MINI HYBRID VEHICLE USING SOLAR POWER

PROJECT REPORT 2015-2016

I n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q ui r e m e n t f o r t h e c o u r s e o f
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Of the b oard of Technical Education

Government of Tamilnadu.

Submitted by

S.NO REG.NO NAME DATE OF BIRTH

01 14324633 J.ARIHARAN 10.05.1996
02 14324634 M.ARULMOZHI 25.07.1995
03 14324636 N.DHANUSHKODI 03.06.1997
04 14324637 P.DINESH 10.06.1997
05 14324639 G.ELANTHAMIL 05.03.1997
06 14324641 Y.MARSHAL 17.09.1996

Under the Guidance of

Mr. S.M.KARTHIKEYAN B.E.,
[LECTURER]

BHARATH POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
MANICKAMPALAYAM-637 202, TIRUCHENGODE.

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 BHARATH POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
MANICKAMPALAYAM-637 202
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is Certified that Mr. ……………………….…………….....has

Completed satisfactorily the project work entitled

“ MINI HYBRID VEHICLE USING SOLAR POWER ”

In Partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING of
the board of technical education for the year 2015-2016.

REGISTER NUMBER …………………………..

Submitted for the board examination held on …………………………..

Signature of the Internal Guide Head of the Department

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

No words can play its role when it comes to thank someone you are
deeply indebted to, so , I endow my grateful thanks , deep sense of
gratitude to Mr.R.K.SIVAKUMAR M.E., Principal of Bharath Polytechnic
College Manickampalayam, Tiruchengode for giving me an opportunity to
undertake this project work and also for his abiding inspiration and
encouragement during the span of the project.

My sincere thanks to Mr.THIYAGARAJAN ME., Head of the

department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his help in completing
this project.

I take this opportunity to convey my heartful thanks to Mr.

S.M.KARTHIKEYAN B.E., Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Bharath Polytechnic College Tiruchengode for his kind valuable
support and timely advice for the successful completion of this project.

Lastly , but most importantly , I thank my parents who have always

proved to be constant source of encouragement and support throughout my life
and without nothing have been easy to accomplish.

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 CONTENT

SYNOPSIS 5

BLOCK DIAGRAM 6

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 8

PROJECT DISCRIPTION 9

SERIES HYBRID SYSTEM 14

PARALLEL HYBRID SYSTEM 19

COMBINED HYBRID 23

SOLAR PANEL BASIC 25

BATTERY BASIC 27

LCD PIN DIAGRAM 34

PIC16F77 40

POWER SUPPLY 52

BIBLIOGRAPHY 57

ENTREPRENEURSHIP ON MANAGEMENT 59

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SYNOPSIS

This project proposes a Solar Electric Powered Hybrid Vehicle (SEPHV)

system which solves the major problems of fuel and pollution. An electric
vehicle usually uses a battery which has been charged by external electrical
power supply. All recent electric vehicles present a drive on AC power supplied
motor. An inverter set is required to be connected with the battery through
which AC power is converted to DC power.

During this conversion many losses take place and also the maintenance
cost of the AC System is very high. The proposed topology has the most
feasible solar/electric power generation system mounted on the vehicle to
charge the battery during all durations. With a view of providing ignited us to
develop this “Solar/Electric Powered Hybrid Vehicle” [SEPHV].This multi
charging vehicle can charge itself from both solar and electric power.

The Supply to the motor is obtained from a battery set of 12V, 150AH.
The household electric supply of 230V is reduced with a step-down transformer
to 48V and then it is converted to the DC with a rectifying unit to charge the
battery. Two solar panels each with a rating of 230watts are attached to the top
of the Vehicle to grab the solar energy and is controlled with a help of charge
controller.

The SEPHV can be driven by 1.2 HP PMDC motor consisting of two 230
watts PV panel in the voltage rating of 24 V. The power which is absorbed by
the PV panel is stored into the four 150 AH 12 V batteries.

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 When there is no presence of sun, electric power supply act as an
auxiliary energy source. For controlling speed of the motor, a switch is designed
with four tapping, provided with different values of resistance at each tapping. It
acts as a speed control switch for Solar/Electric Powered Hybrid Vehicle. This
type of technique is to reduce the running cost and increasing the running
efficiency of the vehicle.

The performance of the SEPHV was found to be satisfactory for the load
of four people with the average speed of 45km/hr. The integrated system
consisting of Solar module, Charge Controller, Batteries, Boost Converter,
Step-down Transformer, Diode Rectifier and PMDC motor which are required
for the vehicle.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

7
FORWARD CONNECTION

REVERSE CONNECTION

8
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT

Solar energy can also be used to make electricity. This is done largely
through the use of photovoltaic (or PV) systems. Photovoltaic comes from the
words photo, meaning light, and volt, a measurement of electricity. Photovoltaic
cells are often called solar cells. They convert light directly into electricity. The
photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV cell
converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV technology works any time the sun
is shining, but more electricity is produced when the light is more intense and
when it is striking the PV modules directly when the rays of sunlight are
perpendicular to the PV modules. Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles
of radiant energy. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or

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absorbed, or transmitted through the cell. Only the absorbed photons generate
electricity. When the photons are absorbed, the energy of the photons is
transferred to electrons in the atoms of the solar cell. With their newfound
energy, the electrons are able to escape from their normal positions associated
with their atoms to become part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving
their positions, the electrons cause holes to form in the atomic structure of the
cell into which other electrons can move.

SOLAR PANAL:

Excited electrons flow through the silicon semiconductor from the N-

Layer to the P-Layer. They flow out the negative terminal, through the circuit,
and back to the positive terminal. When a load is attached, the electrons are
forced to do work (i.e. light a bulb).

DC MOTOR:
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 Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC
(Direct Current) and AC (AlternatingCurrent). Within these categories are
numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit them well forspecific
applications. In most cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator
(stationary field) and arotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through
the

interaction of magnetic flux and electric current toproduce rotational speed and
torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct
current.

BATTERY:

The purpose of this section is to outline the duties and responsibilities for
routine operation and care of vented lead-acid batteries. Section 2 contains
detailed information on lead-acid battery principles.

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VECHILE:

On the basis of the PEV, SEV and solar electricbus (SEB) are developed in our
company. Theresearch on SEV and SEB has been developed fora long
time.SEV and SEB can achieve lowcarbon,energy saving, green,
environmentalprotection and true zero-emissions for the futureof human life.
SEV uses dual mode of battery andsolar to be driven. It can be achieved PV-
driven and battery-driven independently. SEV is made ofPV panels, battery,
electric motor, vehiclecontroller and vehicle body.

DYNAMO:

Recent trends in software and hardware technologies appear to be moving

in directions that are making traditional performance delivery mechanisms less
effective. The use of object-oriented languages and techniques in modern
software development has resulted in a greater degree of delayed binding,
limiting the size of

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 the scope available for static compiler analysis. Shrink-wrapped software
is being shipped as a collection of DLLs rather than a single monolithic
executable, making whole-program optimization at static compile-time virtually
impossible.

ADVANDAGE:

• No pollution

• Less Fuel cost

• Less Running Cost

• Zero fuel cost in solar power

APPLICATION :

• This project is used for both 2 wheeler and 4 wheeler with less fuel cost

OUTPUT:

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SERIES HYBRID

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 In a series hybrid system, the combustion engine drives an electric
generator (usually a three-phase alternator plus rectifier) instead of directly
driving the wheels. The electric motor is the only means of providing power to
the wheels. The generator both charges a battery and powers an electric motor
that

moves the vehicle. When large amounts of power are required, the motor
draws electricity from both the batteries and the generator.

Series hybrid configurations already exist a long time: diesel-electric

locomotives, hydraulic earth moving machines, diesel-electric power groups,
loaders.

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Structure of a series hybrid vehicle (below with flywheel or ultracaps as peak
power unit)

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 Series hybrids can be assisted by ultracaps (or a flywheel: KERS=Kinetic
Energy Recuperation System), which can improve the efficiency by minimizing
the losses in the battery. They deliver peak energy during acceleration and take
regenerative energy during braking. Therefore, the ulracaps are kept charged at
low speed and almost empty at top speed. Deep cycling of the battery is
reduced, the stress factor of the battery is lowered.

A complex transmission between motor and wheel is not needed, as

electric motors are efficient over a wide speed range. If the motors are attached
to the vehicle body, flexible couplings are required.

Some vehicle designs have separate electric motors for each wheel.
Motor integration into the wheels has the disadvantage that the unsprung mass
increases, decreasing ride performance. Advantages of individual wheel motors
include simplified traction control (no conventional mechanical transmission
elements such as gearbox, transmission shafts, differential), all wheel drive, and
allowing lower floors, which is useful for buses. Some 8x8 all-wheel drive
military vehicles use individual wheel motors.

A fuel cell hybrid electric always has a series configuration: the engine-
generator combination is replaced by a fuel cell.

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 Structures of a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle

Weaknesses of series hybrid vehicles:

The ICE, the generator and the electric motor are dimensioned to handle
the full power of the vehicle. Therefore, the total weight, cost and size of the
power train can be excessive.

The power from the combustion engine has to run through both the
generator and electric motor. During long-distance highway driving, the total
efficiency is inferior to a conventional transmission, due to the several energy
conversions.

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Advantages of series hybrid vehicles:
 There is no mechanical link between the combustion engine and the
wheels. The engine-generator group can be located everywhere.

 There are no conventional mechanical transmission elements

(gearbox, transmission shafts). Separate electric wheel motors can be
implemented easily.

 The combustion engine can operate in a narrow rpm range (its most
efficient range), even as the car changes speed.

 Series hybrids are relatively the most efficient during stop-and-go city
driving.
Example of SHEV: Renault Kangoo.

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PARALLEL HYBRID

Parallel hybrid systems have both an internal combustion engine (ICE)

and an electric motor in parallel connected to a mechanical transmission.

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 Most designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one
unit, often located between the combustion engine and the transmission,
replacing both the conventional starter motor and the alternator (see figures
above). The battery can be recharged during regenerative breaking, and during
cruising (when the ICE power is higher than the required power for propulsion).
As there is a fixed mechanical link between the wheels and the motor (no
clutch), the battery cannot be charged when the car isn’t moving. When the
vehicle is using electrical traction power only, or during brake while
regenerating energy, the ICE is not running (it is disconnected by a clutch) or is
not powered (it rotates in an idling manner)

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OPERATION MODES:

The parallel configuration supports diverse operating modes:

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(a) electric power only: Up to speeds of usually 40 km/h, the electric motor
works with only the energy of the batteries, which are not recharged by the ICE.
This is the usual way of operating around the city, as well as in reverse gear,
since during reverse gear the speed is limited.

(b) ICE power only: At speeds superior to 40 km/h, only the heat engine
operates. This is the normal operating way at the road.

(c) ICE + battery charging: if less power is required, excess of energy is used to
charge the batteries. Operating the engine at higher torque than necessary, it
runs at a higher efficiency.

(d) regenerative breaking: While braking or decelerating, the electric motor

takes profit of the kinetic energy of the he moving vehicle to act as a generator.

Sometimes, an extra generator is used: then the batteries can be recharged

when the vehicle is not driving, the ICE operates disconnected from the
transmission. But this system gives an increased weight and price to the HEV.

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COMBINED HYBRID

Combined hybrid systems have features of both series and parallel

hybrids. There is a double connection between the engine and the drive axle:
mechanical and electrical. This split power path allows interconnecting
mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
Power-split devices are incorporated in the power train. The power to the
wheels can be either mechanical or electrical or both. This is also the case in
parallel hybrids. But the main principle behind the combined system is the
decoupling of the power supplied by the engine from the power demanded by
the driver.

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 In a conventional vehicle, a larger engine is used to provide acceleration
from standstill than one needed for steady speed cruising. This is because a
combustion engine's torque is minimal at lower RPMs, as the engine is its own
air pump. On the other hand, an electric motor exhibits maximum torque at stall
and is well suited to complement the engine's torque deficiency at low RPMs. In
a combined hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and highly efficient engine can be
used. It is often a variation of the conventional Otto cycle, such as the Miller or
Atkinson cycle. This contributes significantly to the higher overall efficiency of
the vehicle, with regenerative braking playing a much smaller role.

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SLOAR PANEL BASIC

A photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel is a packaged

interconnected assembly of photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells. The
photovoltaic module, known more commonly as the solar panel, is then used as
a component in a larger photovoltaic system to offer electricity for commercial
and residential applications

The primary difficulty with solar power and indeed with its cousin wind
power has been one of efficiency. There is more than enough energy hitting the
earth in the form of solar radiation to meet power needs of our species.
Estimates indicate that there is four times as much wind energy available for our
use as the species uses every year. Solar power is even more dramatic, the sun
showers the planet with more energy every day than we use in a year. So the
difficulty has never been the availability of sun and wind, they are readily
available .

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SOLAR CHARGER

Solar battery chargers are an inexpensive, environmentally friendly, and

convenient way to make sure your batteries are always fully charged and ready
to go all the time. The problem with charging a battery from a solar panel is the
SUN. It does not shine all the time and clouds get in the way. Our eyes adjust to
the variations in the strength of the sun but a solar panel behaves differently. As
soon as the sun loses its intensity, the output from a solar panel drops
enormously. Not only does the output current fall, but the output voltage also
decreases. Many of the solar panels drop to below the 13.6v needed to charge a
12v battery and as soon as this
occurs, the charging current drops to ZERO. This means they become useless as
soon as the brightness of the sun goes away

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BATTERY BASIC

Given the current market, lead-acid is the only viable battery technology
for electric vehicle conversion. The following is a list of criteria to use in
selecting an electric vehicle battery

1, Voltage. Batteries are available in both 6V and 12V units. Most standard,
wet-cell, golf cart batteries are 6V units. Most sealed batteries are 12V
units.
2. Amg-hour rating. The capacity of a battery is rated in amp-hours. This
rating must be specified with a given discharge rate.
3. Discharge rate. The discharge rate of a battery is the minimum length of
time during which the battery must be discharged in order to meet the
specified amphour rating.
4, Watt-hour rating. The watt-hour rating is a true indication of the energy
capacity of a battery, Like the amp-hour rating, this rating must be specified
with a discharge rate. The watt-hour rating of a battery is the amp-hour
rating multiplied by the specified voltage of the battery.
5. Energy density. Energy density is the energy capacity of the battery, in
watthours, divided by the weight of the battery, in kilograms. This is a
critical factor in selecting an electric vehicle battery-the amount of energy a
battery carries per unit weight.
6. Cycle-life. Cycle-life is the number of times a battery can be fully
discharged before replacement. However, in most real applications, a lead-
acid battery will exceed its specified cycle-life, since the battery will not be
fully discharged every time it is used

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MOTOR
The main characteristic of Brushless DC Machines is that they may be
controlled to give wide constant power speed ranges because the Motor Voltage
may be held constant at Maximum Bus Voltage over the Constant Power
Range. In this condition the machine exhibits a leading power factor and with
suitable control leads to low switching losses in the Inverter when in the High
Speed Region-The Machine has the lowest size and weight of any of the main
contenders. The disadvantage is the need for Permanent Magnets with Unity
Recoil Permeability and Suitable Containment Sleeve Technology both of
which have now been solved effectively. In this type of machine the main losses
are in the Stator Iron and a number of factors are important in reducing this

SPEED CONTROL

As considering on the measurement results from the system, the noise

effect of PWM control method, and the characteristics of the dc motor, it is
expected that we could control the speed of the dc motor stably and highly
efficiently [1]. In ordinary times the dc motor is driven by change of a
transmission in this system and as the speed of it decreases due to the overload,
the load induction unit works automatically to accelerate it with the maximum
efficiency of the system. The speed of the dc motor, therefore, can be regulated.

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EMBEDDED SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEMS

Embedded systems are controllers with on chip control. They consist of

microcontrollers, input and output devices, memories etc., on chip and they can
be used for a specific application.

A small computer designed in a single chip is called a single chip

microcomputer. A single chip microcomputer typically includes a
microprocessor RAM, ROM, timer, interrupt and peripheral controller in a
single chip. This single chip microcomputer is also called as microcontroller;
These Microcontrollers are used for variety of applications where it replaces the
computer. The usage of this microcomputer for a specific application, in which
the microcontrollers a part of application, is called embedded systems.

Embedded systems are used for real time applications with high
reliability, accuracy and precision, Embedded systems are operated with Real
Time Operating systems like WinCE, RT Linux, VxWorks, PSOS, etc..,

Embedded systems are very popular these days Most of the Electrical,
Electronics, Mechanical;, Chemical, Industrial, Medical, Space and many more
areas have the embedded systems in their applications

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APPLICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 Embedded systems are used in the following areas;

 Robotics
 Aviation
 Telecommunication and Broadcasting
 Mobile Phones and mobiles networking
 Wires Application
 Satellite Communication
 Military Application
 Medical Instruments
 Toy industries
 Blue Tooth
 Electronic sensors
 Home Appliances etc

ROLE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded systems are compact, smart, efficient, and economical and

user friendly, they are closed systems and respond to the real world situation
very fast, closed system means, everything required for a specific application is
embedded on the chip and hence, they do not call for external requirement for
their functioning.

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SEGMENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded systems basically consists of the following four segments

 Embedded Controllers (8-bit,16-bit,32-bit,64-bit,128-bit,..)

 Embedded software’s (RTOS)
 Embedded Memories (DRAM, SRAM, EPROM, Flash etc)
 Embedded Boards

MICROCONTROLLER VERSUS MICROPROCESSORS

Microcontrollers differ from a microprocessor in many ways, first and the

most important is its functionality. In order for a microprocessor to be used,
other components for receiving and sending data must be added to it, In short
that means that microprocessor is the very heart of the computer.

On the other hand, microcontroller is designed to be all of that in one, No

other external components are needed for its application because all necessary
peripherals are already built into, thus, we save the time and space needed to
construct device.

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The difference can be highlighted as follows:

MICROPROCESSORS MICROCONTROLLER

Contains ALU,GP registers, SP, In addition, it contains inbuilt

PC, clock timing circuit and ROM, RAM I/O devices,
interrupts Timers/Counters, etc..,

Many instructions to move data One or two instructions to move

between Memory and CPU data between memory and CPU

One or two bit handling Powerful Boolean processor

instructions are available instruction set is available

Access time for memory and I/O Less access time for inbuilt
devices are more memory and I/O devices

Requires more hardware, increase Requires less hardware, reduced

in PCB size PCB size and increased
reliability
More flexible from design point of
view Less Flexible

Single memory map for data and

code
Few pins are multifunctional
Microprocessor based computers
are normally operated with general
purpose operating systems like
Windows, Unix etc..,
Separate memory Map for data
and code
More pins are multifunctional
Microcontroller based systems are
normally operated with RTOS like
tiny RTOS, VxWorks, PSOS, RT
Linux, etc..,

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CROSS-COMPILER

Cross-compiler is a software program, which is used to convert high –

level language program like C to machine language of a specific
Microcontroller, using cross-compiler user can write programs in C language,
which speeds up the development process.

SIMULATOR
Simulator is software, which implements the features of a specific
Microcontroller on PC. It helps in testing and debugging the programs and
interfaces that are to be actually implemented on a Microcontroller at a later
stage. Using simulator, the program can be executed and tested without using
the evaluation kit, usually the program is simulated under pc environment.

EMULATOR
Emulator is an in-circuit Microcontroller emulation probe, which
provides the user with substantial control over all of the Microcontroller
functions and responsibilities. It provides hardware assistance for debugging the
most difficult real time problems. Emulators offer visibility into system
initialization, before software based debuggers can function, Emulators can
identify the code corrupting a data structure, it can also be used to determine
how often a particular function is invoked,

DEBUGGER
It is a software tool used to debug the programs. A debugger detects the
non-workability of the program by detecting the errors online (i.e. while the
program is running in the target it has the capability to detect proper functioning
of the application program.)

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LCD DISPLAY

LCD stands for liquid crystal; this is a output device with a limited
viewing angle. The choice of LCD as an output device was Because of its cost
of use and is better with alphabets when compared with a 7-segment LED
display. We have so many kinds of LCD today and our application requires a
LCD with 2 lines and 16 characters per line, this gets data from the
microcontroller and displays the same. It has 8 data lines, 3 control line, a
supply voltage Vcc (+5v and a GND. This makes the whole device user friendly
by showing the balance left in the card. This also shoes the card that is currently
being used.

In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LED’s.

This is due to the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCD’s.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in
contrast to LED’s, which are limited to numbers and few characters.
3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, there by relieving
the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD .in contrast, the Led must be
refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the data.
4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

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LCD PIN DESCRIPTIONS

VCC, VSS and VEE

While VCC and VSS provide +5v and ground respectively, VEE is used
for controlling LCD contrast.

RS, REGISTER SELECT

There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin used
for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is
selected, allowing the user to sent a command such as clear display, cursor at
home ,etc .IF RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the user to sent data to
be displayed on the LCD.

R/W READ/WRITE

R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read
information from it.

R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing.

E, ENABLE

The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information present to its data
pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to
this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. This
pulse must be a minimum of 450ns wide.

D0-D7

The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to sent information to LCD or read
the contents of the LCD’s internal registers.

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 The LCD commands codes are as shown in table.4. To display letters and numbers, we send
ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS=1.

1 Clear display screen

2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor blinking
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to the left
1C Shift the entire display to the right
80 Force cursor to beginning of the 1st line
C0 Force cursor to beginning of the 2nd line
38 2 lines and 2*7 matrix

LCD PROGRAMMING CHART

The LCD programming chart is as shown in the fig.13.

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39
LCD CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

+5V

LO
40
31 3 9 1 4 D B 7
E A /V P P 0 .0 3 8 1 3 D B 6
P 0 .1
19 3 7 1 2 D B 5 V C C
X1 P 0 .2
HI
3 6 1 1 D B 4 2 +5V
1 1 .0 5 9 2 P 0 .3 3 5 1 0 D B 3
18 P 0 .4 3 4 PO T
9 D B 2
X2 P 0 .5 3 3 8 D B 1 V E E 1 0 K
P 0 .6 3 2
1m f P 0 .7
7 D B 0 3
2 1 9
R ESET 2 1 6 E N V SS
P 2 .0 2 2
1 2 A AT89S52
T 89C 52 P 2 .1 2 3
5 R /W
4 RS
1

1 3 IN T 0 P 2 .2 2 4
0 1 4 IN T 1 P 2 .3 2 5 0
1 5 T0 P 2 .4 2 6
T1 P 2 .5 2 7
1 P 2 .6 2 8
2 P 1 .0 P 2 .7
3 P 1 .1 1 7
4 P 1 .2 R D 1 6 LC D JH D 1 6 2 A
5 P 1 .3 W R 2 9
6 P 1 .4 PSEN 3 0
7 P 1 .5 A L E /P 1 1
8 P 1 .6 TXD 1 0
P 1 .7 R XD
20
0

FIG. LCD CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROGRAMMING THE LCD

Before you may really use the LCD, you must initialize and configure it.
This is accomplished by sending a number of initialization instructions to the
LCD.

The first instruction we send must tell the LCD whether we'll be
communicating with it with an 8-bit or 4-bit data bus. We also select a 5x8 dot
character font. These two options are selected by sending the command 38h to
the LCD as a command. As you will recall from the last section, we mentioned
that the RS line must be low if we are sending a command to the LCD. The
second byte of the initialization sequence is the instruction 0Eh. Thus we must
repeat the initialization code from above, but now with the instruction. Thus the
next code segment is: The last byte we need to send is used to configure
additional operational parameters of the LCD. We must send the value 06h.

Thus, the first character in the upper left-hand corner is at address 00h.
The following character position (character #2 on the first line) is address 01h,
etc. This continues until we reach the 16th character of the first line which is at
address 0Fh.

However, the first character of line 2, as shown in the memory map, is at

address 40h. This means if we write a character to the last position of the first
line and then write a second character, the second character will not appear on
the second line. That is because the second character will effectively be written
to address 10h--but the second line begins at address 40h.

Thus we need to send a command to the LCD that tells it to position the
cursor on the second line. The "Set Cursor Position" instruction is 80h. To this
we must add the address of the location where we wish to position the cursor.

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PIC16F877A

Introduction

 High-Performance RISC CPU:

 Only 35 single-word instructions to learn
 All single-cycle instructions except for program
 branches, which are two-cycle
 Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input
 DC – 200 ns instruction cycle
 Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,
 Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM),
 Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory
 Pinout compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin
 PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers
Peripheral Features:

 Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

 Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler,
 can be incremented during Sleep via external crystal/clock
 Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period
 register, prescaler and postscaler
 Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
 Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
 Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns
 PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
 Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™
 (Master mode) and I2C™ (Master/Slave)
 Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver

42
  Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address detection
 Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS
controls (40/44-pin only)
 Brown-out detection circuitry for
 Brown-out Reset (BOR)
Analog Features:

 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital

 Converter (A/D)
 Brown-out Reset (BOR)
Analog Comparator module with:

 Two analog comparators

 Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module
Programmable input multiplexing from device

 inputs and internal voltage reference

 Comparator outputs are externally accessible
Special Microcontroller Features:

 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash

 program memory typical
 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical
 Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years
 Self-reprogrammable under software control
 In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) via two pins
 Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming
 Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC
 oscillator for reliable operation
 Programmable code protection
 Power saving Sleep mode

43
  Selectable oscillator options
 In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins
CMOS Technology:

 Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM

 technology
 Fully static design
 Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)
 Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
 Low-power consumption

The high performance of the PICmicro devices can be attributed to a

number of architectural features commonly found in RISC microprocessors.
These include:

• Harvard architecture

• Long Word Instructions

• Single Word Instructions

• Single Cycle Instructions

• Instruction Pipelining

• Reduced Instruction Set

• Register File Architecture

• Orthogonal (Symmetric) Instructions

Figure shows a simple core memory bus arrangement for Mid-Range MCU
devices.

44
Harvard Architecture

Harvard architecture has the program memory and data memory as

separate memories and is accessed from separate buses. This improves
bandwidth over traditional von Neumann architecture in which program and
data are fetched from the same memory using the same bus. To execute an
instruction, a von Neumann machine must make one or more (generally more)
accesses across the 8-bit bus to fetch the instruction. Then data may need to be
fetched, operated on, and possibly written. As can be seen from this description,
that bus can be extremely congested. While with Harvard architecture, the
instruction is fetched in a single instruction cycle (all 14-bits).While the
program memory is being accessed, the data memory is on an independent bus
and can be read and written. These separated buses allow one instruction to
execute while the next instruction is fetched. A comparison of Harvard vs. von-
Neumann architectures is shown in Figure.

45
46
Pinout diagram

Harvard vs. von Neumann Block Architectures

47
Long Word Instructions

Long word instructions have a wider (more bits) instruction bus than the
8-bit Data Memory Bus.This is possible because the two buses are separate.
This further allows instructions to be sized differently than the 8-bit wide data
word which allows a more efficient use of the program memory,since the
program memory width is optimized to the architectural requirements.

Single Word Instructions

Single Word instruction opcodes are 14-bits wide making it possible to

have all single word instructions. A 14-bit wide program memory access bus
fetches a 14-bit instruction in a single cycle. With single word instructions, the
number of words of program memory locations equals the number of
instructions for the device. This means that all locations are valid
instructions.Typically in the von Neumann architecture, most instructions are
multi-byte. In general, a device with 4-KBytes of program memory would allow
approximately 2K of instructions. This 2:1 ratio is generalized and dependent on
the application code. Since each instruction may take multiple bytes, there is no
assurance that each location is a valid instruction.

Instruction Flow/Pipelining

An “Instruction Cycle” consists of four Q cycles (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4).
Fetch takes one instruction cycle while decode and execute takes another
instruction cycle. However, due to Pipelining, each instruction effectively
executes in one cycle. If an instruction causes the program counter to change
(e.g.GOTO) then an extra cycle is required to complete the instruction .

48
CPU

49
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU can be thought of as the “brains” of the device. It is responsible

for fetching the correct instruction for execution, decoding that instruction, and
then executing that instruction.

The CPU sometimes works in conjunction with the ALU to complete the
execution of the instruction (in arithmetic and logical operations).

The CPU controls the program memory address bus, the data memory
address bus, and accesses to the stack.

Instruction Clock

Each instruction cycle (TCY) is comprised of four Q cycles (Q1-Q4). The

Q cycle time is the same as the device oscillator cycle time (TOSC). The Q
cycles provide the timing/designation for the Decode, Read, Process Data,
Write, etc., of each instruction cycle. The following diagram shows the
relationship of the Q cycles to the instruction cycle.

0 = PORTB pull-ups are enabled by individual port latch values

Bit 6 INTEDG: Interrupt Edge Select bit

1 = Interrupt on rising edge of INT pin

0 = Interrupt on falling edge of INT pin

Bit 5 T0CS: TMR0 Clock Source Select bit

50
OSCILLATOR

The internal oscillator circuit is used to generate the device clock. The
device clock is required for the device to execute instructions and for the
peripherals to function. Four device clock periods generate one internal
instruction clock (TCY) cycle.

There are up to eight different modes which the oscillator may have.
There are two modes which allow the selection of the internal RC oscillator
clock out (CLKOUT) to be driven on an I/O pin, or allow that I/O pin to be used
for a general purpose function. The oscillator mode is selected by the device
configuration bits. The device configuration bits are nonvolatile memory
locations and the operating mode is determined by the value written during
device programming.

The oscillator modes are:

• LP Low Frequency (Power) Crystal

• XT Crystal/Resonator

• HS High Speed Crystal/Resonator

• RC External Resistor/Capacitor (same as EXTRC with CLKOUT)

• EXTRC External Resistor/Capacitor

• EXTRC External Resistor/Capacitor with CLKOUT

• INTRC Internal 4 MHz Resistor/Capacitor

• INTRC Internal 4 MHz Resistor/Capacitor with CLKOUT

51
 These oscillator options are made available to allow a single device type
the flexibility to fit applications with different oscillator requirements. The RC
oscillator option saves system cost while the LP crystal option saves power.
Configuration bits are used to select the various options.

Oscillator Configurations

Oscillator Types

Mid-Range devices can have up to eight different oscillator modes. The

user can program up to three device configuration bits (FOSC2, FOSC1 and
FOSC0) to select one of these eight modes:

• LP Low Frequency (Power) Crystal

• XT Crystal/Resonator

• HS High Speed Crystal/Resonator

• RC External Resistor/Capacitor (same as EXTRC with CLKOUT)

• EXTRC External Resistor/Capacitor

• EXTRC External Resistor/Capacitor with CLKOUT

• INTRC Internal 4 MHz Resistor/Capacitor

• INTRC Internal 4 MHz Resistor/Capacitor with CLKOUT

The main difference between the LP, XT, and HS modes is the gain of the
internal inverter of the oscillator circuit which allows the different frequency
ranges. Tables give information to aid in selecting an oscillator mode. In
general, use the oscillator option with the lowest possible gain which still meets
specifications. This will result in lower dynamic currents (IDD).

52
 The frequency range of each oscillator mode is the recommended (tested)
frequency cutoffs, but the selection of a different gain mode is acceptable as
long as a thorough validation is performed (voltage, temperature, component
variations (Resistor, Capacitor, and internal microcontroller oscillator
circuitry)).

The RC mode and the EXTRC with CLKOUT mode have the same
functionality. They are named like this to help describe their operation vs. the
other oscillator modes.

53
POWER SUPPLY

Available power source is an Ac voltage arrives at 230V.Since our

electronic circuits require only very minimal voltage and current we use step
down power transformer. Step down transformer is designed in such a way that
the input is 230V and output of 12V. Another thing is, that electronic circuits
operate in DC where as available output of transformer is Ac of 12V. So
rectifier circuit is used to convert AC to DC. Rectifier circuit consists of four
diodes formed in bridge fashion so as to convert incoming AC to DC.

Even though output of rectifier circuit is DC it is not smooth or fixed

DC. So filter circuits are used to convert rippling DC to smooth DC. The filter
circuit is a capacitor, connected parallel to the output of rectifier circuit. This
smooth DC voltage will be in the range of 12+volt. But we require only 5V
supply for the operation of micro controllers and it’s supporting components.
Here again regulator ICs such as 7805 is used to regulate the incoming 12VDC
to fixed regulated 5V as output. This DC regulated 5V is applied to the circuits.

Even though the circuit is functioning with 5V, the relays are driven by
6V or 12V. For this purpose 7806/7812 regulator IC is additionally connected
to the rectifier filter circuit. Thus 12V regulated is used for driving 12V
relays.

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

54
THREE-TERMINAL REGULATORS

For most no critical applications the best choice for a voltage

regulator is the simple –terminal type. It has only three connections
(input, output, and ground) and is factory-trimmed to provide a fixed
output. Typical of this type is the 78xx. The voltage is specified by the
last two digits of the part number and can be any of the following: 05,
08,10, 12, 15,18, or 24. It is to make a +5 volt regulator, for instance,
with one of these regulators. The capacitor across the output improves
transient response and keeps the impedance low at high frequencies (an
input capacitor of at least 0.33F should be used in addition if the
regulator is located a considerable distance from the filter capacitors).

The 7800 series is available in plastic or metal power packages

(same as power transistors). A low-power version, the 78Lxx, comes in
the same plastic and metal packages as small-signal transistors. The 7900
series of negative regulators works the same way (with negative input
voltage, of course). The 7800 series can provide up to 1 amp load current
and has on-chip circuitry to prevent damage in the event of overheating or
excessive load current; the chip simply shuts down, rather than blowing
out. In addition, on-chip circuitry prevents operation outside the

Transistor safe operating area by reducing available output current

for large input-output voltage differential. These regulators are in-
expensive and easy to use, and they make it practical to design a system
with many printed-circuit boards in which the unregulated dc is brought
to each board and regulation is done locally on each circuit card.

55
 Three - terminal fixed regulators come in some highly useful
variants. The LP 2950 works just like a 7805, but draws only 75A of
quiescent current (compared with the 7805’s 5mA or the 78L05’s 3mA);
it also regulates with as little

as a 0.4 volt drop from unregulated input to regulated output (called the
“drop out voltage”), compared with 2 volts drop out for the classic 7805.
The LM291 is also low-dropout, but you might call it milli power (0.4mA
quiescent current), compared with the “micro power” LP 2950. Low-
dropout regulators also come in high – current versions for example, the
LT 1085/4/3 series from LTC (A, 5A, and 7.5A, respectively, with both +
5V and + 12V available in each type). Regulators like the LM 2984 are
basically three-terminal fixed regulators, but with extra outputs to signal a
microprocessor that power has failed, or resumed. Finally, regulators like
the 4195 contain a pair of 3-terminal 15-volt regulators, one positive and
one negative.

LM78XX Series Voltage Regulators

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

56
 The LM78xx series of three terminal regulators is available with
several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of
applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the
distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The voltages
available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation,
HiFi, and other solid-state electronic equipment.

T RA NS FO RM ER 1

1 3 1N 4007
B R ID G E
230 V / 7805
2 - + 4 1 3
AC V IN VOUT
2 4
1N4007 GND
1 2 V - 0 (6 V ) 1K 2
/ 500 M A
0 + + 5 V cc
104
3

1000 M F / 25V
LED

circuit diagram of power supply unit

Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can

be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
The LM78XX series is available in an aluminum TO-3 package
which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided.
Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value.
Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power
dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking
provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from
overheating.

57
 Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of
regulators easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is
not necessary to bypass the output, although this does improve transient
response. Input by-passing is needed only if the regulator is located far from
the filter capacitor of the power supply.

Features
 Output current in excess of 1A
 Internal thermal overload protection
 No external components required
 Output transistor safe area protection
 Internal short circuit current limit
 Available in the aluminum TO-3 package

Voltage Range

LM7805C 5V

LM7812C 12V

LM7815C 15V

LM7912C -12V

BIBLIOGRAPHY

58
[1] T.Balamurugan and Dr. S. Manoharan, “optimal design and control of
solar/electric/reduced fuel consumption hybrid power vehicle technology”,
International journal of renewable energy technology research, 2013

[2] Bo Long, Shin Teak Lim, JiHyoungRyu and Kil To Chong, “Energy-
Regenerative Braking Control of Electric Vehicles Using Three-Phase
Brushless Direct-Current Motors”, energies, Energies, 2013

[3] T.Balamurugan and Dr. S. Manoharan, “Design of solar/electric powered

hybrid vehicle system with charge pattern optimization for energy cost”,
International journal of engineering and technology (IJET), 2013

[4] BrahimGasbaoui, AbdelfatahNasri; “A Novel Multi- Drive Electric Vehicle

System Control Based on Multi-Input Multi-Output PID Controller”, SERBIAN
JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, Vol. 9, No. 2, June 2012

Websites Addresses

 www.national.com
59
  www.analog.com

 www.microchip.com

 www.embeddedprojects.org

ENTREPRENEURSHIP ON MANAGEMENT
PLANNING:

60
 Planning is defined as to the process of forecasting future
problem,situations and selecting the course of action to handle them it is process
of thinking before doing.

PROCESS OF PLANNING INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING THE

STEPS:
1. Determining Of Objects
2. Formulating The Policies
3. Formulating the procedure
4. Programming
5. Evolving the methods

1. DETERMING OF OBJECTIVES:
Objective or goals are the end result to be achieved. Objectives may be
divided into economic and social objective. Selling more procedure and earning
more profits achieve economic objectives are the benefit to the employees.
Share holder and the public in general. Most of the organization has more
objectives than social objectives.
But organizations run by the governments have more social objective
than economical objectives of the firm as a whole. Based up on this, objective
of different department are formulated these objectives give direction to
activities.

2.FORMULATING OF POLICIES:
Policies are general guideline for decision-making. These are the rules for
action for example, deciding about running single shift or double shift, giving
over time for the workers etc., are policies.
3.FORMULATING THE PROCEDURE

61
 Procedure is the sequence of steps to be followed for completing an
activity.This gives line for action .Procedure tells how and in what order the
work is done.Standard procedures are formulated for the activities.

MOTIVATION:
Motivationbis lotion word , which means ,”to move”.Motivation is a
process,which creates in employees,an inner state of mind that energies,
activates,moves and directs their behavior towards the common goal . It creates
self-interest in subordinates to carry out their work willingly.
If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may promise a
reward for doing to it in a btter way. He may also,threaten them to do the
desired work.In other words , he may utilize a positive or negative motion
method. Both of these are widely used by management.
POSITIVE MANAGEMENT:
This generally based on reward . This is a process of motivating the
subordinates through the possibility of gain or reward .positive motivating
factors are

 Praise and credit for work done

 Sincere interest in subordinates as individual

 Competition

 Pride in work

 Participation in management

 Delegation of authority

 Appreciation pay

 Higher

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT:
62
INTRODUCTION:
Most manufacturing concerns spend more than % of the related activities
money they take in, for invested in an industrial concern. This emphasizes the
need for adequate material management and control because even a small
saving in material can reduce the production cost to fair and thus add to profits.
Materials managements may be thought of as an integrated functioning of the
different sections of a company dealing with the supply of material and other so
to obtain maximum co-ordination and minimum expenditure on the terminal .

Materials management involves controlling the type amount location,

movement and timings of various materials etc., used in an industrial concern.

FUNCTIONS OF MATERIAL MANAGEMENT

 Material planning
 Receiving and warehousing
 Procurement or purchasing of material
 Strove and store – read administration
 Inventory control
 Standaradization , simplification and value analysis
 External transportations. [i.e.traffic,sharing,etc.,] and
 Material handling [i.e. internal, transportations]

QUALITY CONTROL

63
 Quality of product is defined as its fitness for the use for which it has
been made. Many characteristics of the product determine the quality.Theyare
called quality characteristics. Some of the equity charecteristics are
size,weight,strength,color,hardness,surfacefinish,reliability and appearance .

In a manufacturing process , all the products will notbe exactly will vary
from piece. This will be variation sin the quality charecteristics of produces the
causes for these variations are found and analyzed . Suitable corrective actionis
taken to minimize the variations within certain limits . This is done to maintain
the quality

DEFINITION
Quality control is the procedure that is followed to achieve and maintain
the required quality. Quality control aims at prevention of products defective
products defectives products.For this statistical method like sampling plans and
control charts are used .in present days equity control means “statistical quality
control”(SQC).
Quality controls consist the following activities :
 Fixing the quality standards Quality stands for incoming
Material
product in the manufacturing process an the finished products fixed
 Evaluations or measurement of quality This is the inspection
function
Here the quality of incoming material, product in the
manufacturing
process and finished products are inspection methods are used.
 Reason for the defects are examined
 corrective action is taken to prevent production of defective
products
SMALL SCALE INDUSTIES AND ENTERPRENEURSHIP
64
1.Find the products can be exported
Ecplore the possibility wether some of the products can be manufactured
in collaboration with a foreign country, this provides read made ftechnical know
how and saves a lot time and money otherwise wasted in developing a suitable
method of manufacture.
Decide the product that you are going to manufacture in the basis of:
 Market survey (as explained above)
 Financial implications involved
 Technical knowhow available
 Experience in the line,etc.
2.Preparation of preliminary project report to get rough idea on machinery,ray
material and financial requirement,
3.To decide form of ownership,this may be sole proctorship ro partnership etc?
4.To decide factory location
5.To buy land or take built-up
6.To invite quotations for machinery and equipment
7.To prepare detailed project report,which will include analysis of industry
present demand, future demand equipment of material,labour , finance,
breakeven analysis,profitability etc.,
8.apply fire registrations
9.plan finance
10.Follow up sanction of loan
11.open bank account
12.place order for machinery
13.apply fire power
14.plan layout of machinery

SPECIAL INCENTIVES:

65
  special inducements are offered for development of enter premiership
planning the person’s hilly , rural and backward areas. For examples ,
transport subsidy is given in remote and hilly backward areas in selected
status / union , territories. Capital subsidy up to 15% is also given to the
persons setting up their units on specified based base areas .
 New entrepreneurs are completely or partially exempted from payment
and of central excise duty
 Entrepreneurs are exempted for years from income tax payment on their
profits , up to 7.5%>A of the capital invested
 entrepreneurs are entitled to description (on building, plant and
equipment) out of the net profit
 Concessions are also given in stamp duty payable on the agreements and
mortgage deeds executed to take loans from the government.
 Sales tax is not charged on machines purchased for setting up small scale
industries in certain states
 Import licenses are giving to those entrepreneurs who required raw
material machines and their spares to be purchased from other countries
for running them successfully.
 tanning course or organized exclusive for women entrepreneurs. In
technical and management subjects in order to prove them opportunities
for self employment ,they are also assisted in preparing project on
specific in industries.
 Indians residing aboard and desirous of starting industries in Indian can
bring machinery up to C.I.F value of Rs.25,00,000 and raw materials
worth Rs.5,00,000 or annual equipment of the unit ,whichever is less .In
addition to this , they are also given all the facilities.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE:

66
A network of
1.state financial corporations
2.national small industrialcorporation (NISC) and the state small industrisal
corporation (SSIC)
3.state directorates of industries
4.Commercial banks
5.industrial development bank of india and state bank of India
6.regional rural banks provide financial assistance to small scale
units.Industrial development bank of india provides refinance to the
industrial loans advanced by these institutuions to small sector.

1.STATE FINANCIAL CORPORATES [SACS]

States financial corporation grants term loans for the purchase of
land,construction of new industries for expansion or modernization of the
existing ones.SFCis generally prescribing a margin of 25% and allows an initial
holiday of two years for the loan repayment .(This period can be increased to
five year in backward districts).

2.NISC AND SSIC:

NISC and SSIC is supply machinery on higher purchases basis to small
scale and auxiliary industries the value of which should no exceed Rs.35 lakhs
and Rs.45m lakhs , respectively , inclusive of the value of machinery and
equipment is made directly to the suppliers. The hire purchase value is generally
recovered in 13 half yearly installment and a rebate of 2% allowed if the
installment are paid before the date . While NSIC supplies both imported and
indigenous machinery , SSCIs is supply onli indigenous machinery

3.STATE DIRECTORATES OF INDUSTRIES

67
 State directorates of industries extend assistance ranging between
Rs.1,000 and Rs.50,000 for the constructionof a factory premises , purchase of
machinery and working capital . These loans srereplayable in to seven years.

SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES AND ENTERPRENEUR

68
1.FOOT AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES:
Ice cream, pickles and chutneys , vinegar , bread , biscuits , poultry feed ,
syntyheticsyrupd.

2.TEXTILE PRODUCTS INCLUDING NOISER:

cotton nests knitted , cotton under garments knitted , woolen clothes , under garment
etc.,

3.ART SILK / MAN MADE FIBERS HOSIERY :

Synthetic knitted socks and stocking , vests briefs cardigans , pull over's etc.,

4.WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS:

Swan timer , wooden crates sewing machine covers , tent poles , handles , furniture
etc.,

5.PAPER PRODUCTS:
Waxed paper , decorative papers, corrugated papers and boards , paper pages
etc.,

69