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FM Ds 07-88 Tanques de Almacenamiento de Combustibles PDF
FM Ds 07-88 Tanques de Almacenamiento de Combustibles PDF
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Horizontal aboveground tank .............................................................................................................. 5
Fig. 2. Buried tank with flame arrester ........................................................................................................ 10
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7-88 Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Tables
Table 1. Support (Saddle) Width for Horizontal Steel Flammable Liquid Tanks ............................................ 4
Table 2. Spacing for Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks and Loading/Unloading Stations ............................ 6
Table 3. Spacing for Flammable Liquid Tank Containment Dikes ................................................................ 7
Table 4. Indoor Tank Quantity Limits ........................................................................................................... 10
Table 5. Size of Opening for Normal Venting ............................................................................................... 16
Table 6. Required Thermal (Normal) Venting Capacity 1 ............................................................................. 17
Table 7. Typical Vent Line Size for Buried Tanks ......................................................................................... 18
Table 8. Capacities for Emergency Relief of Excessive Internal Pressure for
Aboveground Tanks Operating at 1 psig (7 kPa) or less1 ............................................................................ 19
Table 9. Values for L (M)1/2 ........................................................................................................................... 20
Table 10. Environmental Factors for Emergency Venting Capacity (use only one factor) .......................... 21
Table 11. Sprinkler Density for Storage Tank Rooms, gpm/ft2(mm/min) ...................................................... 24
Table 12. Hose Stream Demand for TANKS Storing Flammable Liquids 1 ................................................. 26
Table 13. Estimated Water Demand for Fixed Foam Protection for a full Surface Fire. ............................. 26
Table 14. Safety Distances for Hot Work, Open Flames, Maintenance, Repair or Modification ................. 28
Table 15. Losses over US$100,000 by Occupancy Class ........................................................................... 35
Table 16. Losses over US$100,000 by Engineering Peril ............................................................................ 36
Table 17a. Relationship Between Fuel Volume, Pool Size, and Fire Duration (English) ............................. 41
Table 17b. Relationship Between Fuel Volume, Pool Size, and Fire Duration (metric) ............................... 42
Table 18a. Flow Rate, Pool Diameter, Heat Release Rate, and Flame Height for a
Flowing Kerosene Fire (English) ................................................................................................. 42
Table 18b. Flow Rate, Pool Diameter, Heat Release Rate, and Flame Height for a
Flowing Kerosene Fire (Metric) ................................................................................................... 42
1.0 SCOPE
In this data sheet, the term ‘‘flammable liquid’’ is used synonymously for all three classes of liquids. Where rec-
ommendations vary because of flash point, that is indicated.
The recommendations in this data sheet apply to chemically stable or unstable flammable liquids when stored
in atmospheric pressure (operating at less than 1 psig [0.07 barg]) or low pressure (operating over 1 psig
[0.07 barg] and less than 15 psig [1 barg]) tanks.
This data sheet applies to storage in horizontal and vertical tanks usually constructed of metal and located
aboveground, underground, or inside buildings. Storage in floating roof tanks is not addressed. For guid-
ance on floating roof tanks, refer to NFPA 30, Flammable Liquid Storage in Portable Containers, or equiva-
lent national or international standard.
This data sheet provides requirements for intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), when used to supply liquids
to a process. Storage of IBC is covered by DS 7-29, Flammable Liquid Storage in Portable Containers.
This data sheet does not cover all aspects of pumping operations as represented by load and unload racks,
pump pads at tank farms, or fuel pumping and transfer systems in buildings. Spacing criteria for some of
these peripheral operations are provided in Table 2. For other aspects, refer to DS 7-32, Flammable Liquid
Operations.
The recommendations for drainage, fire protection, separation, or diking do not apply to day tanks or other pro-
cess tanks. Locate and protect those tanks in accordance with the appropriate FM Global data sheet, such
as Data Sheet 7-14, Fire and Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, and Liquefied
Flammable Gas Processing Equipment and Supporting Structures; Data Sheet 7-30, Solvent Extraction
Plants; Data Sheet 7-32, Flammable Liquid Operations, or Data Sheet 7-43/17-2, Loss Prevention in Chemi-
cal Plants.
This data sheet does not apply to flammable liquids or gases stored in pressure vessels above 15 psig (103
kPa). See Data Sheet 7-55, Liquefied Petroleum Gases, for such storages.
This data sheet addresses methods to prevent flame propagation throughout low-pressure flammable liq-
uid storage tanks that are manifolded together to reduce atmospheric emissions where the presence of an
ignitable vapor-air mixture in normal operation is likely.
This data sheet does not address preventing flame propagation in fuel gas piping systems (see Data Sheet
6-10, Process Furnaces) in systems handling acetylene (see Data Sheet 7-51, Acetylene) or in fume col-
lection systems for process equipment (see Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems).
1.1 Changes
September 2010. Changes were made in Table 3, Spacing for Flammable Liquid Tank Containment Dikes.
2.1.1 General
1. Construct atmospheric tanks (operating at less than 1 psig [0.07 barg]) in accordance with the following
recognized engineering standards or suitable national or international equivalents:
a) API (American Petroleum Institute) Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
b) UL (Underwriters Laboratories) 142, Standard for Steel Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Com-
bustible Liquids
c) UL 2080, Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
d) UL 2085, Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
e) UL 2244, Standard for Aboveground Flammable Liquid Tank Systems
f) UL 58, Standard for Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
2. Construct low-pressure tanks (operating at more than 1 psig [0.07 barg] but less than 15 psig [1 barg])
in accordance with the following recognized engineering standards or suitable national or international equiva-
lents:
a) API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
b) Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code
c) EN BS 14015, Specification for Design and Manufacture of Site Built, Vertical, Cylindrical, Flat-
Bottomed, Aboveground, Welded, Steel Tanks for the Storage OF Liquids at Ambient Temperatures and
Above
d) EN BS 12285, Part 1, Workshop Fabricated Steel Tanks — Horizontal Cylindrical Single and Double
Skin Tanks for Underground Storage of Flammable and Non-Flammable Water Polluting Liquids
e) EN BS 12285, Part 2, Workshop Fabricated Steel Tanks — Horizontal Cylindrical Single and Double
Skin Tanks for Aboveground Storage of Flammable and Non-Flammable Water Polluting Liquids
3. Design supports for horizontal cylindrical tanks to minimize settlement or lateral movement that could result
in overstress or rupture of the tank or associated pipe and fittings.
a) Provide supports of fire-resistive construction (e.g., saddles of reinforced concrete as shown in Fig. 1),
with at least one-third of the circumference of the tank bearing on the supports. Protect reinforcing steel
in concrete saddles with at least 2 in. (50 mm) of concrete.
b) Design saddles in accordance with the following table.
Table 1. Support (Saddle) Width for Horizontal Steel Flammable Liquid Tanks
> 35,000
> 550 ≤ 1100 > 1100 ≤ 9,000 > 1100 ≤ 35,000 ≤ 50,000
Capacity, gal (m3) ≤ 550 (2.1) (2.1 – 4.2) (4.2 – 34) (4.2 – 133) (133 – 189)
Tank diameter, 48 (1220) 64 (1625) 76 (1930) 144 (3660) 144 (3660)
in (mm)
Saddle width, 4.5 (115) 6 (150) 6 (150) 9 (230) 10 (255)
in (mm)
c) Provide fireproofing of tank supports that are structural steel with a material having a fire resistance
of 2 hrs (concrete in accordance with DS 1-21 or an FM Approved coating rated for process structure or
tank protection) or protected with automatic water spray nozzles in accordance with DS 4-1N.
d) Provide bracing to prevent movement in locations subject to earthquakes.
e) In an area subject to flooding, anchor tanks to prevent either full or empty tanks from floating during
a rise in water level up to the maximum flood stage. Details are given in Section 2.2.6, Protection against
Flooding.
4. Pressure vessels and low-pressure tanks may be used as atmospheric storage tanks. Where unstable liq-
uids are stored, see 2.2.2.2 – 7.
5. Fixed tanks of combustible construction (usually glass fiber-reinforced plastic) may be used:
a) for underground installation.
b) where required by the properties of the liquid stored.
c) for liquids with flash point greater than 200°F (93°C) stored outdoors where not exposed to the leak-
age of liquids with lower flash point.
d) for liquids with flash point greater than 200°F (93°C) (or any flash point if required as in b) stored indoors
with suitable automatic sprinkler protection and containment and installed in accordance with 2.1.4, below.
6. When glass fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) tanks are used:
a) Construct the tank in accordance with the following recognized engineering standards or suitable
national or international equivalents:
1. UL 1316, Standard for Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Underground Storage Tanks for Petroleum
Products, Alcohols, and Alcohol-Gasoline Mixtures
2. API Specification 12P, Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks
3. ASTM D3299-Standard Specification for Filament Wound Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoset Resin
Chemical Resistant Tanks.
4. ASTM D4097-Standard Specification for Contact Molded Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoset Resin
Chemical Resistant Tanks.
5. EN BS 13121 GRP Tanks and Vessels for Use Aboveground.
Part 1: Raw materials – specification and acceptance conditions
Part 2: Composite materials – chemical resistance
Part 3: Design and Workmanship
Part 4: Delivery, installation and maintenance
b) Install aboveground tanks on a concrete pad in the vertical position only.
c) Store only chemically stable liquids, compatible with the reinforced plastic.
d) Provide separate dikes for all reinforced plastic tanks over 2,500 gal (9.5 m3).
e) Provide spacing for all reinforced plastic tanks in accordance with Table 2.
f) On tanks containing liquids with flash point less than 100°F (38°C), install conductive metal fill and dis-
charge lines, supported internally and extending to within 3 in. (76 mm) of the tank bottom, and provide
a static ground to dissipate charges that can accumulate during filling operations.
g) Where tanks are located indoors, provide automatic sprinkler protection designed in accordance with
section 2.3.1, below. Automatic sprinkler protection may be omitted in low-value buildings that have
adequate space separation from important buildings and structures.
h) Install buried tanks in strict conformance to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
7. Construct tanks that have special features, such as corrosion resistance, with strength equivalent to that
of steel tanks.
8. Concrete tanks without liners may be used for the storage of liquids with flash points higher than 100°F
(38°C) and specific gravities greater than 0.8.
9. Concrete tanks with combustible or noncombustible liners may be used for the storage of liquids with flash
points lower than 100°F (38°C) when designed in accordance with recognized engineering standards.
Choose the type and thickness of the liner depending on the properties of the liquid to be stored.
10. Provide rectangular steel tanks with internal braces to withstand hydrostatic loads in accordance with rec-
ognized engineering standards.
11. Where combustible plastic insulation is used on storage tanks, install a proper fire protective coating
over the insulation or install FM Approved Class 1 insulation. See Data Sheet 1-57, Plastic in Construction
, for additional guidance.
12. Prior to being placed in service, test all tanks in accordance with the standard under which they were con-
structed; generally, by filling the tanks with water and observing them for leakage. (PRIOR 2.1.1.5)
Table 2. Spacing for Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks and Loading/Unloading Stations
Liquid Flash Point (1)(2)
≤ 140°F (60°C) > 140°F (60°C)
Stable liquids, tank to bldgs of non combustible or better 1 D (min 75 ft, 23 m) 0.5 D (min 50 ft, 15 m)
construction (See Appendix A) or open process structures (3)
Stable liquids, tank to buildings of combustible construction 2 D (min 125 ft, 38 m) 1 D (min 75 ft, 23 m)
(See Appendix A)
Stable liquids in listed UL 2080, 2085 and 2244 containers See 2.1.2 – 6
Unstable liquids, tank to bldgs of any construction 2 D (min 125 ft, 38 m) 1 D (min 75 ft, 23 m)
Stable liquids, tank to tank 0.5 D (min 3 ft, 0.9 m) 0.5 D (min 3 ft, 0.9 m)
Unstable liquids, tank to tank 1 D (min 5 ft, 1.5 m) 1 D (min 5 ft, 1.5 m)
Tank truck and railcar loading/unloading to tank, (4) 75 ft (23 m) 50 (15 m)
Tanks (single or multiple) to LPG storage minimum 100 ft (30 m) or 1 D
Notes
1
Where tanks are equipped with internal heating systems and store liquids subject to boil over, froth over, or slop over, evaluate as if con-
taining liquids with flash points = 140°F (60°C), regardless of their flashpoint.
2
D refers to the diameter of the largest flammable liquid tank.
3
Open process structure refers to areas of one or multiple levels used to manufacture chemicals. Intermediate tanks considered part of
the process are excluded from this spacing requirement.
4
For separation between loading/unloading facilities and buildings, see DS 7-32.
3. Provide containment for tanks containing flammable liquids with flash points below 200°F (93°C) by remote
impounding, dikes around the tanks, or secondary containment. (Environmental or other government regu-
lations may require containment for smaller tanks.)
4. Construct dikes used to provide containment around the tanks according to the following criteria:
a) Size dikes to hold 100% of the contents of the largest tank within the diked area. The volume occu-
pied by this tank below the top of the dike may be considered part of the dike capacity unless the liquid
stored is subject to boil over. The volumes of all other tanks below the top of the dike must be deducted
when calculating dike capacity.
b) Construct dike walls of earth, steel, concrete, or solid masonry, designed to be liquid-tight and to with-
stand a full hydrostatic head by release of tank contents.
c) Provide earthen walls 3 ft (1 m) or more in height with a flat section at the top not less than 2 ft (0.6
m) wide with the wall slope consistent with the angle of repose of the material of which the wall is con-
structed.
d) Control vegetation, desirable protection against erosion, so as not to impede fire fighters or add to
the fire hazard.
e) Limit the height of dikes, regardless of construction, to 6 ft (2 m) to minimize the chances of pocket-
ing flammable vapors and to facilitate fire fighting.
f) Provide drainage to remove water from within diked areas at a minimum uniform slope of 1% away
from tanks toward a sump, a drain box, or other means of disposal located at a safe distance from the
tank.
g) Design drains to prevent liquids from entering natural water courses, public sewers, or drains. Trap
drain lines and provide valves on the lines, outside the dike, so they are accessible under fire condi-
tions. Protect the traps from freezing.
h) Limit dikes to contain an aggregate capacity of 5,000,000 gal (18,900 m3), except were individual tank
capacity exceeds 5,000,000 gal (18,900 m3) in which case, ensure the dike contains only one tank.
i) Subdivide any dike containing two or more tanks by intermediate dikes or channels as follows:
1. Stable liquids in weak seam roof tanks
a. Subdivision for each tank over 420,000 gal (1,590 m3)
b. Subdivision for each group of tanks with total capacity up to 630,000 gal (2,390 m3), none individu-
ally > 420,000 gal (1,590 m3)
2. Stable liquids in horizontal tanks or vertical cone roof tanks
a. Subdivision for each tank over 100,000 gal (380 m3)
b. Subdivision for each group of tanks with total capacity up to 150,000 gal (570 m3), none individu-
ally >100,000 gal (380 m3)
3. Unstable liquids in any type of tank need individual subdivision.
4. Unstable liquids in any type of tank protected by water spray in accordance with Data Sheet 4-1N
can follow the subdivision requirements in “2” above.
j) Build intermediate dikes at least 18 in high.
k) Provide separation between a tank and the dike wall of at least one-half the tank diameter.
l) Provide separation between buildings and dike wall in accordance with Table 3.
m) Where tanks are arranged in more than two adjacent rows or in an irregular pattern, provide greater
spacing between tanks, additional dikes, or roadways so all tanks are accessible for firefighting.
Stable liquids, dike wall to buildings of combustible construction 2 D (min 125 ft, 38 m; 1 D (min 75 ft, 23 m; 300
(See Appendix A) 300 ft, 91 m) ft, 91 m)
Unstable liquids, dike wall to buildings any construction 2 D (min 125 ft, 38 m; 1 D (min 75 ft, 23 m; 300
300 ft, 91 m) ft, 91 m)
Notes
1
Where dikes contain tanks equipped with internal heating systems and store liquids subject to boil over, froth over, or slop over, protect
as liquids with flash points = 140°F (60°C) regardless of their flashpoint.
2
D usually refers to the longest dike dimension, length, width, or diameter (if circular).However, where a non-circular dike is present, base
the spacing to the exposure on the exposing dimension, i.e., the side that most directly faces the exposed structure, vessel or other dike,
not necessarily the longest dimension.
3
Open process structure refers to areas of one or multiple levels used to manufacture chemicals. Intermediate tanks considered part of
the process are excluded from this spacing requirement.
5. Design remote impounding used for containment in accordance with the following criteria:
a) Provide drainage within diked areas at a minimum uniform slope of 1% away from tanks toward the
impounding basin.
b) Route drainage between the tanks and the impounding basin so that if the liquid in the system is ignited,
it will not seriously expose tanks or important buildings (DS 7-83 can provide valuable guidance on the
design of the drainage system).
c) Provide the impounding basin with a minimum capacity equal to twice the largest tank that could drain
to it.
d) Equip the impounding basin with means to drain off accumulations of water from precipitation.
e) Separate the impounding basin from important buildings and facilities according to the size of the basin
and the exposure potential to the building, as follows:
1. From buildings of ordinary or combustible construction (or from buildings containing hazardous mate-
rials) having extensive window areas or associated combustible yard storage, spacing distance = 1.8
× basin diameter or diagonal.
2. From buildings of fire resistive or noncombustible construction not having extensive window areas,
hazardous materials, or associated combustible yard storage, spacing distance = 0.6 × basin diam-
eter or diagonal.
3. From flammable liquid storage tanks, spacing distance = 0.3 × basin diameter or diagonal.
f) Provide each diked and/or subdivided area with drainage systems leading to the impounding basin.
Hydraulically design the drainage system from each diked or subdivided area as follows:
1. Provide drainage capacity from each subdivision in a dike capable of carrying off liquid at a rate
not less than that which could be released assuming a break in a bottom connection from the largest
full tank within the subdivision, or the maximum tank fill rate, whichever is greater.
2. Use drainage system piping that is a minimum of 24 in. (60 cm) diameter.
3. Route piping under subdivisions and dikes to culverts or open channels leading to the impounding
basin.
4. Design culverts or open channels with the capacity to carry off liquid from all the drainage connec-
tions within the diked area having the largest single tank, with the connections flowing at their maxi-
mum capacity.
5. Design the culverts or channels with additional capacity to carry off the maximum expected dis-
charge of water from fire fighting operations.
6. Locate open channels a minimum of 50 ft (15 m) from important buildings and facilities.
7. Provide roads with culverts over the channels at intervals to permit access to the tanks for mainte-
nance or emergencies.
8. Pave channels with asphalt or concrete, or line them with smooth stone, metal, or compacted clay
to prevent growth of vegetation that could restrict liquid flow.
9. Provide a minimum of 1% slope for channels and culverts. Steeper slopes are advisable to reduce
culvert or channel size.
6. Secondary containment tanks (double skinned) listed as meeting the requirements of UL 2080, 2085, 2244,
and EN BS 12285, Part 2:
a) are limited to a capacity of 12,000 gal (45 m3) (Locate tanks exceeding 12,000 gal (45 m3) in accor-
dance with Table 2 and meet all of the remaining criteria in b through i).
b) are limited to the storage of stable flammable liquids.
c) are spaced a minimum of 5 ft (1.5 m) from building walls or openings.
d) are spaced a minimum of 3 ft (1 m) from adjacent tanks of the same type.
e) are protected against vehicle impact by suitable barriers except where the tank is specifically listed
and marked as having passed vehicle impact testing.
f) are provided with a means to prevent siphon flow from the tank.
g) are provided with a means, accessible to the delivery operator, for determining the level of liquid in
the tank.
h) are provided with a means to prevent overfilling by sounding an alarm when the liquid level in the tank
reaches 90 percent of capacity and by automatically stopping delivery of liquid to the tank when the liq-
uid level in the tank reaches 95 percent of capacity, without restricting or interfering with the proper func-
tioning of the normal vent or the emergency vent.
i) do not need additional spill containment by way of impounding basins or drainage.
e) the water supplies are not drawn down to seriously affect the required duration of sprinkler or hose
stream discharge.
f) the loading operation is immediately shut down in the event of a fire emergency.
8. When filling is complete, close and lock all valves on connecting pipe.
2.1.7 Earthquake
1. In FM Seismic Zones 150 and under, provide restraint and appropriate flexibility in piping connections
and associated tanks, pipe headers and piping systems per the requirements in DS 1-11, Fire Following Earth-
quakes.
2. Where tanks are located indoors, arrange all liquid transfer operations to be shut down during a seismic
event using seismic shutoff valves.
2.2 Occupancy
2.2.1 General
1. Make pipe connections to tanks above the normal liquid level.
2. Extend fill, return, and similar pipes below the lowest level of liquid in the tank or within about 6 in. (150
mm) of the tank bottom,(Fig. 1).
3. Where bottom connections are present:
a) provide steel shutoff valves bolted or welded to the first flange connection on the tank.
b) keep valves closed except when liquid is being transferred. (Fig. 4).
c) for tanks exceeding 10,000 gal (28 m3), provide valves that are manually controllable from a remote loca-
tion.
d) provide a liquid-tight closure, such as a valve, plug, or blind, or a combination of these, on connec-
tions below the liquid level through which liquid does not normally flow.
4. Where pumps are provided, implement the requirements for flammable and combustible liquid transfer sys-
tems as required in DS 7-32 under “transfer by pumping‘‘.
5. Do not permit piping in dikes to pass through a dike wall to an area containing other tanks which could
allow a spill or fire to spread to adjacent tanks.
6. Provide manway openings with a bolted, gasketed cover that is kept closed except when the tank is opened
for examination or maintenance (Fig. 4).
7. Provide level-gauging or measuring devices for all tanks.
8. Where manual gauging connections are present:
a) Where liquids with flash point below 100°F (38°C) are present, use a method that will not expose the
vapor space to outside atmosphere.
b) Avoid gauging equipment that will release large quantities of liquid if the equipment is damaged mechani-
cally or by an exposure fire.
c) Where a rod and gauging well is provided, extend a pipe down into the tank below the level of the suc-
tion intake (Fig. 5[a]) to provide a liquid seal at the bottom of the well that prevents vapors above the
main body of liquid from escaping during gauging.
d) Install FM Approved devices for safe gauging (level measurement) of tanks .
9. Provide high-level alarms that sound at an attended location.
10. Arrange heating equipment for tanks as follows:
a) Provide heat only in the vicinity of the suction intake for tanks storing liquids with flash point below
200°F (93°C).
b) Provide only enough heat to ensure free flow of the liquid.
c) Arrange suction pipe or outlet pipe connections to ensure that heating coils will always be sub-
merged.
d) For metal tanks, use steam, hot water or FM Approved electric heaters. For reinforced plastic tanks,
use only steam or hot water.
e) Steam heating coils are commonly used on tanks containing No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oil and similar liq-
uids to reduce their viscosity for pumping. In one acceptable arrangement, a horizontal open-ended shell
or box contains the steam coils, and suction is taken from inside the shell. Another arrangement con-
sists of a vertical spiral steam coil located around a top-connected suction pipe; this is acceptable if the
fill opening is trapped or the fill pipe is extended below the level of the suction intake (Fig.1).
f) Provide a steam pressure-relief valve close to the tank, set at about 5 psi (35 kPa) over normal work-
ing pressure, if steam is supplied through a reducing valve.
g) Provide FM Approved low-liquid- level and high-temperature interlocks to shut off the heating system.
11. Closely monitor all fill operations either by operator standing by or remote reading level gauges at an occu-
pied location.
7. Prevent condensation in flame arresters on tanks containing liquids that solidify during cold weather by pro-
viding a heating arrangement such as a steam coil at the arrester.
8. Where polymerization of a material may occur at the arrester, provide a dual arrester equipped with a three-
way valve so one arrester is always in service.
9. Where vent pipes are necessary to conduct vapors to a safe location, install them as follows:
a) Terminate vents close enough above the tank to avoid imposing a dangerous liquid head on the tank
if liquid overflows through the vent.
b) Extend vent pipe connections from indoor tanks to outside the building.
c) Terminate vents at a location free of potential ignition sources and away from openings through which
vapors can leak back into the building or locations where combustible construction would be exposed
by a fire burning at the end of the vent.
2. For tanks with a capacity exceeding 50,000 gal (189 m3) provide venting as follows:
a) Provide inbreathing (vacuum) capacity of 1 ft3/hr free air for each 7.5 gal/hr of the maximum empty-
ing rate (1 m3/hr inbreathing capacity for each 1 m3/hr emptying rate) plus the thermal venting capacity
given in Table 6.
b) For tanks storing liquid with a flash point ≤ 100°F (38°C), provide outbreathing (pressure) capacity of
1 ft3/hr free air for each 3.5 gal/hr of the maximum tank filling rate (1 m3/hr free air for each 0.47 m3/hr of
the maximum tank filling rate) plus the thermal venting capacity given in Table 6.
c) For tanks storing liquids with a flash point >100°F (38°C), provide outbreathing (pressure) capacity of
1 ft3/hr free air for each 7.0 gal/hr of the maximum tank filling rate (1 m3/hr free air for each 0.94 m3/hr
of the maximum tank filling rate) plus the thermal venting capacity given in Table 6.
1
Table 6. Required Thermal (Normal) Venting Capacity
Pressure
Tank Capacity Vacuum Liquid Flash Point
gal 42-gal m3 All Stocks ≤ 100°F (38°C) >100°F (38°C)
barrels ft3/hr m3/hr ft3/hr m3/hr ft3/hr m3/hr
42,000 1,000 160 1,000 28 1,000 28 600 17
84,000 2,000 320 2,000 57 2,000 57 1,200 34
126,000 3,000 480 3,000 85 3,000 85 1,800 51
168,000 4,000 640 4,000 113 4,000 113 2,400 68
210,000 5,000 800 5,000 142 5,000 142 3,000 85
420,000 10,000 1,600 10,000 280 10,000 280 6,000 170
630,000 15,000 2,400 15,000 420 15,000 420 9,000 255
840,000 20,000 3,200 20,000 570 20,000 570 12,000 340
1,050,000 25,000 4,000 24,000 680 24,000 680 15,000 420
1,260,000 30,000 4,800 28,000 790 28,000 790 17,000 480
1,470,000 35,000 5,600 31,000 880 31,000 880 19,000 540
1,680,000 40,000 6,400 34,000 960 34,000 960 21,000 590
1,890,000 45,000 7,200 37,000 1,050 37,000 1,050 23,000 650
2,100,000 50,000 8,000 40,000 1,130 40,000 1,130 24,000 680
2,520,000 60,000 9,600 44,000 1,250 44,000 1,250 27,000 760
2,940,000 70,000 11,200 48,000 1,360 48,000 1,360 29,000 820
3,360,000 80,000 12,800 52,000 1,470 52,000 1,470 31,000 880
3,780,000 90,000 14,400 56,000 1,590 56,000 1,590 34,000 960
4,200,000 100,000 16,000 60,000 1,700 60,000 1,700 36,000 1,020
5,049,000 120,000 19,200 68,000 1,930 68,000 1,930 41,000 1,160
5,880,000 140,000 22,400 75,000 2,120 75,000 2,120 45,000 1,270
6,720,000 160,000 25,600 82,000 2,320 82,000 2,320 50,000 1,420
7,560,000 180,000 28,800 90,000 2,550 90,000 2,550 54,000 1,530
1.
Based on API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, 5th Edition, 1998.
(These requirements are also in NFPA 30)
3. For tanks operating at pressures greater than 1 psig (7 kPa) and having exposed wetted areas greater
than 2800 ft2 (260 m2), calculate the emergency venting capacity by one of the following formulae:
4. Where the stored liquid is other than hexane, adjust the emergency venting capacity as follows:
V’ = V 1337 / L (M)1/2
V’ = V 3110 / L (M)1/2
Where: V = hexane vent requirement from Table 8, ft3/hr or m3/hr
V’ = stored liquid vent requirement, ft3/hr or m3/hr
L = latent heat of vaporization of stored liquid, Btu/lb or kJ/kg
M = molecular weight of stored liquid, no units
Table 9 lists L (M)1/2 for a number of common liquids. Data on other liquids can be found in most hand-
books.
Note: the vent capacity determined from Table 8 is conservative compared to the other liquids listed in Table
9; that is, if the capacity of the existing vents is adequate for hexane, it will be adequate for most other liq-
uids.
5. The venting capacity as determined by 2, 3 and 4 above, can be reduced for the effect of drainage, sprin-
klers, insulation and low heat of combustion liquids (alcohols) using the Environmental Factors presented
in Table 10.
6. The total emergency venting capacity can be provided with specific construction or devices alone or in com-
bination with the opening(s) provided for normal venting.
Table 10. Environmental Factors for Emergency Venting Capacity (use only one factor)
Environmental Factor (F) 1 Basic 4 For low heat of combustion liquids 4, 5
7. Where unstable liquids are stored, provide tank-venting capacity that accounts for the effects of heat or
gas produced by polymerization, decomposition, or self reactivity and the possibility of a two-phase relief. Fol-
low the design guidance for reactive systems in DS 7-49, Emergency Venting of Vessels.
2.2.2.3 Manifolded Vents
1. Do not manifold vent collection systems of tanks containing incompatible materials.
2. Do not manifold vent pipes from tanks containing liquids with flash points below or equal to 100°F (38°C)
with tanks containing liquids with flash points above 100°F (38°C).
3. Protect low-pressure storage tanks interconnected with fume recovery or collection systems against explo-
sion propagation if they normally contain ignitable mixtures AND ignition sources could be (spontaneous heat-
ing) or are normally present (continuous flames as in flares, fume incinerators, etc.) by one of the following
methods:
a) Oxidant concentration reduction (e.g., inerting or purging). This method is limited to operations with-
out open manway activities, such as sampling, liquid or solids addition, etc. (NOTE: Do not use inerting
in tanks with monomers containing inhibitors that require oxygen to maintain activity. Examples: hydro-
quinone and methyl ether of hydroquinone.) See Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Pro-
cess Vessels, and Equipment.
b) Combustible concentration reduction (e.g., ventilation). See Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Sys-
tems.
c) Explosion isolation (detonation arresters).
4. Where an explosion isolation system is needed, provide Approved detonation arresters as follows (Fig. 6):
a) At each tank, in the piping connecting it to the vapor recovery system.
b) At the end of the manifold immediately upstream of the feed nozzle for any vapor processing equip-
ment; for example, incinerators and scrubbers.
Note: Detonation arresters may not be appropriate in systems where powders are handled or added on a
regular basis. The arrester could become plugged and fail to handle normal in-and-out breathing.
5. Provide detonation arresters with temperature sensors on each side, and as close as possible to the face
of the arresting element. Arrange the sensor to automatically close valves or initiate other actions that will
eliminate the possibility of a stabilized flame burning on the arrester element. Do not locate the sensor in a
thermowell that will delay its response. If the sensor is to be a metal-sheathed thermocouple, it must be of
small diameter, e.g., 1⁄4 in. (6 mm), and must be inserted bare through a suitable packing gland.
6. Within 120 pipe diameters of the detonation arrester, install piping of equal or smaller diameter than the
detonation arrester.
(Fig.s 7 and 8 are showing pipe sizing around dda to meet this criteria)
Fig. 7. Required pipe sizing if detonation arrester is smaller than nearby piping
7. Where conditions of operation will significantly exceed approximately atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture, specifically test detonation arresters under the actual operating conditions. Detonation arresters are
capable of successfully stopping detonation fronts only in systems initially at approximately atmospheric pres-
sure and temperature.
8. Install detonation arresters where easily accessible for maintenance and inspection.
9. Install vapor-collection system piping in accordance with ASME B31.3, Chemical Plant and Petroleum
Refinery Piping, or international equivalent, designed for a maximum allowable working pressure of 150 psig
(10 barg).
10. Provide the flow capacity in common portions of manifolded vapor collection piping for the maximum
flow of all vents connected to that portion of the system.
11. Consider insulation and/or heat tracing of the system and arrester in cold climates where freezing or con-
densation of the vapor is possible. The heat tracing must be kept below the accepted operating range of
the arrester.
14. Take precautions to safely oxidize pyrophoric deposits before taking the tank out of service (see API
RP 2016 for details).
15. Follow a written procedure for returning long-idled tanks to service that addresses at least the follow-
ing:
a) Water accumulations that could boil on heating.
b) Residual product that may heat irregularly with localized overheating until the entire contents have
reached a uniform temperature.
c) Lighter products that might have been previously in the tank and addition of hot material that could rap-
idly vaporize material and exceed vent capacity or cause the vapor space to enter the flammable range.
16. Develop an emergency response plan to address fire, explosion, and unexpected liquid release that iden-
tifies the hazards, site layout, protection equipment, shutoff valves, etc., as well as specific response to each
type of event. Ensure outside responders are familiar with the response plan.
2.3 Protection
4. Provide FM Approved combination straight stream/water spray nozzles for each hose. A straight stream dis-
charge can cool exposed tanks or facilities, while a high-velocity spray discharge can control or extinguish
fires in liquids with flash points above 200°F (93°C).
5. Provide foam monitor nozzles or foam hose streams for exterior protection and spills in the dikes where
there are tanks that contain stable liquids with flash points below or equal to 200°F (93°C) or unstable liq-
uids of any flash point.
6. Provide fixed foam outlets and supply piping to a remote point outside the dike installed in accordance
with DS 4-7N on vertical cone-roof tanks storing stable or unstable liquids with flash points below or equal
to 200°F (93°C) when one or more of the following conditions exist:
a) The tank capacity exceeds 50,000 gal (190 m3) or there are multiple tanks in the same dike whose
aggregate capacity exceeds this value.
b) The tanks present a serious exposure to important buildings, process equipment, or utilities due to inad-
equate spacing.
c) The tank-to-tank spacing and containment is deficient compared to the requirements of this standard.
d) The tank contents are of considerable value or are essential for continued operations and are not
readily replaceable. The contents can be readily salvageable after foam contamination.
e) Other unfavorable situations that cannot be corrected.
7. Where spacing between tanks and nearby buildings is inadequate (not in accordance with Section 2.1.2)
provide one of the following:
a) Provide building construction in accordance with DS 1-20 using guidelines for yard storage and con-
sider the tanks as high-hazard occupancy.
b) Provide deluge water spray (installed in accordance with DS 4-1N) on the exposed wall at a rate of
0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) of exposed wall using the criteria in DS 1-20 to determine the extent of the
exposed wall. Include water supply duration for 2 hours and at least 500 gpm (1,900 L/min) for hose
streams.
8. Where spacing between adjacent tanks is inadequate (not in accordance with Section 2.2.2), provide del-
uge water spray (installed in accordance with DS 4-1N) on all exposed tanks at a rate of 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12
mm/min) of tank surface. Include water supply duration for 2 hours and at least 500 gpm (1,900 L/min) for
hose streams.
9. Where spacing to rail or truck load/unload stations is inadequate (i.e., not in accordance with Section 2.2.2)
provide deluge water spray (installed in accordance with DS 4-1N) for the load/unload station (vehicle and
pumps) at a rate of 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) of tank surface. Include water supply duration for 2 hours and at
least 500 gpm (1,900 L/min) for hose streams.
1
Table 12. Hose Stream Demand for TANKS Storing Flammable Liquids
Largest Tank Involved in Fire Largest Exposed Tank
Flash point of liquid gpm L/min gpm L/min
2 2
< 140°F (60°C) 10002 3,800 5002 1,900
≥ 140°F (60°C) 750 2,800 250 950
1
Required flows may be reduced by half for horizontal tanks.
2
Add 250 gpm (950 L/min) for each 100 ft (30 m) increase in tank diameter above 100 ft (30 m).
Table 13. Estimated Water Demand for Fixed Foam Protection for a full Surface Fire.
Tank Diameter Water Demand
ft m gpm L/min
50 15 200 750
100 30 800 3,000
150 45 2,000 7,500
200 60 3,200 12,100
250 75 5,000 19,000
300 90 7,100 27,000
3. Electrically bond all tank plates, internal structural members, fittings and isolated metal parts or pipe sec-
tions on tanks containing liquids with flash point less than or equal to 100°F (38°C) or liquids with higher
flash points heated to within 25°F (14°C) of their flash point to reduce the danger of internal sparks from light-
ning or charged liquid. (See Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity for further information on grounding and bond-
ing.)
4. Prohibit the discharge of liquids with flash points below or equal to 100°F (38°C) or liquids with higher
flash points heated to within 25°F (14°C) of their flash point above the liquid level in the tank (usually called
’’splash filling‘‘) as it creates the possibility of static buildup and spark discharge to grounded components.
5. Prohibit hot work, maintenance, repair, or modification in or near (see Table 14) tanks, pumps, and other
handling equipment, tank truck or railcar loading and unloading, or fume-collection systems where flam-
mable vapors could be present until the tank or system is isolated, drained, and purged or blanketed with
an inert gas. Use a hot work permit system to control the progress of such work. (See Data Sheet 10-3, Hot
Work Management.)
6. Prohibit smoking or open flames in or near (see Table 14) tanks, pumps, and other handling equipment,
tank truck or railcar loading and unloading, or fume-collection systems where flammable vapors could be
present. Provide designated safe areas for such activity.
Table 14. Safety Distances for Hot Work, Open Flames, Maintenance, Repair or Modification
Safety distances for hot work, open flames, maintenance, repair or modification*, ft (m)
Flash point = 100°F (38°C) or heated to within > 100°F (38°C)
25°F (14°C) of their flash point
Tanks outdoors 50 (15) 35 (10)
Within dikes or tank rooms Not allowed
Truck or railcar loading/unloading 75 (22.5) 35 (10)
Pumps or other handling equipment 75 (22.5) 35 (10)
* allowed after hot work permit process is completed
3.1.1 Hazards
Flammable and combustible liquids are classified by various US and international regulatory bodies for the
purposes of packaging, transportation, and handling. The various definitions can make the application of
storage standards across a broad spectrum difficult. For the most part, this document limits differentiation
by using a breakpoint of 140°F (60°C) for spacing criteria and 200°F (93°C) for protection.
Crude oil (not addressed in this standard) and other liquids containing components with a wide range of boil-
ing points, and some free water, present the additional hazards of boil-over, slop-over, or froth-over. Boil-
over is a phenomenon that may occur spontaneously during a fire in an open-top tank of crude oil that has
been burning for an extended period of time. In time, a sudden expansion of a steam-oil froth beneath the liq-
uid surface can occur, resulting in a sudden explosion of hot residual oil from the tank. Generally, four con-
ditions have to exist for a boil-over to occur:
1. The tank must contain free water or a water-oil emulsion near the tank bottom. This is a normal condi-
tion in crude-oil storage tanks as well as in some tanks storing heavier, residual oils.
2. The tank must be open-top. Experience indicates that fire in an open-top tank will result if an explosion
blows the roof off or if the pan or deck in a floating-roof tank sinks.
3. The oil must be capable of forming a heat wave of 300°F (145°C) or more. The heat wave is created
when lighter components in the liquid (e.g., pentane, hexane, etc.) distill off and burn at the liquid surface leav-
ing a residue of higher density than the liquid just below it. This residue has a temperature in excess of 300°F
(145°C) and, if it sinks at a rate substantially faster than the rate of regression of the liquid surface, the heat
wave is formed. The heat wave is created by convection (within the stored liquid) not conduction.
4. The oil must contain sufficient heavy ends to produce a persistent froth of oil and steam.
The boil-over tendencies of the oil can be evaluated by small-scale tests. While all crude oils are not sus-
ceptible to boil over, successive storages may exhibit boil-over potential. Thus, always design, install, and pro-
tect tanks storing crude oil recognizing the possibility of boil over.
Other liquids can exhibit slop-over or froth-over tendencies. Slop over occurs when a water stream is applied
to the surface of a burning viscous oil. The resultant frothing and ejection of liquid is generally much less
severe than a boil over because only the surface of the liquid is involved. It could present a hazard to fire fight-
ers. Froth over occurs when a hot viscous liquid, such as asphalt or oil, floats on a water layer in a tank.
In time, the water is superheated and erupts, ejecting liquid from the tank. Unlike boil over or slop over, there
is no fire. Froth overs have occurred with sufficient violence to blow off tank roofs and spread the tank con-
tents over a large area.
IA), under their own vapor pressure. Such tanks may be spheres, spheroids, or cylinders. In general, the
requirements applicable to atmospheric storage tanks apply to low-pressure storage tanks, with some modi-
fications in construction, venting, and spacing.
Detonation arresters are normally bidirectional; that is, they will stop a detonation front approaching from
either direction. Since it is not possible to ensure the direction of flame approach, use of unidirectional arrest-
ers usually is not appropriate.
Testing has demonstrated that a detonation arrester is likely to fail if installed in piping whose diameter
increases within a distance of 120 pipe diameters from the detonation arrester in either direction.
This data sheet, NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, and other standards specify the
requirements for installation of flame arresters on tanks. Although some FM Approved flame arresters are
equipped with flanges at both ends for short pipe-aways (Figs. 13 and 15) of the released vapors, they can-
not be used in extended piping systems. The testing organization’s listing will detail limits between the open
pipe end (to atmosphere) and the arrester. They are based on the test conditions, and additional length could
permit a deflagration flame front to increase velocity, even up to a detonation front, and result in failure of the
device to stop the flame.
Conservation vents are installed on many low pressure tanks to minimize the release of vapors during tank
idle times while permitting release of pressure or vacuum created during filling or emptying. This data sheet,
NFPA 30, and other codes accept these devices in lieu of flame arresters where vented directly to atmo-
sphere. The pressure setting (typically 3⁄4 in. water gauge [190 Pa]) and the device design create local veloci-
ties in excess of the propagation velocity of ordinary combustion flames, thus preventing flashback into the
tank. These velocities and the general construction are insufficient for stopping detonation propagation.
These are not acceptable alternatives to detonation arresters in manifolded piping systems.
Using rupture disks on elbows, or direction changes in the piping system, to provide explosion venting is
not considered effective in halting the progress of a flame front. Venting the piping in this manner will at least
temporarily relieve the pressure but may not stop the flame front, which could continue on to intercon-
nected vessels. The flame front will continue down the pipe and, if it is not vented at regular intervals (50
to 100 diameters), it could transit to detonation velocity. Other methods of explosion isolation are available.
These include fast-acting valves, rapid discharge extinguishing (blocking) systems and flame-front divert-
ers or backflash interrupters (Fig. 16). None of these devices presently are FM Approved and therefore are
not discussed in detail. There is limited information available on installation criteria and applicability limits.
All are designed to interrupt deflagrations, not detonations.
Table 16 provides a breakdown of the engineering peril associated with the 115 losses.
Of the 115 losses reported over US$100,000 gross, losses caused by leakage and contamination were the
most common. There were a total of 57 incidents with a total gross loss of US$31 million.
There were a total of 29 fires and explosions with a total gross loss of US$133 million with fires accounting
for US$118 million. Of these, improper cutting and welding was often the cause.
“Oil” was the most common liquid involved in events, but asphalt was next most common with 12 events
and a total gross loss of about US$10 million.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-57, Plastic in Construction
Data Sheet 4-7, Low Expansion Foam Systems
Data Sheet 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations
Data Sheet 5-7, National Electrical Code
Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity
Data Sheet 6-10, Process Furnaces
Data Sheet 7-14, Fire & Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, & Liquefied Flam-
mable Gas Processing Equipment & Supporting Structures
Data Sheet 7-29, Flammable Liquid Storage in Portable Containers
Data Sheet 7-30, Solvent Extraction Plants
Data Sheet 7-32, Flammable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-43/17-2, Loss Prevention in Chemical Plants
Data Sheet 7-51, Acetylene
Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels, and Equipment
Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
Data Sheet 7-83, Drainage Systems for Flammable Liquids
4.2 NFPA
NFPA 11, Standard for Low, Medium and High Expansion Foam (2005)
NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (2003)
In section 4.4.2, reference is made to testing criteria for the integrity of secondary containment tanks. Below
is that reference:
4.4.2.3 Underground secondary containment tanks and horizontal aboveground secondary containment
tanks shall have the primary (inner) tank tested for tightness either hydrostatically or with air pressure at
not less than a gauge pressure of 20 kPa (3 psig) and not more than a gauge pressure of 35 kPa (5 psig).
The interstitial space (annulus) of such tanks shall be tested either hydrostatically or with air pressure at
a gauge pressure of 20 to 35 kPa (3 to 5 psig), by vacuum at 18 kPa (5.3 in. Hg), or in accordance with
the tank’s listing or manufacturer’s instructions. The pressure or vacuum shall be held for not less than 1
hour or for the duration specified in the listing procedures for the tank. Care shall be taken to ensure that
the interstitial space is not over pressured or subjected to excessive vacuum.
4.4.2.4 Vertical aboveground secondary containment–type tanks shall have their primary (inner) tank
tested for tightness either hydrostatically or with air pressure at not less than a gauge pressure of 10 kPa
(1.5 psig) and not more than a gauge pressure of 17 kPa (2.5 psig). The interstitial space (annulus) of
such tanks shall be tested either hydrostatically or with air pressure at a gauge pressure of 10 to 17 kPa
(1.5 to 2.5 psig), by vacuum at 18 kPa (5.3 in. Hg), or in accordance with the tank’s listing or manufac-
turer’s instructions. The pressure or vacuum shall be held for 1 hour without evidence of leaks. Care shall
be taken to ensure that the interstitial space is not over pressured or subjected to excessive vacuum.
NFPA 70, National Electric Code
4.3 Others
American Petroleum Institute, API 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage
Tanks, Tenth Edition, 2002
(American Petroleum Institute, API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, Tenth Edition, 1998)
American Petroleum Institute, API 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, Fifth edi-
tion, 1998
American Petroleum Institute, ANSI/API 2610, Design, Construction, Operation, Maintenance, and Installa-
tion of Terminal and Tank Facilities, Second edition, 2005
American Petroleum Institute, ANSI/API 651, Cathodic Protection of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Tanks,
Second edition, 1997
American Petroleum Institute, API Standard 2015, Requirements for Safe Entry and Cleaning Petroleum Stor-
age Tanks
American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice 2016, Guidelines and Procedures for Entering
and Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks
American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice 2023, Guide for Safe Storage & Handling of
Heated Petroleum Derived Asphalt Products & Crude Oil Residua
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Boiler and Pressure Code, Section VIII, Unfired Pres-
sure Vessels, latest edition
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), B31.3, Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping,
latest edition
ASTM International, ASTM D4206, Standard Test Method for Sustained Burning of Liquid Mixtures Using
the Small Scale Open-Cup Apparatus, 2001
Code of Federal Regulations, 33 CFR, Part 154, Appendix A, Guidelines for Detonation Flame Arresters
Code of Federal Regulations, 49 CFR, Chapter I, Subchapter C, Parts 171 – 180 Department of Transpor-
tation, Hazardous Materials Regulations
International Standards Organization, ISO 2592, Determination of flash and fire points — Cleveland open
cup method, 2000
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, NACE RP-0169, Control of External Corrosion on Under-
ground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, NACE RP-0285, Corrosion Control of Underground Storage
Tanks System by Cathodic Protection
Flammable Liquid: Any liquid rated as NFPA Class I, II or III or DOT/UN Class 3.
FM Approved: References to ‘‘FM Approved’’ in this data sheet mean the product or service has satisfied
the criteria for FM Approval. Refer to the Approval Guide, a publication of FM Approvals, for a complete list-
ing of products and services that are FM Approved.
Intermediate Bulk Container (IBC): Any container that has a volumetric capacity of not more than 793 gal-
lons (3,000 L) and not less than 119 gallons (450 L) as defined and regulated by the U.S. Department of
Transportation in CFR Title 49, Part 178, subpart N, and the United Nations Recommendations on the Trans-
port of Dangerous Goods, chapter 6.5.
IBCs can be constructed of metal, plastic or a metal-plastic composite. In the UN and US DOT regulations,
metal IBCs are designated 31A, 31B, and 31N (for liquids, and the letter code is for steel, aluminum, and
other metals, respectively.), rigid plastic are designated by the codes 31H1, 31H2, and composite are 31HZ1,
31HZ2.
Listed: Equipment or materials included in a list published by an organization that maintains periodic inspec-
tion of production of listed equipment or materials and whose listing states that either the equipment or mate-
rial meets appropriate designated standards or has been tested and found suitable for a specified purpose.
Stable liquid: Any liquid not defined as unstable.
Tank
Aboveground tank: A tank that is installed above grade, at grade, or below grade without backfill.
Atmospheric tank: A storage tank that has been designed to operate at pressures from atmospheric through
a gauge pressure of 1.0 psig (6.9 kPa) measured at the top of the tank.
Double-skinned tank: See Secondary Containment Tank, a term used in European Union (EN) standards.
Floating roof tank: An atmospheric tank intended for storage of high vapor pressure liquids such as crude
oil and gasoline with vapor pressure exceeding 15 psig (103 kPa or 1 bar gauge) with a roof floating on the
liquid surface. (Floating roof tanks are not covered by this standard.) Design according to the criteria in API
650, Appendix C or H, or other recognized equivalent standard.
External floating roof: A roof that sits directly on the liquid surface, usually on pontoons with a seal
attached to the roof perimeter to cover the annular space between the roof and the shell. Design crite-
ria are in API 650, Appendix C. This type has inherent buoyancy and are difficult, though not impos-
sible, to sink.
Internal floating roof: A roof similar to the external floater but with a fixed roof above, intended for weather
protection or quality assurance. The internal floater is often a simple pan or plastic membrane floating
directly on the liquid surface with little or no inherent buoyancy and is subject to sinking. Design criteria
are in API 650, Appendix H. Pontoon type roofs similar or identical to external floaters are possible but not
common. Unless the internal floater has the inherent buoyancy of a pontoon type, treat the tank as a
cone roof tank.
Low-pressure tank: A storage tank designed to withstand an internal pressure of more than 1 psig (6.9
kPa) but not more than 15 psig (103 kPa or 1 bar gauge) measured at the top of the tank.
Portable tank: Any closed vessel having a liquid capacity over 60 gal (230 L) and not intended for fixed instal-
lation. This includes intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) as defined and regulated by the U.S. Department
of Transportation in CFR Title 49, Part 178, subpart N, and the United Nations Recommendations on the
Transport of Dangerous Goods, chapter 6.5.
Protected aboveground tank: An aboveground storage tank that is listed in accordance with UL 2085, Stan-
dard for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids, or an equivalent test pro-
cedure that consists of a primary tank provided with protection from physical damage and fire-resistive
protection from exposure to a high-intensity liquid pool fire.
Secondary containment tank: A tank that has an inner and outer wall with an interstitial space (annulus)
between the walls and that has a means for monitoring the interstitial space for a leak.
Storage tank: Any vessel having a liquid capacity that exceeds 60 gal (230 L), is intended for fixed installa-
tion, and is not used for processing.
United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods: Model Regulations directed
at providing safe packaging criteria but only related to the transport of all types of dangerous solids, liq-
uids, and gases. Hazard class 3 addresses flammable liquids.
Unstable liquid: A liquid that, in the pure state or as commercially produced or transported, will vigorously
polymerize, decompose, undergo condensation reaction, or become self-reactive under conditions of shock,
pressure, or temperature. A liquid with an NFPA instability hazard rating of 2 or greater in accordance with
NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response.
Vent, normal: Pressure relief opening on a tank to permit the intake and discharge of air during emptying
and filling operations and to permit expansion and contraction of vapor due to temperature changes. Some-
times called breather vent.
Vent, emergency relief: Pressure relief opening on a tank to prevent overpressurizing the tank in the event
of fire exposure.
Weak seam roof (weak shell-to-roof joint construction): The attachment of the roof to the shell forms a
frangible joint that, in the case of excessive internal pressure, will rupture before rupture occurs in the tank
shell joints or the shell-to-bottom joint. Design criteria can be found in UL 142 or API 650.
• Moved information on carbon disulfide to Data Sheet 7-23N, Hazardous Chemical Data.
September 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
October 1994. Added information on manifold vents in systems, and detonation arrestors.
July 1976. Miscellaneous revisions and updating.
May 1971. Miscellaneous revisions and updating.
November 1967. Updated and consolidated material from handbook.
1959. original guideline in Factory Mutual handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention.
Table 17a. Relationship Between Fuel Volume, Pool Size, and Fire Duration (English)
Liquid Volume, Spill Area, ft2 for Spill Depth (in.) for Liquid Pools of Fire Duration (min) For Liquid Pools
gal 1⁄16 in depth Defined Area of Defined Area
1000 ft2 2000 ft2 1000 ft2 2000 ft2
100 2600 0.2 0.1 1.1 0.6
200 5100 0.3 0.2 2.3 1.1
300 770 0.5 0.2 3.4 1.7
400 10300 0.6 0.3 4.5 2.3
500 12800 0.8 0.4 5.6 2.8
600 15400 1.0 0.5 6.7 3.4
700 18000 1.1 0.6 7.9 3.9
800 20500 1.3 0.6 9.0 4.5
900 23100 1.4 0.7 10.1 5.0
1000 25700 1.6 0.8 11.2 5.6
Table 17b. Relationship Between Fuel Volume, Pool Size, and Fire Duration (metric)
Liquid Volume, Spill Area, m2 for Spill Depth (mm) for Liquid Pools of Fire Duration (min) For Liquid Pools
liters 1.5 mm depth Defined Area of Defined Area
93 m2 190 m2 93 m2 190 m2
380 240 5 3 1.1 0.6
760 480 8 5 2.3 1.1
1,100 720 13 5 3.4 1.7
1500 950 15 8 4.5 2.3
1900 1200 20 10 5.6 2.8
2300 1400 24 13 6.7 3.4
2600 1700 29 15 7.9 3.9
3000 1900 33 15 9.0 4.5
3400 2100 37 18 10.1 5.0
3800 2400 41 20 11.2 5.6
Continuous Spills
Depending on the spill rate, a flammable liquid may be fully consumed before it reaches the floor or it will cre-
ate a burning pool on the floor. The pool diameter is controlled by the rate at which the liquid is being con-
sumed in the fire and the rate at which it is being released. The pool diameter will stop growing when these
two rates are equal. Table 18 below provides some expected pool sizes, heat release rates, and flame heights
for various flow rates of kerosene. Diesel fuel will produce similar results. Since even small spill rates will pro-
duce sizable fires, the key issue in deciding if building steel will be damaged is the fire duration. The dura-
tion of this type of fire is controlled by the volume of fuel available to be spilled and the rate at which it is spilled.
The spill fire duration can be calculated as follows:
Fire Duration = (Volume of Fuel) / (Spill Rate)
Table 18a. Flow Rate, Pool Diameter, Heat Release Rate, and Flame Height for a Flowing Kerosene Fire (English)
Flow Rate Pool Diameter Pool Area Heat Release Rate Flame Height
(gpm) (ft) (ft2) (MW) (ft)
1 3 9 2 13
2 5 17 4 16
3 6 26 6 19
4 7 34 8 21
5 7 43 10 23
10 10 86 20 30
15 13 128 30 34
20 15 171 40 38
25 17 214 50 41
Table 18b. Flow Rate, Pool Diameter, Heat Release Rate, and Flame Height for a Flowing Kerosene Fire (Metric)
Flow Rate Pool Diameter Pool Area Heat Release Rate Flame Height
(l/min) (m) (m2) (MW) (m)
3.8 1.0 1 2 3.9
7.6 1.4 2 4 5.0
11.4 1.7 2 6 5.8
15.2 2.0 3 8 6.5
19.0 2.2 4 10 7.0
38.0 3.2 8 20 9.1
57.0 3.9 12 30 10.5
76.0 4.5 16 40 11.7
95.0 5.0 20 50 12.6
APPENDIX D HAZARDS
The National Fire Protection Association and various US federal and state regulations use the following liq-
uid classifications:
1. Flammable liquids are defined as liquids having closed cup flash points below 100°F (38°C) and vapor
pressures not exceeding 40 psia (276 kPa) at 100°F (38°C). Flammable liquids are referred to as Class I liq-
uids, and are subdivided as follows:
a) Class IA liquids are those having flash points below 73°F (23°C) and boiling points below 100°F (38°C).
b) Class IB liquids are those having flash points below 73°F (23°C) and boiling points at or above 100°F
(38°C).
c) Class IC liquids are those having flash points at or above 73°F (23°C) and below 100°F (38°C).
2. Combustible liquids are defined as liquids having closed cup flash points at or above 100°F (38°C). Com-
bustible liquids are referred to as either Class II or Class III liquids and are subdivided as follows:
a) Class II liquids are those having flash points at or above 100°F (38°C) and below 140°F (60°C).
b) Class IIIA liquids are those having flash points at or above 140°F (60°C) and below 200°F (93°C).
c) Class IIIB liquids are those having flash points at or above 200°F (93°C).
The U.N. Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods has only defined flammable liquids (haz-
ard class 3) as follows:
Flammable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or liquids containing solids in solution or suspension
(for example, paints, varnishes, lacquers, etc., but not including substances otherwise classified on account
of their dangerous characteristics) which give off a flammable vapor at temperatures of not more than 60.5°C
(141°F), closed-cup test, or not more than 65.6°C (150°F), open-cup test, normally referred to as the flash
point. This class also includes:
(a) Liquids offered for transport at temperatures at or above their flash point; and
(b) Substances that are transported or offered for transport at elevated temperatures in a liquid state and
which give off a flammable vapor at a temperature at or below the maximum transport temperature.
Liquids meeting the above definition, with a flash point of more than 35°C (95°F) which do not sustain com-
bustion need not be considered as flammable liquids for the purposes of these Regulations. Liquids are con-
sidered to be unable to sustain combustion for the purposes of these Regulations (i.e., they do not sustain
combustion under defined test conditions) if:
(a) They have passed a suitable combustibility test (see SUSTAINED COMBUSTIBILITY TEST pre-
scribed in the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria);
(b) Their fire point according to ISO 2592 — 2000 is greater than 100°C (212°F) or
(c) They are water miscible solutions with a water content of more than 90% by mass.
The UN system applies to materials in transport.
The current U.S. Department of Transportation Code 49CFR 171 defines hazard class 3 slightly more broadly,
as follows:
(a) Flammable liquid. For the purpose of this subchapter, a flammable liquid (Class 3) means a liquid hav-
ing a flash point of not more than 60.5°C (141°F), or any material in a liquid phase with a flash point at
or above 37.8°C (100°F) that is intentionally heated and offered for transportation or transported at or
above its flash point in a bulk packaging, with the following exceptions:
(1) Any liquid meeting one of the definitions specified in § 173.115 Class 2, Divisions 2.1 (flammable
gas), 2.2 (non-flammable, nonpoisonous compressed gas—including compressed gas, liquefied gas,
pressurized cryogenic gas, compressed gas in solution, asphyxiant gas and oxidizing gas), and 2.3
(gas poisonous by inhalation).
(2) Any mixture having one or more components with a flash point of 60.5°C (141°F) or higher, that
make up at least 99 percent of the total volume of the mixture, if the mixture is not offered for trans-
portation or transported at or above its flash point.
(3) Any liquid with a flash point greater than 35°C (95°F) that does not sustain combustion according
to ASTM D 4206 or the procedure in appendix H of this part.
(4) Any liquid with a flash point greater than 35°C (95°F) and with a fire point greater than 100°C (212°F)
according to ISO 2592.
(5) Any liquid with a flash point greater than 35°C (95°F), which is in a water-miscible solution with a
water content of more than 90 percent by mass.
(b) Combustible liquid.
(1) For the purpose of this subchapter, a combustible liquid means any liquid that does not meet the defi-
nition of any other hazard class specified in this subchapter and has a flash point above 60.5°C (141°F)
and below 93°C (200°F).
(2) A flammable liquid with a flash point at or above 38°C (100°F) that does not meet the definition
of any other hazard class may be reclassed as a combustible liquid. This provision does not apply to
transportation by vessel or aircraft, except where other means of transportation is impracticable. An
elevated temperature material that meets the definition of a Class 3 material because it is intention-
ally heated and offered for transportation or transported at or above its flash point may not be reclassed
as a combustible liquid.
(3) A combustible liquid that does not sustain combustion is not subject to the requirements of this sub-
chapter as a combustible liquid. Either the test method specified in ASTM D 4206 or the procedure
in appendix H of this part may be used to determine if a material sustains combustion when heated
under test conditions and exposed to an external source of flame.
The DOT system applies to materials in transport.
Finally, the European Union (EU) has the Classification, Packaging, Labeling and Notification of Danger-
ous Substances Regulations S.I. 116, 2003 with the following liquid flammability definitions:
Extremely flammable – liquid substances and preparations which have a flash point lower than 0°C (32°F)
and a boiling point (or in case of a boiling range the initial boiling point) lower than or equal to 35°C (95°F).
Highly flammable – liquid substances and preparations having a flash point below 21°C (70°F) but which
are not extremely flammable.
Flammable – liquid substances and preparations having a flash point equal to or greater than 21°C (70°F),
and less than or equal to 55°C (131°F).
This system covers only identification methods for these substances. Other regulations would apply to stor-
age or transport.