Chapter-2

2.1. Geology of the area:

2.1.1. The Himalayas and the Trans-Himalayas
Indo-Eurasian collision belt is a good place to study the interactions among tectonics,
climate and drainage evolution. The movement of Indian plate towards Eurasian plate is still
active which is responsible for shaping the geology and geomorphology of the highest range of
the Himalaya. In north-west Himalayas, the Ladakh block lies along a critical geological juncture
and is characterized by two suture zones –The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) and Shyok
Suture Zone (SSZ) that mark the closing of different branches of the Tethys Sea and finally the
collision of India with Asia, 60–50 Ma ago.
The ITSZ lies between the Palaeozoic–Palaeogene Zanskar platform sediments of the
Indian passive margin in the south and the Karakoram block in the north. All along its length, the
suture is represented by abducted materials of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust, together with
marine Triassic to Eocene sediments.
The complex thus includes turbidities, ophiolitic melanges with seamounts, calc-alkaline
volcanics, granitic batholith and post-orogenic molasse sedimentary deposits. The Indus Basin of
Ladakh, northwest India, records a history of sedimentation along the Indus Suture Zone that
spans accumulation in a fore-arc basin prior to collision and a post-collision intermontane basin
(i.e. from Early Palaeocene to Miocene times; Garzanti & Van Haver, 1998; Serle et al.,1990).
From the perspective landscape evolution and depositional constraints, Ladakh region, lying in
the Trans-Himalayan or to the north of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, presents unique setting
in terms of it being the highest plateau on planet earth in the sub-tropical region.

2.1.2. Regional structure and tectonic setting of Ladakh Himalaya

Interplay of tectonics and surface processes at the junction of Indian and Eurasian plates
is characterized by immense crustal shortening in the Himalayan collision zone in the south,
subduction of continental lithosphere in the Tso Morari region, subduction of oceanic lithosphere
along the Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) and Shyok Suture Zone (SSZ) and tectonics of the
Karakoram Mountains and juxtaposition of the southern edge of Asian Plate. From south to
north, following Trans-Himalayan tectonic units characterize the Late Mesozoic junction
between Indian and Asian Plates (Fig. 2.1).

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2.1.2 (a). Tso Morari Crystallines (TMC)
TMC represents northern edge of the Indian Plate. A thick pile of greenschist to eclogite
metamorphics is present between the Tethyan Sedimentary Zone (TSZ) and Indus Tsangpo
Suture Zone (ITSZ) (Fig. 2.1). The presence of coesite-bearing eclogites within the TMC
(Sachan et al., 2004) and in Kaghan (Pakistan) deciphers that the northern edge of the Indian
Plate has undergone continental subduction beneath the Kohistan-Ladakh arc to a depth of ~150
km in the early Eocene.

2.1.2 (b). Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ)

ITSZ encompasses an island arc of the Dras Volcanics containing basalt and dacite
flows, pillow lavas, basalts, volcanoclastic sediments, radiolarian cherts and Orbitolina-bearing
limestone of Callovian to Cenomanian age (Rolland et al., 2000). Dismembered ophiolite
occurrences at Nidar, Shergol and Zildat within the suture zone and ophiolite nappe at Spongtang
within greywacke-type flysch sequence represent a part of dismembered NeoTethys oceanic
crust (Thakur, 1993).

2.1.2 (c). Trans-Himalayan Ladakh Batholith: Andean-type margin

The Trans-Himalayan batholiths, lying in the north of ITSZ represent an Andean-type calc-
alkaline magmatism due to northward subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust below an
island arc, located on the Asian Plate during the early Cretaceous Lower Eocene (Rolland et al.,
2001) (Fig. 2.1).

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Figure 2.1 Simplified geological map of northern margin of NW Himalaya, Trans-
Himalaya and Karakoram Shear Zone (after Jain, A. K. and Singh S., (2009).

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2.2. Geomorphology of the area:
Ladakh, the highest plateau of the world, preserves a record of the complex geomorphic
evolution which represents an interplay between the active tectonics, Late Quaternary climate
change and influence of monsoon system in its geomorphology and sedimentary archives. The
Indus River in the Indian part along the Indus-Tsangpo suture zone in Ladakh is a major Trans-
Himalayan, glacier-fed river which flows through several geological formation from
Precambrian to Quaternary. The uppermost sub basin of the Indus basin shows a wide range of
altitude variation between the highest >5000 m above mean sea level (amsl) near Mount Kailas
where the river originates and upto the Basgo village where the river flows at lowest level
(3100m amsl). For better appreciation and interpretation, the study area is differentiated into four
sectors on the basis of valley morphology (Fig.-2.4). Sector-I U-shaped valley (Figs. 2.2 & 2.3)
along NW-SE trending Karakoram fault zone in the upper reaches of Trans Himalaya between
Thangra to Mahe villages. Sector-II Comprises of narrow V-shaped incised valley between
Mahe and Upshi villages. (Figs. 2.2 & 2.4). In sector-III again the river follows wider valley
from Upshi to Phyang (Figs. 2.2 & 2.5) and sector-IV consists of V-shaped entrenched valley
between Phyang to Nimoo (Figs. 2.2 & 2.6).

Fig. 2.2. General Geology of study area and different sectors (red unfilled boxes).

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Fig.-2.3: U-shape valley around Nyoma in sector-I. Fig.-2.4: V -shape valley in sector-II shows devoid
Indus follows Indus-suture zone (Ladakh Batholith of significant Quaternary deposit. Prominent nick
and Indus Flysch contact zone) as antecedent river point near Chummathang village.
after leaving Karakoram fault zone. Arrow indicates
the movement direction of Indus River.

Fig.-2.5: Broader meandering valley in sector-III in
Leh-Spituk areas. Left bank and right bank of the
river indicates different geomorphological features.
Relict of shoreline of palaeolake is also visible as
yellow patch on left bank of River.
Fig.-2.6: V-shape valley in sector-IV near Zinchen,
Leh. River flows in deep george. Only vertical
erosion of the river takes place hence no deposition
occurs.

The study area is located in arid (Indus valley) NW Himalaya where the geomorphology
is mainly comprising of the different landforms that indicates interaction of palaeoclimatic and
tectonics. Sector wise description of Late Quaternary geomorphic attributes are discussed below.
Sector-I: In this sector the Indus River valley is U-shaped (Fig 2.7A) with NW-SE trend
and joined by Tsaga-La river near Thangra village. Downstream to Thangra, the river shows a
sharp southerly deflection (Fig 2.7C). In northwest, the Tsaga-La valley is connected with the
Pangong Tso lake area exhibiting wide U-shaped morphology with ~200m thick pile of glacio-

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fluvial sediments which appear to have created low-lying water divide at Tsaga La. The main
strand of Karakoram fault passes through this valley (Fig 2.7C). Along this stretch, the valley
broadens in southeast and narrows down in northwest (Fig 2.7C). The water divide can be
interpreted to have obstructed an earlier drainage from the Tangtse valley to the Indus river (Fig
2.7E). Presently, water on both sides of this divide either flows sluggishly or stagnates in small
pools (Fig 2.7B).

Figure 2.7 (A) Panoramic view of the NW-SE U-shaped valley. Nearly horizontal
valley resulting in stagnant water. Marshy conditions have developed to restricted
flow of water. (B) A photograph of the southern slope of the water divide. It is
made up of ill-sorted unconsolidated deposits. (C) Google image showing 3-
dimensional perspective of the valley containing the Karakoram fault represented
by black dotted line and blue line is the present day drainage from the NW-SE
valley. (D) A major lateral moraine, west of water divide indicating significant
glacial activity. (E) Field photograph of top view of the water divide showing

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 presence of ill-sorted unconsolidated deposits/ moraine material. (F) NW- SE
geological cross section (X-X`) along the valley showing newly formed water
divide in the form of a heap due to the deposition of sediments from adjacent
valleys.

Sector-II: In downstream of Mahe village, the Indus R. becomes antecedent and flows in
SW direction leaving the Karakoram fault zone and enters the Indus suture zone (contact zone of
Ladakh batholith and Indus Flysch) comprises of narrow V-shaped valley upto Upshi village
(Fig. 2.2). Sediment deposits are meager in this transect because of erosional habit of river.
Sector-III: In the Leh area, the Indus river exhibits broad and meandering as well as
braided habits and valley is flanked by the ranges of Ladakh Granites (batholith) on the right
bank and by Indus Group (Indus Flysch) on the left bank. The differential weathering of Ladakh
batholith in the right bank gave rise to rugged topography, whereas, the left bank is sharp and
straight. Indus valley width near Leh varies from ~0.05 to ~4 km and active river has single to
multi-channeled braided habit. The valley space on the left bank is partially occupied by
coalesced alluvial fans (Bajada fan surface) prograding from Indus Flysch and overlying fluvio-
lacustrine deposits (Fig 2.8). The right handed tributaries of Indus river drainage network have
formed number of amphitheater valleys that shows progradation of triangular fans which are
subdued topography. Sequences of fluvial (sand and gravel) and lacustrine (laminated clay)
terrace patches consisting are preserved near Leh, Shey, Karu on the right bank (Fig 2.8). Beside
this, The Phyang river which is major right hand tributary joining Indus R. on the right bank has
formed a prominent alluvial fan consisting of stratified gravel with minor sand of granitic
lithology. The fans on the left bank (bajada surface) are dominantly constituted by clasts derived
from Indus Flysch (metasediments). Moraines (lateral and terminal moraines) are commonly
preserved on the tributary valley flanks in the form of linear ridges on the slopes of the Ladakh
range. Between Phayang Nala and Patharchat Gurudwara, ground moraines forms a flat,
southerly sloping surface with height of >110 m above the modern Indus river (3300-3500 m
a.s.l.) whereas, a lateral moraine trending NW-SE is present on the southern side of Taru Fu
stream (Fig. 2.8).

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 Taroo
LEH

P hyang S p itu k
Sab o o

P a la m S HE Y
TH IK S H E Y
Zinc he n
BAJADA SURFACE NANG

K a ru

K a ru

Figure 2.8 Geomorphological map of Indus valley around Leh showing major
geomorphic units (Map based on SRTM derived DEM, Goggle earth, field checks
and T.S. No. 52F/08 & 12). Inset A shows paleolake terrace deposit near Spituk on
the right bank of the Indus river. Note: lithology controlled coalesced fans (bajada
surface) on the left bank of Indus river and isolated fans on the granitic right bank.
On some of these fans subsequent glacial deposits are also present (e.g. a lateral
moraine on the Phyang fan).

Sector-IV: In this transect between Phey village to Indus and Zanskar river confluence,
the morphology of Indus valley changes from wide to narrow entrenched with active channel
width varying from ~30-40m. The alluvial deposits in this transect is present in the form of
patches of lacustrine terraces resting either over incised bedrock or pre-lacustrine fluvial deposit.
The longitudinal profiles of Indus river between Thangra and Taru Fu (Fig.-2.9 & 2.10)
shows prominent knick points at places. Near Chumathang, sudden change in river indicates
sudden shifting of Indus river to the SW direction and flowing along suture zone near Thangra
after leaving Karakoram fault. Another nick point has been observed near Taroo Fu indicating
lithological or structural controlled change in river gradient.

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Fig.-2.9: Longitudinal profile of upper Indus river Fig.-2.10: Longitudinal profile of upper Indus
showing a sudden drop near Chumathang village, river showing a sudden drop near Chumathang
Ladakh, J & K. and Taru Fu village, Ladakh, J & K.

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