. They carry large forces but can be easily
damaged by inappropriate handling or installation.

Bearings can be supplied attached to the girders but it is more common for them to be
aligned and levelled on the substructure and attached to the girders afterwards. The
designer needs to give clear instructions about line, level and setting of bearings to
ensure that they function as intended in service.
 The designer must allow for safe access for precise installation of bearings. The means
of access may need to be retained for maintenance and replacement of bearings.

- Erection using cranes

Erection using cranes is considered the most cost effective erection method for the
majority of structures. However, note that only crawler cranes and some small rough
terrain mobile cranes are able to traverse the site with a load. The site areas adjacent to
the bridge will affect the position and size of crane that can be used and this will affect
capacity of lift and therefore choice of crane and the piece size. The area for
preassembly will also influence lift size.

- Specialist Transport
Where lifting into position is not suitable, for example when there is a lack of space for a
crane or there are overhead cables in the vicinity, one option is to assemble steelwork
at low level away from (but close to) the actual bridge site. The assembled steelwork is
then jacked up to allow specialist transportation units beneath the deck. The units are
then used to transport the deck into position.

Preassembly away from the site also allows the client to continue with the construction
of the bridge piers and abutments for example without disrupting the assembly of the
steel.

- Launching
Launching the steelwork over road or river, involves assembly of steelwork, typically
behind an abutment, on the highway approach. The steelwork is assembled on low
resistance rollers or a sliding system at each pier or temporary support. A haulage and
restraint system is used. The steelwork requires plenty of construction alignment to
ensure adequate fit up prior to launching and needs to have sufficient time in the
programme to allow for this. However, assembly is normally near ground level, with the
use of much smaller and less expensive cranes and minimum work at height.

- Influence of erection durations

Erection durations are generally dictated by the client’s programme, the features of the
site, and the principal contractor’s programme (Baka pwede tong enumeration ung
tatlong indicated dito). Site erection durations control the balance between pre-
assembly in the fabrication yard or on site adjacent to the proposed bridge, and the
elements of the structure that can be erected directly off the transport.
 - Erection during possessions
The requirement to maintain traffic flow, whether road, rail or water, may severely limit
the duration of erection operations. In such cases erection has to take place within a
fixed or defined “possession” period.

Working within any form of possession, requires careful and precise planning. Often the
cost penalty of over running can be extreme for both parties. If this is the case, it may be
beneficial for most of the structure to be pre assembled prior to erection. Then the
whole bridge can be lifted into place using a large crane positioned adjacent to the site.

- Stability during erection

The efficient design of plate girders with a number of parallel steel plate girders using
composite construction tends to produce small top flanges. This makes them prone to
lateral torsional buckling during construction, before the slab has hardened. There is
also a risk of instability during handling, delivery and exposure to high winds. Hence,
designers should consider slenderness in the various erection conditions.

The most common way to improve stability is to assemble girders into braced pairs
which makes them more stable during lifting and when in place compared to a single
girder.

Ideally, designers should make use of any temporary bracing for performance in service
and thus make it permanent. Generally, making bracing permanent is more economic
and avoids hazards of its removal.

DECK CONSTRUCTION
Pre assembly for composite construction can be used to fit critical falsework and formwork, temporary
and permanent walkways and edge protection, before lifting the bridge section into place. The
advantage of this is two-fold. The formwork can be fitted at low level, which is inherently safer, and it
also eliminates this operation from the critical path. The formwork would otherwise be fitted after
completion of the erection.
Falsework systems such as that shown above have been developed such that they can be attached and
removed without any significant risk of damage to protective treatment (or contamination of the
surface of weathering steel). This eliminates the need for subsequent surface treatment, saving time
and costs.

Falsework - defined as any temporary construction used to support vertical loads for a structure until it
becomes self-supporting.
Formwork - temporary structure or mold used to retain plastic or fluid concrete in its designated shape
until it hardens.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sA2vWMOc5Sw

VI. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

The steel bridges are generally very durable if properly maintained. The primary causes of metal bridge
deterioration include the corrosion, fatigue, large deformations, and relaxation and drop off of high
strength bolt.
1. Corrosion
Corrosion is a common problem for steel bridges, and it is the gradual destruction of steel by
chemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion will lead to the loss of the effective materials and
reduction of the steel thickness, thus results in the decrease of the stiffness and increase of the
structural deformation. In bridge structures, the corrosion is likely to happen at the girder end where
water may come from the expansion joint, the top of the bottom flange where soil and dust are easy to
accumulate, the bearing surroundings, and connections or joints.
2. Fatigue
Fatigue failure of steel bridges is another significant problem affecting the remaining service life
of existing steel bridges. In general, fatigue can be defined as the weakening of steel materials or
accumulation of damage at a localized region caused by cyclic loading or repeatedly applied loads. On
this occasion, the material may damage when the nominal maximum stress is still much less than the
material strength determined from the material tests. When the material is subjected to the repeated
loading above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to occur at locations in stress
concentration. Then the crack will propagate suddenly causing the fracture of the steel members.
3. Large Deformation
The large deformations in steel bridges may happen due to the out-of-plane deformation or
buckling of steel members caused by the local stress concentration, overlarge external load, impact, or
seismic load. The web without sufficient stiffeners and slender secondary members is vulnerable to such
damages.
4. Relaxation and Drop Off of High Strength Bolt
High strength bolts located at the girder end and interconnecting section of bottom flange are
easy to suffer such damages due to the water-induced corrosion. Relaxation of high strength bolt may
occur on members subjected to vibration loading, or due to the inadequate tightening force during
construction.

VII. PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE IN STEEL BRIDGES

1. General: Remove brush and vegetation around structure. Annually.
2. Bridge Deck & Sidewalks: Sweep clean sand and other debris. Power wash with water to remove salt
residue. Annually.
3. Wearing Surface: Check for excessive cracking and deterioration. Annually.
4. Expansion Joint: Power wash with water to remove debris, sand and salt residue. Annually.
5. Bolted Connections: Inspect for excessive corrosion or cracking of the steel fasteners. Check for any
loose or missing bolts. Annually.
6. Welded Connections: Check for cracking in the welds. Annually.
7. Truss Members: Power wash with water to remove sand, salt and debris, particularly along the
bottom chord. Give specific attention to debris accumulation within partially enclosed locations such as
truss panel point connections or tubular members. Annually.
8. Bridge Seats: Clean around bearings by flushing with water or air blast cleaning. Annually.
9. NBIS Inspection: Complete inspection of all components of the steel truss bridge. Every 2 years unless
on Red List.
10. Painted Steel: Scrape or wire brush clean, prime and paint isolated areas of rusted steel. Every 2 to 4
years.
11. Steel Members: Check for rust, other deterioration or distortion around rivets and bolts, and
elements that come in contact with the bridge deck which may be susceptible to corrosion from
roadway moisture and de-icing agents. Every 3 to 5 years.
12. Bearings: Remove debris that may cause the bearings to lock and become incapable of movement.
Check anchor bolts for damage and determine if they are secure. Every 3 to 5 years.
13. Exposed Concrete Surfaces: Apply silane/siloxane sealers after cleaning and drying concrete surfaces.
Every 4 years.
14. Bridge & Approach Rail: Inspect for damage, loose or missing bolts, sharp edges or protrusions. Every
5 years.
Actions to Avoid
-Do not bolt or weld to the structural steel members.
-Do not remove any portion of the structure.
-CAUTION! Paint may contain lead.

VIII. EXAMPLES

San Juanico Bridge, Leyte, 2,200m

Ayala Bridge, Pasig River, 139m

Sydney Harbour Bridge, Sydney Australia, 134m

Buntun Bridge, Cagayan, 1,369m
Ikitsuki Bridge, Hirado Nagasaki, 400m