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Index
1. ELECTRICITY GENERATION &
ELECTRICITY

2. DISTRIBUTION

3. FUEL CELL

4. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

5. SOLAR ENERGY AND USING

IT AT GENERATE ELECTRICITY

6. WIND ENERGY

7. NUCLEAR POWER
 (1)Electricity
Generation &
Electricity Distribution
Index
1. Electric power
2. Electricity generation
3. Methods of generating
electricity
4. Conventional method of power
generation
5. NON- Conventional method of
power generation
6. Electricity distribution
Electric power
Is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit
When electric current flows in a circuit, it can transfer energy to do mechanical or thermodynamic
work. Devices convert electrical energy into many useful forms, such as
1. heat (electric heaters),
2. light (light bulbs),
3. motion (electric motors),
4. sound (loudspeaker)
5. chemical changes.
Electricity can be produced mechanically by generation, or chemically, or by direct conversion from
light in photovoltaic cells, also it can be stored chemically in batteries.
Electricity generation
 Is the process of creating electricity from other forms of energy.
 Electricity is most often generated at a power station by
1. electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fuelled by chemical
combustion or nuclear fission
2. also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind.
3. There are many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such
as solar photovoltaic’s and geothermal power.
Methods of generating electricity
• Conventional method of power generation
1. Steam TURBINE
2. Water (hydroelectric) TURBINE

• NON- Conventional method of power generation

1. Nuclear transformation
2. Wind
3. SOLAR CELL
4. Geothermal power
5. Fuel cell
Conventional method of power generation
 Steam TURBINE
Water is boiled by:
the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural
gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas
turbine),

Water (hydroelectric) TURBINE

A hydro power station uses potential energy of water at high level for generating electrical
NON- Conventional method of power generation

 Nuclear transformation

The creation and acceleration of charged particles

(examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

 Wind Most

wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind

 SOLAR CELL

the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels

convert sunlight directly to electricity.

 Geothermal power

Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and

drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid
to create vapour to drive a turbine

 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel

(hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, gasoline, etc.) and an oxidant (air
or oxygen) into electricity

Electricity distribution

 is the final stage in the delivery of electricity to end users.

 . A distribution system's network carries electricity from the transmission system and
delivers it to consumers. Typically, the network would include medium-voltage (less than
50  kV) power lines, electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage
(less than 1  kV) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters.
 (2)FUEL CELL
INDEX
1. What is fuel cell?
2. Components of fuel cell
3. Different between battery and
fuel cell
4. How do fuel cells work?
5. Fuel Reformers
6. Different types of fuel cells.
7. APPLICATIONS
8. Why can’t buy a fuel cell?
9. Fuel Cells vs. Traditional
Electricity Methods
 10. Why use fuel cells?

Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (hydrogen, natural gas,
methanol, gasoline, etc.) and an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity. In principle, a fuel
cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery however, a fuel cell does not run down or
require recharging. It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel and an oxidizer are
supplied.
Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called,
respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take
place at the electrodes. Also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged
particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions
at the electrodes.
How do fuel cells work?
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and
an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton passes through the
electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that can be utilized before they return
to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.
Anode Reaction: 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode Reaction: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O
Overall Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel
- from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not
combustion, emissions from this type of a system would still be much smaller than emissions from
the cleanest fuel combustion processes.
One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct current (DC)
electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a stack.
Fuel Reformers
Low-temperature fuel cells operate on hydrogen as the fuel. At the present time, there are no readily
available sources of hydrogen with widespread delivery infrastructure. There are two major
approaches to solving this issue. In the shorter term, use of fossil fuels to generate the hydrogen is
required.
The transformation of fossil fuels to hydrogen is generally called fuel reforming. Steam reforming is
one example in which steam is mixed with the fossil fuel at temperatures around 760ºC. The chemical
formula of this reforming reaction for natural gas composed primarily of methane (CH 4) is:
CH4 + 2 H2O => CO2 + 4 H2
In the high-temperature fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC), CO in the fuel stream acts as a fuel. However,
it is likely that the water-gas shift reaction is occurring and the fuel for the actual fuel cell is actually
hydrogen.
CO+ H2O => CO2 + H2
Different types of fuel cells.
Phosphoric Acid
Proton Exchange Membrane
Molten Carbonate
Solid Oxide
Alkaline
Direct Methanol
Regenerative
Zinc Air
Protonic Ceramic
Microbial Fuel Cell
Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC)
Fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80
percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C (about 300 to 400
degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units
have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be
removed.
Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEM)
(PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin, permeable sheet.
Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and operating temperature is about 80 degrees C
(about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible
electrolyte will not leak or crack and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to
make them suitable for homes and cars.

Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)

Fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates
(chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is about 650 degrees C (1,200 degrees F). Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW)
have been constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100 MW. The high temperature limits
damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and waste heat can be recycled to make
additional electricity
Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
Fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic compound of metal
(like calcium or zirconium) oxides (chemically, O 2) as
electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60 percent, and operating
temperatures are about 1,000 degrees C (about 1,800
degrees F). Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high
temperatures a reformer is not required to extract
hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled
to make additional electricity. However, the high
temperature limits applications of SOFC units and they
tend to be rather large. While solid electrolytes cannot
leak, they can crack.

Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)

Fuel cells operate on compressed hydrogen and
oxygen. They generally use a solution of potassium
hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water as their
electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70 percent, and
operating temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C,
(about 300 to 400 degrees F). Cell output ranges from
300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were
used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity
and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel,
however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are
expensive. And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.
APPLICATIONS
There are many uses for fuel cells — right now, all of the major automakers are working to
commercialize a fuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts,
even bicycles. There are fuel cell-powered vending machines, vacuum cleaners and highway road
signs. Miniature fuel cells for cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are on their
way to market. Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and banks are all using fuel cells to
provide power to their facilities.
Stationary
More than 2500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the
world — in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings,
schools, utility power plants - either connected to the electric grid
to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical
areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site
service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines.
Telecommunications
With the use of computers, the Internet, and communication networks steadily
increasing, there comes a need for more reliable power than is available on the
current electrical grid, and fuel cells have proven to be up to 99.999% (five
nines) reliable.  Fuel cells can replace batteries to provide power for 1kW to
5kW telecom sites without noise or emissions, and are durable, providing power
in sites that are either hard to access or are subject to inclement weather.
Transportation
Cars - all the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel
cell vehicle either in development or in testing right now and
several have begun leasing and testing in larger quantities.
Commercialization is a little further down the line (some
automakers say 2012, others later), but every demonstration
helps bring that date closer.
Buses - Over the last four years, more than 50 fuel cell
buses have been demonstrated in North and South America,
Europe, Asia and Australia. Fuel cells are highly efficient, so
even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, fuel cell
buses can reduce transit agencies’ CO2 emissions.
Scooters
Forklifts/Materials Handling
Trains
Planes
Boats
Portable Power
Fuel cells can provide power where no electric grid is available, plus
they are quiet, so using one instead of a loud, polluting generator at
a campsite would not only save emissions, but it won't disturb
nature, or your camping neighbors. Portable fuel cells are also being
used in emergency backup power situations and military
applications.
Micro Power
Consumer Electronics- Fuel cells will change the telecommuting
world, powering cellular phones, laptops and palm pilots hours
longer than batteries. Companies have already demonstrated fuel cells that
can power cell phones for 30 days without recharging and laptops for 20
hours. Other applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video
recorders, portable power tools, and low power remote devices such as
hearing aids, smoke detectors, burglar alarms, hotel locks and meter
readers.
Why can’t buy a fuel cell?
The basic workings of a fuel cell may not be difficult to illustrate. But building inexpensive,
efficient, reliable fuel cells is a far more complicated business.
Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to the others, and none is
yet cheap and efficient enough to widely replace traditional ways of generating power, such
coal-fired, hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.
Fuel Cells vs. Traditional Electricity Methods
In traditional methods of generating electricity, the fuel and air are burned, generating a
high-temperature gas. In the case of a coal-burning power plant, heat is transferred from
this hot gas to high pressure liquid water that is boiled. In the case of a gasoline, diesel or
gas turbine engine, the hot gas itself is at high pressure. The high-pressure steam, or hot
gas, is expanded in a mechanical device (e.g., cylinder, turbine) and ultimately turns an
electrical generator.
In a fuel cell, the same basic chemical reactions occur, but generate electricity directly as an
electrochemical device and therefore, never go through the step of being a high-
temperature gas through normal burning. This direct conversion of chemical energy to
electrical energy is more efficient and generates much less pollutants than do traditional
methods that rely on combustion.
Why use fuel cells?
No global warming gases
When hydrogen is obtained from renewable energy sources, no global warming gases are
emitted.
Clean, quiet operation
The only emission from hydrogen fuel cells powered by renewable energy is pure water.
Fuel cells can generate electricity quietly and efficiently on the site where it is needed.
Security of supply
When energy conversion technologies such as hydrogen fuel cell systems are made
available, countries around the world will be able to tap into their own virtually unlimited
renewable energy resources.
Economic considerations
One of the main causes of third world deficits is the cost of importing fossil fuels. Hydrogen
can be obtained from using the indigenous resources of sun, wind, wave, waste, biomass or
tidal power. A hydrogen fuel cell system is of modular construction so it can be set up and
added to as required.
(3)Geothermal Energy
Index
1. Geothermal Energy
2. Geothermal Energy Is
Generated Deep Inside the Earth
3. The Earth has a number of
different layers
4. Where Geothermal Energy is
Found
5. Use of Geothermal Energy
6. Electricity from geothermal
7. The Advantages of Geothermal
Energy
Geothermal Energy
 The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and
therme (heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the Earth.
We can recover this heat as steam or hot water and use it to heat
buildings or generate electricity.
 Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is
continuously produced inside the Earth.

Geothermal Energy Is Generated Deep Inside the Earth

Geothermal energy is generated in the Earth's core. Temperatures hotter
than the sun's surface are continuously produced inside the Earth by the
slow decay of radioactive particles, a process that happens in all rocks

The Earth has a number of different layers:

1. Inner Core
The inner core is solid with a radius of about 1,220 km and consists of about
80% Iron and 5% to 10% Nickel, with a temperature of up to about 7,200°K
2. Outer Core
The outer core, also mainly Iron and Nickel, is in a liquid state and is about
2,260 km thick. Melted rock is also called Magma
3. The mantle
The mantle surrounds the core and is about 1,800 miles thick. It is made up
of magma and rock.
4. The crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, the land that forms the
continents and ocean floors. It can be 3 to 5 miles thick under the oceans and
15 to 35 miles thick on the continents
Where Geothermal Energy is Found
Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called
geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground
with no visible clues showing above ground. But geothermal energy
sometimes finds its way to the surface in the form of
Use of Geothermal Energy
 Some applications of geothermal energy use the Earth's
temperatures near the surface, while others require drilling miles
into the Earth.
1. Direct use and district heating systems
2. Electricity generation power plants
3. Geothermal Heat Pumps
Direct use and district heating systems
use hot water from springs or reservoirs near the surface.
Electricity generation power plants
plants require water or steam at very high temperature (300° to 700°F).
Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs
are located within a mile or two of the surface.
Types of Geothermal Plants
There are three basic types of geothermal power plants
1. Dry steam plants
2. Flash steam plants
3. Binary cycle power plants

1) Dry steam plants

use steam piped directly from a geothermal reservoir to
turn the generator turbines. The first geothermal power
plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy, where natural
steam erupted from the Earth.
2) Flash steam plants
take high-pressure hot water from deep inside the Earth
and convert it to steam to drive the generator turbines.
When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected
back into the ground to be used over and over again. Most
geothermal power plants are flash steam plants.
3) Binary cycle power plants
transfer the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The
heat causes the second liquid to turn to steam which is used to
drive a generator turbine

Geothermal Heat Pumps

 Using the Earth's Constant Temperatures for Heating and Cooling
While temperatures above ground change a lot from day to day and season
to season, temperatures 10 feet
below the Earth's surface hold
nearly constant between 50° and
60°F. For most areas, this means
that soil temperatures are usually
warmer than the air in winter and
cooler than the air in summer.
Geothermal heat pumps use the
Earth's constant temperatures to
heat and cool buildings. They
transfer heat from the ground (or water) into buildings in winter and
reverse the process in the summer.
Electricity from geothermal
Twenty-four countries generated a total of 56,786 GW-hours (GWh) (204 PJ
of electricity from geothermal power in 2005, accounting for 0.3% of
worldwide electricity consumption. Output is growing by 3% annually,
because of a growing number of plants and improvements in their capacity
factors. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of
energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite
large – up to 90% has been demonstrated
The global capacity was 10 GW in 2007.
The Advantages of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal energy does not create any pollution because it is the earth’s energy
that is used.
2. Geothermal energy is also very efficient, because after a site is located and a
geothermal power plant is built, the efforts required to channel it are negligible.
3. Moreover, there is no necessity of geothermal power plants to be as large in sized as
atomic power plants, huge dams, and electrical plants, thus there is less impact on
the environment.
4. Plus, it is an alternative source of energy, which means that by using it we get less
dependent on coal and oil.
5. Perhaps the most important advantage of geothermal energy is that, unlike energy
derived from carbon-based sources, geothermal energy will never run out. And
because it is ubiquitous, its cost will never continue to rise with time. Hence, after
the costs of the investigation to seek out the source and building the power plant are
recouped, in the end, geothermal energy will be very cheap.
(4)SOLAR ENERGY AND USING
IT AT GENERATE ELECTRICITY

Index

1. Solar Basics
Energy from the Sun
2. Where Solar is Found
3. DRAWBACKS OF SOLAR
ENERGY ARE
4. Where we can use solar
energy
Solar Basics
Energy from the Sun
 The sun has produced energy for billions of years.  Solar energy is the
sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the Earth. This energy can be
converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.
DRAWBACKS OF SOLAR ENERGY ARE:
 The amount of sunlight that arrives at the Earth's surface is not
constant. It depends on location, time of day, time of year, and
weather conditions.
 Because the sun doesn't deliver that much energy to any one place at
any one time, a large surface area is required to collect the energy at a
useful rate.
Where we can use solar energy
 Solar Energy Can Be Used for
1. Heat
2. Electricity
When converted to thermal (or heat) energy, solar energy can be used to:
1. Heat water — for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools
2. Heat spaces — inside homes, greenhouses, and other buildings
Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:
1. Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells”
2. Solar Thermal Power Plants
Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells”
1. What is pv cells ?
2. How it work?
3. How Photovoltaic Systems Operate
4. What are the components of PV system?
5. Weather Affects Photovoltaic
6. How much will a photovoltaic solar cell system cost upfront?
7. Applications of Photovoltaic Systems
8. Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are
9. DRAWBACKS FOR PV
Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells”
 Photovoltaic Cells Convert Sunlight into Electricity
 A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the
technology used to convert solar energy directly into electrical power.
A photovoltaic cell is a no mechanical device usually made from silicon
alloys.
How it work?
Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy.  These
photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right
through, or be absorbed.  Only the absorbed photons provide energy to
generate electricity.  When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the
material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's
atoms.  Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing
makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the
electrons naturally migrate to the surface. 
When the electrons leave their
position, holes are formed.  When
many electrons, each carrying a
negative charge, travel toward the
front surface of the cell, the resulting
imbalance of charge between the
cell's front and back surfaces creates
a voltage potential like the negative
and positive terminals of a battery. 
When the two surfaces are connected
through an external load, such as an
appliance, electricity flows.

How Photovoltaic Systems Operate

 The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic
system. Individual cells can vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about
4 inches across.  However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which
isn't enough power for most applications.
 To increase power output, cells are electrically
connected into a packaged weather-tight
module.  Modules can be further connected to
form an array.  The term array refers to the
entire generating plant, whether it is made up
of one or several thousand modules.  The
number of modules connected together in an
array depends on the amount of power output
needed.
What are the components of PV system?
1. Photovoltaic cell -- Thin squares, discs, or films of semiconductor material that
generate voltage and current when exposed to sunlight.
2. Module -- Photovoltaic cells wired together and laminated between a clear
superstreet (glazing) and encapsulating
substrate
3. Array -- One or more modules with
mounting hardware and wired together at
specific voltage.
4. Charge Controller -- Power-conditioning
equipment to regulate battery voltage.
5. Battery storage -- A medium that stores
direct current (DC) electrical energy.
6. Inverter -- An electrical device that changes direct current to alternating current
(AC) to operate loads that require alternating current.
7. DC Loads -- Appliances, motors and equipment powered by direct current.
8. AC Loads --Appliances, motors and equipment powered by alternating current.
Weather Affects Photovoltaic’s
 The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. 
Climate conditions (such as clouds or fog) have a significant effect on
the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic array and, in
turn, its performance.  Most modern modules are about 10% efficient
in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise this
efficiency to 20%.
How much will a photovoltaic solar cell system cost upfront?
 When solar manufacturers and installers talk about costs, they usually
speak in terms of dollars per installed watt. Residential PV systems are
normally $8 - 11 per watt. Using this approximate calculation of
installed costs results in a total installed cost range from $5,500 to
$22,500 for 0.5kW - 3kW residential PV systems.
Commercial Applications of Photovoltaic Systems
 The success of PV in outer space first generated commercial
applications for this technology.  The simplest photovoltaic systems
power many of the small calculators and wrist watches used every
day.  More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water,
power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our
homes.
Applications of Photovoltaic Systems
 Power stations
 In buildings
 In transport
 Standalone devices
 Rural electrification
Power stations

In buildings
 Building-integrated photovoltaic's (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated
into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary
source of electrical power, and are one of the fastest growing
segments of the photovoltaic industry.
 Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or
walls of a building, and roof tiles with integrated PV
cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be
retrofitted into existing buildings; in this case they
are usually fitted on top of the existing roof
structure. Alternatively, an array can be located
separately from the building but connected by cable
to supply power for the building.
In transport
 PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV is rarely
used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being
used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. Recent
advances in solar race cars, however, have produced cars that with
little changes could be used for transportation
Standalone devices
 Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators
and novelty devices. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices
have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant
connection cost makes grid power prohibitively expensive. Such
applications include parking meters, emergency telephones, temporary
traffic signs, and remote guard posts & signals.
Rural electrification
 Developing countries where many villages are often more than five
kilometers away from grid power have begun using photovoltaics. In
remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing
solar powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps.
Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are:
1. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky
mechanical generator systems are unnecessary.
2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size.
3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system
cooling and generating no by-products.
DRAWBACKS FOR PV
 Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC), which is
generally used for small loads (electronic equipment).  When DC from
photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or sold to electric
utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating
current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power
to AC. 
(5) Wind Energy
Index
1. Wind Basics
2. The Daily Wind Cycle
3. WIND IN EARTH
4. Where Wind is harnessed
5. Wind Energy for
Electricity Generation
6. Electricity Generation
from Wind
7. International Wind Power
8. Advantages
9. Disadvantages
Wind Basics
 Energy from Moving Air
 Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the
Earth's surface by the sun. Because the Earth's surface is made of very
different types of land and Water, it absorbs the sun's heat at different
rates.
The Daily Wind Cycle
 During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the
air over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the
heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its
place, creating wind. At night, the
winds are reversed because the air
cools more rapidly over land than over
water.
WIND IN EARTH
 In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth are
created because the land near the Earth's equator is heated more by
the sun than the land near the North and South Poles.
Where Wind is harnessed
 wind speed increases with altitude and over open areas that have no
windbreaks. Good sites for wind plants are the tops of smooth,
rounded hills, open plains or shorelines, and mountain gaps that
produce wind funneling.
Wind Energy for Electricity Generation
 Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is a
renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun
shines.
Electricity Generation from Wind
 How Wind Turbines Work
 Types of Wind Turbines
 Inside the Wind Turbine
 Wind Power Plants Require Careful Planning
 Wind Power Plants Produce Electricity
 The size of wind turbine
How Wind Turbines Work
 Like old fashioned windmills, today’s wind machines (also called wind
turbines) use blades to collect the wind’s kinetic energy. The wind flows
over the blades creating lift, like the effect on airplane wings, which
 causes them to turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns
an electric generator to produce electricity.
 Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At
100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of
faster and less turbulent wind.
 Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or
building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid for more
widespread electricity distribution.
Types of Wind Turbines
 There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today, based on
the direction of the rotating shaft (axis):
 horizontal-axis wind machines
 vertical-axis wind machines
Horizontal-axis Turbines
 Most wind machines being used today are
the horizontal-axis type. Horizontal-axis
wind machines have blades like airplane
propellers. A typical horizontal wind
machine stands as tall as a 20-story
building and has three blades that span 200
feet across. The largest wind machines in the world have blades longer
than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and wide to capture more
wind.
Inside the Wind Turbine
 Anemometer:
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
 Blades:
Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind
blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift"
and rotate.
 Brake:
A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically,
electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in
emergencies.
 Controller:
The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds
of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off
the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not
operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because they might be
damaged by the high winds.
 Gear box:
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about
1000 to 1800 rpm
 Generator:
Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC
electricity.
 High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
 Low-speed shaft:
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
 Nacelle:
The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-
speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large
enough for a helicopter to land on.
 Pitch:
Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed
and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to
produce electricity.
 Rotor:
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Vertical-axis Turbines
 Vertical-axis wind machines have blades that go
from top to bottom. The most common type —
the Darrieus wind turbine, named after the
French engineer Georges Darrieus who patented
the design in 1931 — looks like a giant, two-
bladed egg beater. This type of vertical wind
machine typically stands 100 feet tall and 50 feet wide. Vertical-axis
wind machines make up only a very small share of the wind machines
used today.
International Wind Power
 Most of the wind power plants in the world are located in Europe and in
the United States where government programs have helped support
wind power development. As of 2008, the United States ranks first in the
world in wind power capacity, followed by Germany, Spain, and China.
Denmark ranks ninth in the world in wind power capacity, but generates
about 20% of its electricity from wind.
Wind Power Plants Require Careful Planning
 Operating a wind power plant is not as simple as just building a windmill
in a windy place. Wind plant owners must carefully plan where to locate
their machines. One important thing to consider is how fast and how
much the wind blows at proposed locations.
Wind Power Plants Produce Electricity
 Wind power plants, or wind farms, as they are sometimes called, are
clusters of wind machines used to produce electricity. A wind farm
usually has dozens of wind machines scattered over a large area. The
world's largest wind farm, the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in
Texas, has 421 wind turbines that generate enough electricity to power
220,000 homes per year.
Advantages
 Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel source.
 Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions
 Wind energy is a domestic source of energy
 Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which can't be
used up
 Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies
available today, costing between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour,
depending upon the wind resource and project financing of the
particular project.
 Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the
economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found.
Farmers and ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind
turbines use only a fraction of the land. Wind power plant owners make
rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the use of the land.
Disadvantages
 The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that the wind
is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed.
 With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what to do
when the wind isn't blowing. At those times, other types of power plants
must be used to make electricity.
 Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land
and those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity
generation.
 Wind energy cannot be stored (unless batteries are used)
 Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities
where the electricity is needed.
 The most serious environmental drawbacks to wind machines may be
their negative effect on wild bird populations and the visual impact on
the landscape.

(6)Nuclear Power
Index
1. Principles of Nuclear Power
2. Why use nuclear power
3. Who uses nuclear power?
4. How much of the world's electricity comes from
nuclear power
5. Mining and Processing Nuclear Fuels
6. Size of fuel
7. Why does splitting a uranium atom release
energy?
8. How does a nuclear power plant produce
electricity?
9. Constructing of nuclear power plant
10. The Generating Process
11. if fuel needs to be replaced?
12. several components common to most types
of reactors
13. Nuclear power plants in commercial
operation 
14. Types of reactor
15. Lifetime of nuclear reactors.
16. Fusion Power Plants
17. Advantages & Disadvantages
Principles of Nuclear Power 
 Atoms are constructed like miniature solar systems. At the center of
the atom is the nucleus, and orbiting around it are electrons. The
nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, very densely packed
together. Hydrogen, the lightest element, has one proton; uranium,
the heaviest natural element has 92 protons.
 The nucleus of an atom is held together with great force, the
"strongest force in nature." When it is bombarded with a neutron, it
can be split apart, a process called fission. Because uranium atoms are
so large, the atomic force that binds it together is relatively weak,
making uranium good for fission.
Why use nuclear power
 Unlike burning fossil fuels, using nuclear fission to generate electricity
produces no soot or greenhouse gases. This helps keep the skies clean
and doesn't contribute to global warming. The World Nuclear
Association estimates that the electricity industry would add 2.6 billion
tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere each year if it used coal
power instead of nuclear.
 Some governments also like nuclear power because it reduces their
dependency on foreign oil.
 Finally, the fuel used to power nuclear reactors is very compact in
comparison to fossil fuels. For instance, one pound of uranium can
supply the same energy as 3 million pounds of coal. This makes it
attractive for use in nuclear-powered vehicles like submarines, aircraft
carriers and spacecraft.
Who uses nuclear power?
 There are a number of countries that have used nuclear energy for
power generation for decades, notably France, the United Kingdom
and the United States.
 These countries, as others have, have developed nuclear weapons too.
When you have a nuclear reactor for peaceful purposes, weapons-
grade plutonium can also be produced. Therefore opposition to
nuclear energy has long been connected to concerns held by the
nuclear disarmament movement
How much of the world's electricity comes from nuclear power
 Sixteen percent of the world's electricity is supplied by nuclear power,
according to the World Nuclear Association. The electricity is produced
by 440 nuclear reactors in 31 countries.
 The United States has the most reactors with a total of 104, according
to the International Atomic Energy Agency. The reactors are
responsible for producing nearly 20 percent of the country's electricity.
 The country that gets the highest percentage of its electricity from
nuclear power is France. Its 59 reactors generate more than 78 percent
of its electricity.
Mining and Processing Nuclear Fuels
 Uranium is one of the least plentiful of minerals, making up only two
parts per million in the earth's crust. But because of its radioactivity it
is a plentiful supply of energy. One pound of uranium has as much
energy as three million pounds of coal.
 Uranium comes in two forms, U-235 and U-238. As found in nature,
uranium is more than 99 percent U-238; unfortunately U-235 is what is
used in power plants. U-238 can also be processed into plutonium,
which is also fissionable
 The mining process is similar to coal mining, with both open pit and
underground mines. It produces similar environmental impacts, with
the added hazard that uranium mine tailings are radioactive.
Groundwater can be polluted not only from the heavy metals present
in mine waste, but also from the traces of radioactive uranium still left
in the waste. Half of the people employed by the uranium mining
industry work on cleaning up the mines after use
 Radioactive elements gradually decay, losing their radioactivity. The
time it takes to lose half of its radioactivity is called a "half life." U-238,
the most common form of uranium, has a half life of 4.5 billion years.
U-235, used for energy production, has a half life of 713 million years.
As uranium decays in nature, it turns into lead.
Size of fuel
 Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a melting point
of 2800°C) and most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm
diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a long zirconium
alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being hard,
corrosion-resistant and permeable to neutrons.* Numerous rods form
a fuel assembly, which is an open lattice and can be lifted into and out
of the reactor core. In the most common reactors these are about 3.5
to 4 metres long
Why does splitting a uranium atom release energy?
 The answer has to do with Einstein's most famous equation -- E=mc² --
which essentially says that energy is directly related to mass.
 Under the right conditions, a uranium atom will split into two smaller
atoms and throw off two or sometimes three neutrons in the process.
(Neutrons are the glue that hold atoms together.)
 The combined mass of these resulting particles tends to be roughly
99.9 percent of the mass of the original uranium atom. The other 0.1
percent of the original mass got converted to energy, as Einstein
described.
 The energy is released in the form of gamma rays. These rays are
similar to X-rays and can cause burns, cancer and genetic mutations in
living things. They can be slowed or stopped with thick walls of
concrete, lead or packed dirt.
How does a nuclear power plant produce electricity?
 A nuclear power plant is basically a steam power plant that is fueled by
a radioactive element, like uranium. The fuel is placed in a reactor and
the individual atoms are allowed to split apart. The splitting process,
known as fission, releases great amounts of energy. This energy is used
to heat water until it turns to steam.
 From here, the mechanics of a steam power plant take over. The steam
pushes on turbines, which force coils of wire to interact with a
magnetic field. This generates an electric current.
 In nuclear power plants, neutrons collide with uranium atoms, splitting
them. This split releases neutrons from the uranium that in turn collide
with other atoms, causing a chain reaction. This chain reaction is
controlled with "control rods" that absorb neutrons. Fission releases
energy that heats water to about 520 degrees F in the core of the
plant. This hot water is then used to spin turbines that are connected
to generators which produce electricity.
Constructing of nuclear power plant
 After an order is received to start working on a nuclear power plant,
the long multi-year process begins. The most important part of a plant
is the nuclear reactor. That is where the nuclear reactions take place.
During these reactions radiation is released. To make sure that none of
this radiation is released into the environment, the building that
houses the reactor must be made to hold it in. The reactor is housed in
a dome-shaped building made with extremely thick walls of concrete
and steel. The building must be strong enough to stand even if a jet
plane crashed into it!!
 Around the reactor core is a strong structure to prevent any intrusion
from outside and to prevent any radioactive material escaping into the
environment in case of a nuclear accident. Commonly this is a one
meter-thick concrete and steel structure
 The engine house is the building where the control and computer
rooms are located. In the control room, engineers constantly keep
watch over the entire power plant. If something were to go wrong, an
alarm would sound and by the simple push of a button the problem
would be automatically fixed.
 In the computer room, many computers are constantly recording
information on every little thing that happens in the power plant. The
construction of the buildings, the reactor, and the complex electrical
network needed to run the power plant could take years. Then
electricity can be generated.
The Generating Process
 Billions and trillions of atoms, tiny little particles, make up all matter.
Inside of an atom, there is a core, or nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons. When the nucleus of an atom is split, nuclear fission occurs.
That is what happens in the core of a nuclear reactor, and is the start of
the process of generating electricity in a nuclear power plant.
 Uranium, the most common fuel, is placed in rods in the reactor's core.
Free neutrons are released into the core. When a neutron hits the
nucleus of a uranium atom, fission occurs; tremendous amounts of
heat are released. When the nucleus was split 2 or 3 neutrons were set
free. Those, in turn, split the nuclei of other atoms, setting more
neutrons free. A chain reaction takes place in the core creating large
amounts of heat. A coolant circulates around the rods of uranium in
the core. The most used coolant is water, but newer plants use liquid
metal instead.
 As you might have guessed, the coolant is used to keep the reactor
from getting too hot. It is also needed in the generation process. The
coolant absorbs the heat produced by fission. It travels through tubes
until it reaches the steam boiler. Pressure inside the tubes prevents the
coolant from boiling. At the steam boiler, the heat from the coolant
passes through the tube walls and heats up sea water. The sea water
was pumped in from a nearby river or stream. The heated sea water
boils into steam. The steam travels through pipes to a turbine. The
steam causes a turbine to turn, which then turns a generator to create
electricity. After the coolant releases its heat in the steam boiler, it
 circulates back around toward the reactor's core. A pump keeps the
coolant circulating so that none of its radioactivity can escape.
 If the core reaches the point where it is too hot, control rods are
moved down into it. The control rods are made of an element that
absorbs excess neutrons. When the control rods are moved into the
core, they absorb neutrons, slowing down the chain reaction. When
this happens less fission occurs and the heat is reduced.
 To shut a reactor down if this system fails neutron-absorbing fluid can
be added. Usually this is water, or heavy water or graphite.
if fuel needs to be replaced?
 Nuclear fuel needs to be replaced as the fissionable material is used
up. The reactor core, its pressure vessel that contains the fuel rods
needs to be opened for this to happen. For most reactors this happens
every one to two years. A third or a quarter of the fuel rods are
replaced at such times.
several components common to most types of reactors
 Fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form
fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor
core.
 Moderator. This is material in the core which slows down the neutrons
released from fission so that they cause more fission. It is usually
water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
 Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as
cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the
core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In some reactors,
special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level
of power efficiently.  (Secondary shutdown systems involve adding
other neutron absorbers, usually as a fluid, to the system.)
 Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel
containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the
moderator.
 Steam generator. (not in BWR) Part of the cooling system where the
primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam
for the turbine.
 Containment. The structure around the reactor core which is designed
to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from
the effects of radiation in case of any malfunction inside. It is typically
a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.
  Coolant. A liquid or gas circulating through the core so as to transfer
the heat from it. . In light water reactors the water moderator
functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary
coolant circuit where the steam is made
Types of reactor
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

 Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)

Breeder Reactors
 Another kind of fission reactor is the breeder reactor. A breeder power
plant runs the exact same way as a Light-Water power plant described
above, except it uses plutonium, instead of uranium, as its fuel. After
the plutonium has been taken from the core of the reactor, it can be
reprocessed. The plutonium is sent to a reprocessing plant where it is
 reprocessed and recycled. After this, it is sent back to the nuclear
power plant and can be used in the reactor again.
Each time the plutonium is reprocessed, more and more energy is drawn
from it, and after many years it reaches a point where it cannot be used
anymore. Power plants which use plutonium as fuel would have a lower cost
because of the small amount of fuel needed.
 Reprocessing also helps out with our problem of nuclear waste. The
United States does not use breeder reactors. President Carter shut
down the program because he was afraid that terrorists would get a
hold of a sample of plutonium. Plutonium, unlike uranium, can be used
in making atomic bombs.
Lifetime of nuclear reactors.
 Most of today's nuclear plants which were originally designed for 30 or
40-year operating lives.  However, with major investments in systems,
structures and components lives can be extended, and in several
countries there are active programs to extend operating lives.  In the
USA most of the more than one hundred reactors are expected to be
granted license extensions from 40 to 60 years.  This justifies significant
capital expenditure in upgrading systems and components, including
building in extra performance margins.
Fusion Power Plants
 Fusion is the exact opposite process of fission. In fusion, the nuclei of
two atoms combine to form one atom, unlike fission where the nucleus
of one atom is split into two. Fusion is the same process that takes
place deep within the core of the sun. The one major plus of fusion
plants is that they release absolutely no radiation. Very intense heat
levels are needed for fusion to occur. That is why it is so hard to use.
The energy it takes to run a fusion power plant is about the same as
what is produced.
Advantages of Nuclear Power.
1. A large amount of energy is generated from a very small amount of
fuel.
2. The fuel is readily available.
If you need more energy, you just use more fuel.
3.   Nuclear Power does not produce carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide
and so does not contribute to global warming or acid rain.
4. Efficient: Nuclear plants can produce significant quantities of
electricity, up to about 2GW
5. Reliable: There is no need to worry about interruptions to the power
supply: as long as there is uranium, there will be power
Disadvantages
1. Poisonous waste is produced, some of which is highly radioactive.
2. The power station is potentially dangerous to large areas of the planet.
3. Cost: Nuclear plants are very expensive to run. I am not an economist,
but I believe nuclear plants are, like most other things, cheaper in bulk.
Most of the cost comes from the initial building of the plant; the
running costs are comparatively low.