Review of related literature

Decades ago, uniforms were mostly worn by students who went to private or parochial schools.
But as local school boards have focused more on improving standardized test scores and campus
safety, a growing number have begun requiring school uniforms — typically, a polo shirt of a
particular color paired with navy or khaki pants, skirts or shorts. Nearly 22 percent of public
schools in the United States required uniforms in 2015-16 — up from almost 12 percent in 1999-
2000, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES).

Proponents argue that students will pay more attention to their classwork if they aren’t
preoccupied with fashion, and that they’ll be better behaved. Meanwhile, school administrators
say uniforms help eliminate gang-related styles and logos. They also make it easier to spot a
stranger on campus.

Despite their reported benefits, mandatory uniforms are controversial because a lot of parents
and students don’t like the idea of forcing children to dress alike, which they say suppresses
freedom of expression. Some families complain about the financial burden of purchasing
uniforms in addition to their kids’ other clothing. Years ago, parents also complained that it was
difficult to find uniforms, but that ceased to be an issue after large chain stores like Target and
Wal-Mart began selling them.

t: “Uniform use in public schools is rising, but we know little about how they affect students.
Using a unique dataset from a large urban school district in the southwest United States, we
assess how uniforms affect behavior, achievement and other outcomes. Each school in the
district determines adoption independently, providing variation over schools and time. By
including student and school fixed-effects we find evidence that uniform adoption improves
attendance in secondary grades, while in elementary schools they generate large increases in
teacher retention.”
Introduction

“One of the most common proposals put forth for reform of the American system of education is
to require school uniforms. Proponents argue that uniforms can make schools safer and also
improve school attendance and increase student achievement. Opponents contend that uniforms
have not been proven to work and may be an infringement on the freedom of speech of young
people. Within an econometric framework, this study examines the effect of school uniforms on
student achievement. It tackles methodological challenges through the use of a value-added
functional form and the use of multiple data sets. The results do not suggest any significant
association between school uniform policies and achievement. Although the results do not
definitely support or reject either side of the uniform argument, they do strongly intimate that
uniforms are not the solution to all of American education’s ills.”

“Mandatory uniform policies have been the focus of recent discourse on public school reform.
Proponents of such reform measures emphasize the benefits of student uniforms on specific
behavioral and academic outcomes. Tenth-grade data from The National Educational
Longitudinal Study of 1988 was used to test empirically the claims made by uniform advocates.
The findings indicate that student uniforms have no direct effect on substance use, behavioral
problems, or attendance. Contrary to current discourse, the authors found a negative effect of
uniforms on student academic achievement. Uniform policies may indirectly affect school
environment and student outcomes by providing a visible and public symbol of commitment to
school improvement and reform.”

“This study attempts to clarify the relationships between public school uniforms and some of
their intended results: student self-worth and student and staff perceptions of gang presence and
school climate. The instruments used in the study included a questionnaire on gang presence and
identity, the National Association of School Principals Comprehensive Assessment of School
Environments, and the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Children. Participants consisted of 415
urban public middle school students and 83 teachers. Findings indicate that, although perceptions
did not vary for students across uniform policy, teachers from schools with uniform policies
perceived lower levels of gang presence. Although the effect size was small, students from
schools without uniforms reported higher self-perception scores than students from schools with
uniform policies. Student and teacher perceptions of school climate did not vary across uniform
policy.”
Theoretical framework

Bombarded with images of American teens at school in jeans, runners and cool tops, Australian
students may feel a little hard done by. But they are growing up in a society where the dominant
and long-held view is that school uniforms instil discipline, a sense of self-worth and equality.

In the election campaign, Julia Gillard said: "Part of a high-quality education is learning how to
present yourself to the world, and that's what a school uniform is all about … having a uniform
helps undercut the kind of unhealthy competition we can see at schools to have the latest, most
expensive, fashionable gear." The Prime Minister made the comments when announcing a Labor
plan for a rebate on uniforms.

There is no question that compulsory uniforms can hit the hip pocket - but the evidence that they
help foster equality is not so clear-cut.

Strict uniform codes have been cited as a contributing factor for a growing shift to private
schools in recent years. The perception is that a strict and neat uniform is an outward sign of
''inner values''.

The theory that school uniforms act as a socio-economic leveller may hold within a school but
not necessarily in the broader community, where uniform can become the opposite - a status
symbol.

A Victorian parliamentary committee set up in 2007 to review dress codes in schools said: "As
the education environment has become more competitive, student dress and appearance has
become an important aspect of how schools present themselves to the community. The
committee heard that some schools have felt increasing pressure to adopt more 'traditional'
expensive uniforms to put them on equal footing with their more 'prestigious' competitors."

The committee found that "one size definitely does not fit all'' when it came to dress codes and
uniforms. ''Parents, students, teachers and others have passionate views about dress codes and
school uniforms, which also reflect deeper perspectives on schooling and education."

State school uniforms tend to go for practicality and affordability while private schools see the
uniform as representing their values and acting almost like an advertisement for the school, so
not surprisingly there are often stark differences between the two branches of uniforms.

The Victorian parliamentary committee found that girls were more likely to be be required to
wear skirts or dresses in summer and winter in independent schools and were least likely to have
both requirements in the government sector. The committee urged schools to consider if this
could compromise girls' activities such as cycling to and from school, lunchtime sport and other
physical activities in the playground.
The Department of Education and Training document School Uniforms in NSW Government
Schools says uniforms should include items that are affordable, comfortable, made from easy-
care and easy-wear fabrics, appropriate for activity and suitable for all body shapes.

The Department of Education and Training lists the benefits of having school uniform as:
defining an identity for the school within its community; developing a student's sense of
belonging; providing an opportunity to build school spirit; enhancing the health and safety of
students; promoting a sense of inclusiveness, non-discrimination and equal opportunity;
reinforcing the perception of the school as an ordered, safe environment; increasing safety by
allowing easier recognition of visitors and potential intruders in the school; promoting positive
community perceptions of public education and making clothing more affordable and
eliminating the risk of peer pressure to wear fashionable, expensive clothes.

Although the department says principals and staff should actively promote the wearing of school
uniform, it acknowledges that some students resist wearing them. But, it says, "no student will
have their access to learning reduced because they are out of uniform. This includes their
continued participation in essential curriculum activities.'' However this may change if ''the
health and safety of a student is compromised''.

Susan Wyatt, the principal of Mosman High School, says the argument that students can become
competitive about fashion in the absence of a uniform "is not true at all".

Mosman High has not had a uniform for more than 20 years - a decision made with input from
students, parents and teachers. "We are very well-known for our academic achievements. The
supporting and nurturing of students fits in well with no uniform," says Wyatt.

She says students develop an alternative uniform: jeans and jumpers in winter, and shorts and T-
shirts in summer. "We don't worry about the colour, or if it's shorts or jeans, but we do focus on
student learning. Each student is approached as someone special, it's all about the student. It is
ludicrous that a non-uniform environment will lead to ill-discipline … [our] classes are
characterised by calm, focused learning," says Wyatt.

Mosman High School's website says students are individuals with rights and responsibilities and
not having a uniform has many advantages. "Students can dress in the manner in which they feel
comfortable. This is more conducive to learning. There is none of the gender stereotyping
usually evident in school uniforms … uniforms for girls tend to be less practical leading to
under-achievement of girls in more practical subjects … At Mosman High School girls are able
to wear clothing that is more conducive to practical lessons. It improves relationships between
students and staff - being one less source of disciplinary problems. It allows for self-expression
and helps each student to develop an individual identity."