Power Transformers : Overview

Factors on Assessing Insulation

Life
By Emilio Morales Cruz

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Abstract
The failure of power transformers is always an area of significant concern since it can result in millions of
dollars in costs, interruption of power and as well as possible environmental and safety impacts. Therefore, it
is desirable to detect the existence of abnormal changes in the transformer's internal condition and being able
to diagnostic if this could be an incipient failure. Active detection of incipient faults is now possible through on-
line monitoring of abnormal changes in some parameters and the use of diagnostics methods provide an
assessment of equipment condition and suggested actions. When everything seems to be normal and end of
life depends only on the insulation life there are some parameters and their records that seem to be overview
when assessing the transformer insulation life. Winding hottest spot temperatures, moisture, oxygen, oil aging
products and particles of different origin are agents of degradation that can shorten transformer life
significantly under impact of thermal, electric, electromagnetic and electrodynamics stresses.
This paper gives an overview of the status of determination of the winding hottest spot and moisture in
insulation as well as recommendations to obtain and maintain these records.

Introduction
Normally thermal is the only factor considered to assess the insulation life due to well-known calculation
methods but correct knowledge of operating winding hottest spot temperatures from the time when
transformers are energized for the first time is needed to evaluate insulation aging and remaining life. This
assessment presents two difficulties, the determination of the winding hottest spot temperature and its
records through the transformer life.
Degree of Polymerization is another way to assess the insulation life but again it requires an insulation
sample that is not practical to obtain. Furan analysis could be used to make an indirect assessment of the
degree of polymerization, but records of Furans each time that the oil is processed or replaced shall be
maintained through the entire life of the transformer for them to have any meaning, and still it would be an
average value and not a value of the particular insulation at the hot spot.
Moisture in insulation is another factor that has a great impact in the insulation life and normally is not
considered. Its effects include increase in aging rate, decrease in dielectric strength and limiting of overload
due to bubble evolution among others. The sources of moisture are residual moisture from manufacturing,
moisture ingress from environment and moisture produced by aging of cellulose. Moisture is critical for the
insulation life and insulation life assessment but is not a direct measurement. With on-line monitoring it is
assessed through other parameters that are based on thermal stable conditions for enough time that moisture
in insulation can be determined with acceptable accuracy. But these conditions are not possible to obtain in a
transformer due to constant change of transformer load and atmospheric conditions.
The other factors affecting the insulation life have not yet being developed to quantify their effects in the
insulation life as temperature and moisture in insulation have. Besides it is easy to determine their presence
with a simple oil analysis and correction actions are standard.

Winding hottest spot temperatures

The temperature of solid insulation is the main factor of transformer aging providing moisture in the insulation
is at normal level (≤ 0.5%). With temperature and time, the cellulose insulation undergoes a depolymerization
process. As the cellulose chain gets shorter, the mechanical properties of paper such as tensile strength and
elasticity degrade. Eventually the paper becomes brittle and is not capable of withstanding short circuit forces
and even normal vibrations that are part of transformer life. This situation characterizes the end of life of the
solid insulation. Since it is not reversible, it also defines the transformer end of life. Some criteria that
determine the end of the insulation life from IEEE C57.91-2011 “Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed
Transformers” are presented in table 1.

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 Table 1
This process is well known to transformer owners and sustained efforts have been made to monitor the hot
spot temperature to take advantage of cool ambient temperature, extend the transformer life while providing
emergency overloading capabilities, and taking advantage of market opportunities. Figure 1 shows the
sensitivity of paper to temperature. Figure 2 shows the winding temperature distribution which is not uniform
and it can be seem that the hottest spot tend to be commonly the top section of the winding.
Modern transformers make use of thermally upgraded paper that has been chemically treated to improve the
stability of cellulose structure. The rated hot spot temperature for this kind of paper is 110°C and it can be
seen in Fig. 1 that an increase of 7°C will double the aging acceleration factor. For older transformer built with
normal Kraft paper, the rated hot spot temperature is either 95°C according to IEEE or 97°C according to IEC.
This paper is also very sensitive to temperature and in case of emergency (assuming a hot spot temperature
of 140°C) the aging acceleration factor is about 100, which means one hour in this condition is equivalent to
100 hours at the rated temperature.

Fig. 1 Effect of temperature on paper aging rate

There are two methods to determine the hot spot temperature, the conventional or indirect one which
basically simulates the hot spot temperature using a thermal image proportional to the load current and the
direct one using fiber optics.

Hot Spot Indirect Method

During the design process the indirect hot spot is determined by calculation either using a factor over the
calculated average winding to oil gradient (IEC), adding 15°C to the average winding rise (ANSI) or
calculating the winding hot spot to oil gradient adding the effect that the eddy losses have over the end of the
windings due to the leakage flux. These methods don’t take into consideration the true oil temperature in the
cooling duct, change in winding resistance with temperature, change in oil viscosity with temperature, the
effect of tap changer position and oil inertia in case of sudden overload of large magnitude.

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 Fig. 2 Winding temperature distribution
As part of acceptance tests on new units, the temperature rise test is intended to demonstrate that, at full load
and rated ambient temperature, the top oil and average winding temperature rise will not exceed the limits set
by industry standards. However the winding hot spot temperature rise which is located somewhere toward the
top of the transformer is not accessible for direct measurement with conventional methods. Therefore is
determined using the following equation:
ΘH/A = ∆ΘTO + ∆ΘH
Where:
ΘH/A is the winding hottest-spot temperature over ambient temperature
∆ΘTO is the top-oil rise over ambient temperature
∆ΘH is the winding hottest-spot rise over top-oil temperature, and is determined by using a factor over the
average winding to oil gradient obtained during the temperature rise test. The factor is provided by the
transformer manufacturer and is based on the ratio of the calculated hot spot and average winding to oil
gradients.
This indicates that the method is not very accurate, and relies on information provided by the transformer
manufacturer which is not always validated.
Modern WTI’s are somewhat more sophisticated. They use microprocessors to “calculate” the Hot Spot
temperature rise, but still they remain a simulation or approximation of the real temperatures present in the
windings. WTI’s are rarely calibrated correctly, the thermal image set point is based on the hot spot at full
load, and at different loads the hot spot will follow the thermal image characteristics and not necessarily the
actual winding hot spot. Display errors are common, and can range from 5 to 10 degrees, or even more, a
difference that may give an error of 100% when assessing the transformer insulation life. A better monitoring
solution is clearly needed.
A new edition on the IEC loading guide has recently been published. It states that the “H” factor relating the
average winding to oil gradient to the hot-spot to top oil gradient can vary over a wide range depending on
transformer size impedance and design. Here again the correct calculation of the critical temperature
difference between winding hottest spot and top oil will depend on manufacturer ability to model properly the
oil flow within the winding ducts, the distribution of losses along the winding, the heat transfer characteristics
of the various insulation thickness used throughout the winding and the impact of local features restricting the
oil flow.
It is also recognized that the dynamic response of the previous calculation method is not adequate as a
sudden increase in load current may cause an unexpected high peak in the winding hot-spot temperature. To
cover all type of load variations, an elaborate set of differential equations is provided, taking account the
winding thermal time constant, the oil time constant and three new constants to characterize the oil flow.
All these changes in IEC loading guide indicate that hot-spot temperature calculation methods previous
known were not adequate to assess accurately winding hot-spot temperature. Wide use of computers now
allows for sophisticated calculation methods but it demonstrates that the quest of winding hot-spot
temperature is not trivial and it raises new doubts considering the number of additional values that need to be
collected to run the calculation.

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Hot Spot Direct Method
The direct measurement of winding temperature with fiber optic sensors is the recommended practice for a
more accurate hot spot temperature. It intrinsically considers those factors that are not taken into account in
the hot spot indirect method. The new (Feb 2011) IEC 60076-2 Temperature Rise Standard is now strongly
recommending the use of fiber sensors, as a complement to traditional monitoring techniques and
calculations. Table E.1 and E.2 show the number of sensors recommended by this standard.

Tables E.1 and E.2 IEC 60076-2 Temperature Rise Standard recommended number of
sensors

More IEC and IEEE standards are expected to be updated in the future. Both now have task forces working
on this.

For nearly thirty years, fiber optic temperature sensors have been available for measurement in high voltage
transformer. First units were fragile and needed delicate handling during manufacturing. Over the past ten
years, significant development took place to improve ruggedness and facilitate connection through tank wall.
In order to measure winding temperature, the sensor can be embedded in a spacer or attached directly onto
any conductor that deserves temperature monitoring.
The hot spot is determined during the design process using the same method used to determine the indirect
hot spot but now the hot spot location becomes also a critical aspect since the temperature accuracy will
depend on it. More likely a finite element analysis method is a must to determine the hot spot location.
Direct winding temperature measurement provides the hot spot temperature at full load and the actual
winding hot spot temperature in operation at different loads and ambient conditions. Therefore direct
measurements of winding hot spot temperatures are more dependable for a better assessment of the
transformer insulation life. Fig. 3 shows temperature differences between Hot Spot Indirect Method versus
Hot Spot Direct Method during an overload condition, assuming both methods measure the same
temperature on steady load conditions. This behavior is due to the difference between the copper and the oil
time constants.

Fig. 3 Hot Spot Indirect Method versus Hot Spot Direct Method during overload conditions
Moisture in Insulation

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As mentioned in the introduction the moisture in the insulation is another factor which has a great impact on
the life of insulation and usually not taken into account. Moisture is always present in the insulation system
and ageing calculations are based on 0.5% moisture content with a corresponding ageing acceleration factor
of 1 as shown in figure 4. Insulation with 1% moisture has an ageing acceleration factor of 2, therefore the
ageing calculations due to temperature shall be affected by 2 under this moisture conditions. Moisture in
insulation of 1.0% and probably more will not be uncommon in transformers in the field even if residual
moisture from manufacturing was ≤ 0.5% and there are no leaks allowing moisture ingress from environment
because moisture is a natural byproduct of cellulose ageing. This shows how critical moisture is for the
insulation life and insulation life assessment. The problem is that moisture in insulation is very difficult to
assess even with direct measurement.

Fig. 4 Moisture content in paper vs. ageing acceleration factor

The most common methodologies in use for moisture determination in the insulation are direct measurement,
equilibrium and dielectric response.
Direct measurement methods require obtaining paper samples from an operating transformer which in turn
requires de-energization, oil handling and exposure of the coils. Taking paper samples from the interior,
especially from winding hot spot regions is impractical even if samples can be cut off from accessible areas
such as leads. The method is intrusive and there is always a risk regarding the quality of the repair to the area
where the samples are taken, and the moisture measured on these samples doesn’t represent the real
moisture content at the hot spot of the winding.
Equilibrium methods are based on the fact that in a steady state condition moisture will reach equilibrium
between the various materials contained within any closed vessel. If the water content in one material can be
measured then the water content can be estimated in other materials if they are in a state of equilibrium. This
concept can be used if the transformer vessel is filled with air, using a dew Point to measure the amount of
water in the air, or if the transformer is filled with oil, by using the Karl Fischer titration method to measure the
water in the oil. The key assumption in this methodology is that the materials are in equilibrium which often is
not the case for transformers due to constant change of transformer load and atmospheric conditions. The
estimated moisture content in the insulation with this methodology represents an average value for the whole
insulation system; it doesn’t represent the real moisture content at the hot spot of the winding.
Dielectric response methods are used for the determination of dryness levels in transformers. They can only
be applied to de-energized transformers. The measurements are not significantly influenced by moisture in oil
or moisture equilibrium between paper and oil. The moisture estimates apply to the insulation that is stressed
during the tests so they don’t represent the real moisture content at the hot spot of the winding.
At present there is a lot of effort to come out with a practical method that could help to determine the moisture
content at the hot spot of the winding with an acceptable accuracy. So far an equilibrium method that
continuously measures the relative moisture saturation, temperatures at different critical points and load,
combined with knowledge of the insulation structure and water distribution among its different insulation
components seems to be the best approach for the future but it may take some time to get to the point that it
works out. A possible solution for the time being would be to monitor the relative moisture saturation, winding
hot spot temperature and load from the time the transformer insulation is known to be dry, basically when the
transformer is new or has just been dry out. This value could then be compared with future values with similar
operating conditions. If the value increases it will mean the moisture has increased in the same proportion

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and life assessment calculations due to temperature will have to be affected by the correspondent ageing
factor due to moisture.
Records through the transformer life
Keeping accurate records of each individual transformer is paramount. It is already difficult to assess the
insulation life even when records exist therefore it would be impossible with no records at all. Baseline
transformer information should be established when transformer is new or as soon as possible thereafter.
Keeping records is a big task and almost impossible if on-line monitoring is not available. The best solution is
to specify new transformers to include on-line monitoring so data can be established even from the OEM
acceptance test. The minimum data required to assess the insulation life are top/bottom oil and hot spot
temperatures, load and relative moisture saturation and sample temperature.
Conclusion
Correct knowledge of temperature and moisture at the hot spot of the winding is critical for the correct
assessment of the transformer life. Temperature at the hot spot can be obtained accurately if direct
measurement is used otherwise a great effort shall take place to obtain a value that simulates the hot spot
temperature as close as possible. Hot spot data for the indirect method is quite difficult to obtain if not
specified when ordering the transformer. Installing fiber optic sensors for direct measurement of winding
temperature is only feasible on new units. Moisture in insulation can be practically assessed with some
certainty if continuous measurement is used. Transformers with no history records are almost impossible to
assess, therefore new transformers have to be specified for the manufacturer to provide the hot spot data
and/or the sensors and equipment required so the data is available when assessing the transformer life is
needed.

References
Transformer winding hot spot temperature determination (2006) By: Jean-Noël Bérubé, Jacques Aubin
IEC 60076-2 Ed. 2.0 Power transformers - Part 2: Temperature rise
IEEE C57.91 2011 “IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers”
IEC 60076-7 “Power Transformer -Part 7: Loading Guide for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers”
IEEE 1538-2000 “IEEE Guide for Determination of maximum Winding Temperature Rise in Liquid-Filled
Transformers”
CIGRE Working Group 09 of Study Committee 12 “Direct Measurement of the Hot-Spot Temperature of
Transformers” CIGRE ELECTRA, No 129, pp47-51, March 1990
Assessing Water Content in Insulating Paper of Power Transformers by Brian Sparling & Jacques Aubin.
About the author
Emilio attended Nuevo Leon State University in Mexico from 1975 to 1979, receiving his
Bachelor of Science degree in Electro Mechanical Engineering in 1980. Emilio has spent
his entire career in design in the power transformer manufacturing industry. He has over
30 years of experience in design which includes transformers up to 500 MVA and 500 kV
as well as furnace and rectifier transformers and different type of reactors. He is member
of the IEEE/PES Transformer Committee, IEC TC 14 USNC Technical Advisory Group
(TAG) and CIGRE, and actively participating in different task forces. He previously worked
with GE-Prolec, Ohio Transformer, Sunbelt Transformer and EFACEC Power
Transformers. He may be reached at 1385 Fairport Rd., Fairport, NY 14450, USA or at
emorales@qualitrolcorp.com

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