CHAPTER 2

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Lecturer: Engr. Ralph M. Romero, RMP
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able:

• To demonstrate how to measure horizontal

distances and angles using different methods;

• To determine the tape corrections affecting the

accuracy of distances measured; and

• To apply the principle of horizontal distances in

illustrative problems using mathematical models.
Linear Measurement
Measuring of distance is one of the basic surveying
operations which is generally understood as horizontal
distance.

Methods:
1. Pacing
2. Taping
3. Tachymetry (stadia and subtense bar)
4. Graphical and mathematical models
5. Mechanical devices (odometer, measuring wheels,
optical rangefinder)
6. Photogrammetry
7. Electronic distances measurement (EDM)
1. DISTANCE BY PACING
• Consists of counting the steps or paces in a
required distance.

• Pace is defined as the length of step in walking.

1. DISTANCE BY PACING (cont.)
• It can be done in situations where a low
precision of measurement is sufficient.

• The pace factor can be determine by counting

the number of steps along a line of known length
and then using this formula which is expressed
in meter per pace:
1. DISTANCE BY PACING (cont.)
• Last pace should be estimated to the nearest
quarter (1/4) pace.

• Pacing shall be done with at least 5 or more

trials.

• Care should be taken to walk in a straight line.

1. DISTANCE BY PACING (cont.)
Factors Affecting the Length of Pace

• Speed of pacing (need to walk naturally)

• Roughness of the ground
• Slope of the terrain
• Weight of clothing and shoes used
• Age and sex of the individual
• Fatigue
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING
• Most common method of measuring or laying
out horizontal distances.

• Other tape uses:

▫ establishing perpendicular to a line
▫ measuring angles
▫ laying off angles
▫ determining obstructed distances
▫ locating irregular distances
▫ determining areas of different shapes
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
Types of Taping Problems

1. Measuring an unknown distance between two

fixed points.

2. Laying out a required distance from a known

starting point.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
Taping Party

1. Head Tape Person (HT)

- carries the zero end of the tape
2. Recorder
- keeps all the records of measurement
3. Flag Person
- the person who holds the range pole at any selected
point
4. Rear Tape person (RT)
- holds the other end of the tape
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
PROCEDURE OF TAPING

1. Aligning the Tape

To get started, set a range pole vertically at the far end of

the survey line. Set a point chaining pin at the starting
point. The HT takes the zero end of the tape and proceeds
down the survey line. The RT stays at the start point, and
calls “tape, good, or stop” when the end of the tape is
reached.

The RT uses voice or hand signals to align the HT with the

range pole. Intermediate markers may serve as guides.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
2. Stretching the Tape

Both the HT and RT pull firmly on the tape, the

RT maintains the end of the tape over the start
point, carefully unrolls and sees to it that tape is
not looped, twisted or kinked.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
3. Plumbing

A plumb bob is used to ensure the reading is taken

at the appropriate point when the tape is not used
on the ground especially when taping on uneven
ground surfaces. Tape ends need to be level, and
the plumb bobs ensure the ends are over the start
and finish points. In steep terrain intermediate
tape lengths must be used.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths

When the tape is aligned, properly tensioned, and

plumbed over the starting point the RT yells
“stick” and the HT places a pin at exactly the 0
point of the tape and yells “stuck”. The survey
team then repeats the measurement to verify the
length. When both members are sure of the
positions, the RT picks up the rear pin and both
members proceed down the survey line and repeat
the procedure.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
5. Tallying Taped Measurements

At the initial point, the RT holds one pin and the

HT begins with ten pins carried on his steel ring.
The first pin which the RT holds indicates that one
tape length has already been measured and the
total number of pins in his possession indicates
the total number of full tape lengths that have so
far been measured.
2. DISTANCE BY TAPING (cont.)
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths

Upon reaching the end of the line, the HT comes

to a halt and the RT positions himself at the last
pin set. The RT holds the tape in such a manner
that a whole meter mark is aligned with and
opposite the pin. After the correct pull is applied,
the HT and RT observes their readings. To obtain
the measured fractional length, the observed
readings of HT is subtracted from the observed
reading of RT.
Care of Tapes and Equipment
• Do not place a tape where it can be stepped on or
run over, unless the tape is flat, taut, and fully
supported on a smooth surface.

• Unroll carefully. Keep the tape straight when in

use. When pulling a slack tape, a loop can
develop into a kink and easily break the tape.
Avoid pulling a tape around poles or other
objects, as a hard pull can stretch or break the
tape.
Care of Tapes and Equipment
• Do not wind tapes overly tight on their reels, as
it can cause unwanted stresses and lead to
stretching of the tape.
Mistakes in Taping
• Reading the tape wrong
• Recording numbers wrong
• Missing a tape length
• Mistaking the endpoint of the tape
• Making one unit mistakes
Tape Corrections
1. Correction due to Slope
2. Correction due to Alignment
3. Correction due to Temperature
4. Correction due to Tension
5. Correction due to Sag
6. Correction due to Wind
1. Correction due to Slope
When distances are measured along the slope, the
equivalent horizontal distance may correspondingly
be determined by applying an approximate slope
correction.
SLOPE = rise/run = tanѲ = h/d

1. Gentle Slopes ( <20% )

Ch = (h^2 / 2s)
2. Steep Slopes ( 20% ≤ SLOPE ≥ 30% )
Ch = (h^2 / 2s) + (h^4 / 8s^3)
3. Very Steep Slopes ( >30% )
Ch = s (1 – cosѲ )
1. Correction due to Slope
Where:
s = measured slope distance between point A
and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
Ch = slope correction

CORRECTED DISTANCE
d = s - Ch
Example 1.1
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m
and 660.97m, respectively. The difference in
elevation are 12.22m for points A and B, and
10.85m for points B and C. Determine the
horizontal length of line ABC assuming that line
AB has a rising slope and BC has a falling slope.
Example 1.2
An assumed horizontal line AB cannot be
measured directly because of an obstruction on
the line. Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB
were measured as 2400.850m and 1320.420m,
respectively. Point C was set at a perpendicular
distance of 500m form point D on the line AB.
Determine the length of AB.
2. Correction due to Alignment
Correction was considered if the tape is not
aligned due to personal error or when strong
wind is blowing.

The correction can also be computed using the

slope corrections formula.
Example 2.1
A

Determine the correct line ABCD.

The full length of 100m tape B
was used to measure line AB,
BC and CD. The offset distance
C
from point B and point C, are
0.05m and 0.12m, respectively.
D
3. Correction due to Temperature
Any change in the length of a tape due to
variations in temperature is critical when
undertaking precise measurements.

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and

shortens as the temperature falls.
3. Correction due to Temperature
Ct = CL (T - Ts)

Where:
Ct = temperature correction, m
C = coefficient of linear expansion, change in
length per unit length per degree change in
temperature, m/m*°C
L = length of line measured, m
T = observed temperature of the tape at the time
of measurement
Ts = temperature at which the tape was
standardized
Example 3.1
A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion
of 0.0000116/ °C is known to be 50 m long at
20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which
was found to be 532.28m long when the
temperature was 35°C. Determine the following:

• Temperature correction per tape length;

• Temperature correction for the measured line;
and
• Correct length of the line.
4. Correction due to Tension
During the calibration (or standardization) a tape
is subjected to a certain amount of standard pull
or tension on its ends. When used in the field
during taping, it is elongated or shortened
accordingly, depending on the amount of pull
applied on it.

Cp = (Pm – Ps)L / AE

L’ = L ± Cp
4. Correction due to Tension
Where:
Cp = correction due to incorrect pull, m
Pm= pull applied on the tape, kg
Ps = standard pull for the tape, kg
L = measured length of the line, m
A = cross sectional area of the tape, sq.cm.
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material,
kg/sq.cm
L’ = corrected length of the measured line
Example 4.1
A 30-m steel tape having a cross-sectional area of
0.05 sq.cm. has been standardized at a tension
of 5.5 kg. If E = 2.10 x 10^6 kg/sq.cm.,
determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of
12 kg is applied.
Example 4.2
A 30 m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard
length under a pull of 5kg, supported for full length.
The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long
on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg.
Assuming E=2.0x10^6 kg/sq.cm. and the unit
weight of steel to be 7.9x10^-3 kg/cu.cm., determine
the following:

• Cross sectional area of the tape;

• Correction for increase in tension; and
• Correct length of the line measured.
5. Correction due to Sag
If the support of the tape while measuring is only
at its ends or any two points of the tape, it will
sag even if the standard pull is maintained
because of its own weight.

Cs = (w^2 * L^3) / (24 * P^2)

5. Correction due to Sag
Where:
Cs = correction due to sag, m
w = weight of the tape per unit length, kg/m
L = interval between supports or the
unsupported length of tape, m
P = tension or pull applied on the tape, kg
Example 5.1
A 30 m tape is supported only at its ends and
under a steady pull of 8 kg. If the tape weighs
0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the
correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Example 5.2
A 50m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is
supported at its end points and at the 8m and
25m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied,
determine the following:

• Correction due to sag between the 0m and 8m

marks, 8m and 25m marks, and 25m and 50m
marks;
• Correction due to sag for one tape length; and
• Correct distance between the end of tapes.
6. Correction due to Wind
Strong wind blowing perpendicular to the
direction of taping will move the middle and
unsupported portion of the tape to one side of
the line measured.

This introduces an error to the measurement

which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually
much less.
Illustrative Problem
A line was determined to be 2395.25m when
measured with a 30m steel tape supported
throughout its length under a pull of 4kg and at
a mean temperature of 35°C. Determine the
correct length of the line if the tape used is of
standard length at 20°C under a pull of 5kg. The
cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 sq cm, its
coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/°C,
and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0x10^6
kg/sq.cm.
Surveys with Tape
1. Erecting Perpendicular to Line
2. Measuring Angles with Tape
3. Laying off Angles with Tape
4. Determining Obstructed Distances
Erecting Perpendicular to Line
• Chord-Bisection Method
d

A b m c B
Erecting Perpendicular to Line
• 3:4:5 Method
c

A a b B
Measuring Angles with Tape
• A tape is not frequently used in engineering
constructions for measuring or laying out angles.

• It can be used with the absence of transit or

theodolite.

• All angular measurements by tape are

accomplished by the application of very basic
geometric and trigonometric principles.
Measuring Angles with Tape
Using cosine law:

BC^2 = AB^2 + AC^2 – 2(AB)(AC) cosA

B

C
Illustrative Problem
In the quadrilateral ABCD, the following lengths
are measured by tape with the distance shown
below. Determine the interior angles of the
quadrilateral.

AB = 760.5m
BC = 390.8m
CD = 371.6m
DA = 595.8m
AC = 765.4m
Laying off Angles with Tape
• Layout AP along AB
• Layout PP’ with a distance of the product of the
LAP and the angle to be laid off at A
P’

A P B
Determining Obstructed Distances
• In some instances, it may not be possible to
directly measure distances due to an
obstruction.

• The required length may also be inaccessible or

difficult to measure.
Illustrative Problem
In the figure on the board, lines NQ and PR are
established perpendicular to line MNP, and
points Q and R are lined up with the distant
point M. If NQ = 318.55m, PR=475.62, and
NP=210.38m, determine the length of MN which
represents the width of the river.