Professional Documents
Culture Documents
43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
30.01.2020 and it has been decided to implement it from the educational year 2020-21.
STANDARD TWELVE
Publisher
Typesetter Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller
Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau,
Baladev Computers, Mumbai
Prabhadevi Mumbai- 400 025
The Constitution of India
Preamble
(Vivek Gosavi)
Pune Director
Date : 21 February 2020 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Bharatiya Saur: 2 Phalguna 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.
Competency statement
Sr. Page
Chapter
No. No.
1 Mathematical Logic 1
2 Matrices 35
3 Differentiation 89
4 Applications of Derivatives 103
5 Integration 116
For example:
Let's Study
i) 2 is a prime number.
Statement ii) Every rectangle is a square.
Logical connectives iii) The Sun rises in the West.
Quantifiers and quantified statements iv) Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra.
1
Open sentences: Note:
An open sentence is a sentence whose truth i) An open sentence is not considered a
can vary according to some conditions which are statement in logic.
not stated in the sentence. ii) Mathematical identities are true statements.
Activity:
Determine whether the following sentences are statements in logic and write down the truth
values of the statements.
Sr. Sentence Whether it If ‘No’ then Truth value
No. is a statement reason of
or not (yes/No) statement
1. −9 is a rational number Yes –– False ‘F’.
2. Can you speak in French? No Interrogative ––
3. Tokyo is in Gujrat Yes –– False ‘F’.
4. Fantastic, let’s go! No Exclamatory ––
5. Please open the door quickly. No Imperative ––
6. Square of an even number is even. True ‘T’
7. x + 5 < 14
8. 5 is a perfect square
9. West Bengal is capital of Kolkata.
10. i2 = − 1
(Note: Complete the above table)
2
vii) He is an actor. The words or group of words such as
viii) Did you eat lunch yet? “and”, “or”, “if ... then”, “If and only if”, can
be used to join or connect two or more simple
ix) Have a cup of cappuccino. sentences. These connecting words are called
x) (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 for all x, y ∈ R. logical connectives.
xi) Every real number is a complex number. Note: ‘not’ is a logical operator for a single
statement. It changes the truth value from T to F
xii) 1 is a prime number. and F to T.
xiii) With the sunset the day ends. Compound Statement:
xiv) 1 ! = 0 A compound statement is a statement which
is formed by combining two or more simple
xv) 3 + 5 > 11
statements with help of logical connectives.
xvi) The number Π is an irrational number. The above four sentences are compound
xvii) x2 − y2 = (x + y) (x − y) for all x, y ∈ R. sentences.
xviii) The number 2 is the only even prime Note:
number. i) Each of the statements that comprise
xix) Two co-planar lines are either parallel or a compound statement is called a sub-
intersecting. statement or a component statement.
ii) Truth value of a compound statement
xx) The number of arrangements of 7 girls in
depends on the truth values of the sub-
a row for a photograph is 7!.
statements i.e. constituent simple statements
xxi) Give me a compass box. and connectives used. Every simple
xxii) Bring the motor car here. statement has its truth value either ‘T’ or ‘F’.
Thus, while determining the truth value of
xxiii) It may rain today. a compound statement, we have to consider
xxiv) If a + b < 7, where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 then all possible combinations of truth values of
a < 7 and b < 7. the simple statements and connectives. This
can be easily expressed with the help of a
xxv) Can you speak in English?
truth table.
1.2 Logical connectives: Table 1.1: Logical connectives
A logical connective is also called a logical Sr. Connective Symbol Name of
operator, sentential connective or sentential No. corresponding
operator. It is a symbol or word used to connect compound
two or more sentences in a grammatically valid statement
way. 1. and ∧ conjunction
Observe the following sentences. 2. or ∨ disjunction
i) Monsoon is very good this year and the 3. not ∼ Negation
rivers are rising. 4. If ... then → conditional or
ii) Sneha is fat or unhappy. (or ⇒) implication
iii) If it rains heavily, then the school will be 5. If and only ⇔ Biconditional
closed. if (or ⇔) or double
or implication
iv) A triangle is equilateral if and only if it is iff
equiangular.
3
A) Conjuction (∧): ii) Other English words such as “but”, “yet”,
If p and q are any two statements connected “though”, “still”, “moreover” are also used
by the word “and”, then the resulting compound to join two simple statements instead of
statement “p and q” is called the conjunction of “and”.
p and q, which is written in the symbolic form iii) Conjunction of two statements corresponds
as ‘p∧q’. to the “intersection of two sets” in set
theory.
For example:
Let p : 2 is a rational number SOLVED EXAMPLES
q : 4 + 3i is a complex number Ex. 1: Write the following statements in
The conjunction of the above two symbolic form.
statements is p∧q i.e. 2 a rational number and i) An angle is a right angle and its measure is
4 + 3i is a complex number. 90°.
Consider the following simple statements: ii) Jupiter is a planet and Mars is a star.
i) 5 > 3 ; Nagpur is in Vidarbha. iii) Every square is a rectangle and 3 + 5 < 2.
p:5>3 Solution:
q : Nagpur is in Vidarbha i) Let p : An angle is right angle.
The conjunction is q : Its measure is 90°.
Then, p ∧ q is the symbolic form.
p∧q : 5 > 3 and Nagpur is in Vidarbha.
ii) Let p : Jupiter is plannet
ii) p : a+bi is irrational number for all a ,b ∈ R;
q:0!=1 q : Mars is a star.
Then, p ∧ q is the symbolic form.
The conjuction is
iii) Let p : .............
p∧q : a + bi is irrational number,
q : .............
for all a, b ∈ R and 0 ! = 1 Then, .....................
Truth table of conjunction (p∧q) Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the
following statements.
Table 1.2
i) Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i is an
p q p∧q imaginary number.
T T T ii) Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i is not an
T F F imaginary number.
F T F iii) Patna is not capital of Bihar and 5i is an
imaginary number.
F F F
iv) Patna is not capital of Bihar and 5i is not an
From the last column, the truth values of imaginary number.
above four combinations can be decided.
Remark: Solution: Let p : Patna is capital of Bihar
i) Conjunction is true if both sub-statements q : 5i is an imaginary number
are true. Otherwise it is false. p is true; q is true.
4
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are sense that first or second or both possibilities
true i.e. both Patna is capital of Bihar and 5i exist. Hence it is called inclusive sense of ‘or’. In
is an imaginary number are true. mathematics ‘or’ is used in the inclusive sense.
(As T ∧ T = T) Thus p or q (p ∨ q) means p or q or both p and q.
ii) False (F), since first sub-statement “Patna Example: Consider the followinig simple
is capital of Bihar” is true and second sub- statements.
statement 5i is not an imaginary number is i) 3 > 2 ; 2 + 3 = 5 p : 3 > 2
False. (As T ∧ F = F) q:2+3=5
iii) False (F), since first sub-statement “Patna The disjunction is p ∨ q : 3 > 2 or 2 + 3 = 5
is not capital of Bihar” is False and second ii) New York is in U.S.; 6 > 8
sub-statement 5i is an imaginary number is
True. (As F ∧ T = F) p : New York is in U.S.
iv) False (F), since both sub-statement “Patna q:6>8
is not capital of Bihar” and “5i is not an The disjunction is p ∨ q : New York is in
imaginary number” are False. U.S. or 6 > 8.
(As F ∧ F = F) Truth table of disjunction (p ∨ q)
Table 1.3
B) Disjunction (∨):
If p and q are two simple statements p q p∨q
connected by the word ‘or’ then the resulting T T T
compound statement ‘p or q’ is called the
T F T
disjunction of p and q, which is written in the
symbolic form as ‘p ∨ q’. F T T
Note: The word ‘or’ is used in English language F F F
in two distinct senses, one is exclusive and the Note:
other is inclusive.
i) The disjunction is false if both sub-
For example: Consider the following statements. statements are false. Otherwise it is true.
i) Throwing a coin will get a head or a tail. ii) Disjunction of two statements is equivalent
ii) The amount should be paid by cheque or by to ‘union of two sets’ in set theory.
demand draft.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
In the above statements ‘or’ is used in
the sense that only one of the two possibilities Ex. 1: Express the following statements in the
exists, but not both. Hence it is called exclusive symbolic form.
sense of ‘or’.
i) Rohit is smart or he is healthy.
Also consider the statements: ii) Four or five students did not attend the
i) Graduate or employee persons are eligible lectures.
to apply for this post. Solution:
ii) The child should be accompanied by father i) Let p : Rohit is smart
or mother. q : Rohit is healthy
In the above statements ‘or’ is used in the Then, p ∨ q is symbolic form.
5
ii) In this sentence ‘or’ is used for indicating EXERCISE 1.2
approximate number of students and not
Ex. 1: Express the following statements in
as a connective. Therefore, it is a simple
symbolic form.
statement and it is expressed as
i) e is a vowel or 2 + 3 = 5
p : Four or five students did not attend the
lectures. ii) Mango is a fruit but potato is a vegetable.
iii) Milk is white or grass is green.
Ex. 2: Write the truth values of the following
iv) I like playing but not singing.
statements.
v) Even though it is cloudy, it is still raining.
i) India is a democratic country or China is a
communist country. Ex. 2: Write the truth values of following
ii) India is a democratic country or China is statements.
not a communist country. i) Earth is a planet and Moon is a star.
iii) India is not a democratic country or China ii) 16 is an even number and 8 is a perfect
is a communist country. square.
iv) India is not a democratic country or China iii) A quadratic equation has two distinct roots
is not a communist country. or 6 has three prime factors.
iv) The Himalayas are the highest mountains
Solution: p : India is a democratic country.
but they are part of India in the North East.
q : China is a communist country.
C) Negation (∼):
p is true; q is true.
The denial of an assertion contained in a
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are statement is called its negation.
true i.e. both “India is a democratic country”
The negation of a statement is generally
and “China is a communist country” are
formed by inserting the word “not” at some
true. (As T ∨ T = T)
proper place in the statement or by prefixing the
ii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India statement with “it is not the case that” or “it is
is a democratic country” is true and second false that” or “it is not true that”.
sub-statement “China is not a communist
The negation of a statement p is written as
country” is false. (As T ∨ F = T)
∼ p (read as “negation p” or “not p”) in symbolic
iii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India form.
is not a democratic country” is false
For example:
and second sub-statement “China is a
communist country” is true. (As F ∨ T = T) Let p : 2 is an even number
∼ p : 2 is not an even number.
iv) False (F), since both the sub-statements
“India is not a democratic country” and or ∼ p : It is not the case that 2 is an even
“China is not a communist country” are number
false. (As F ∨ F = F) or ∼ p : It is false that 2 is an even number
6
The truth table of negation (∼ p) D) Conditional statement (Implication, →)
Table 1.4 If two simple statements p and q are
p ∼p connected by the group of words “If ... then ...”,
then the resulting compound statement “If p then
T F
q” is called a conditional statement (implication)
F T and is written in symbolic form as “p → q” (read
Note: Negation of a statement is equivalent to as “p implies q”).
the complement of a set in set theory.
For example:
SOLVED EXAMPLES i) Let p : There is rain
q : The match will be cancelled
Ex. 1: Write the negation of the following
statements. then, p → q : If there is rain then the match
will be cancelled.
i) p : He is honest.
ii) Let p : r is a rational number.
ii) q : p is an irrational number.
q : r is a real number.
Solution: then, p → q : If r is a rational number then r
i) ∼ p : He is not honest is a real number.
or ∼ p : It is not the case that he is honest The truth table for conditional statement
or ∼ p : It is false that he is honest. (p → q)
ii) ∼ q : p is not an irrational number. Table 1.5
or ∼ q : p q p→q
or ∼ q : T T T
T F F
F T T
EXERCISE 1.3
F F T
1. Write the negation of each of the following
statements.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
i) All men are animals.
ii) − 3 is a natural number. Ex. 1: Express the following statements in the
iii) It is false that Nagpur is capital of symbolic form.
Maharashtra i) If the train reaches on time, then I can catch
iv) 2 + 3 ≠ 5 the connecting flight.
2. Write the truth value of the negation of each ii) If price increases then demand falls.
of the following statements.
Solution:
i) 5 is an irrational number
i) Let p : The train reaches on time
ii) London is in England
q : I can catch the connecting flight.
iii) For every x ∈ N , x + 3 < 8. Therefore, p → q is symbolic form.
7
ii) Let p : price increases For example:
q : demand falls i) Let p : Milk is white
Therefore, p → q is symbolic form. q : the sky is blue
Therefore, p ↔ q : Milk is white if and only
Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the if the sky is blue.
following statements.
ii) Let p : 3 < 5
i) If Rome is in Italy then Paris is in France. q : 4 2 is an irrational number.
ii) If Rome is in Italy then Paris is not in Therefore, p ↔ q : 3 < 5 if and only if 4 2
France. is an irrational number.
iii) If Rome is not in Italy then Paris is in
France. Truth table for biconditional (p ↔ q)
iv) If Rome is not in Italy then Paris not in Table 1.6
France. p q p↔q
T T T
Solution:
T F F
p : Rome is in Italy
F T F
q : Paris is in France
F F T
p is true ; q is true.
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are SOLVED EXAMPLES
true. i.e. Rome is in Italy and Paris is in
France are true. (As T → T = T) Ex. 1: Translate the following statements (verbal
form) to symbolic form.
ii) False (F), since first sub-statement Rome
is in Italy is true and second sub-statement i) Price increases if and only if demand falls.
Paris in not in France is false. ii) 5 + 4 = 9 if and only if 3 + 2 = 7
(As T → F = F)
Solution:
iii) True (T), since first sub-statement Rome is
i) Let p : Price increases
not in Italy is false and second sub-statement
Paris is in France is true. (As F → T = T) q : demand falls
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
iv) True (T), since both the sub-statements are
false. i.e. Rome is not in Italy and Paris is ii) Let p : 5 + 4 = 9
not in France both are false. (As F → F = T) q : 3 + 2 = 7
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
E) Biconditional (Double implication) (↔)
or (⇔): Ex. 2: Write the truth value of each of the
If two statements p and q are connected by following statements.
the group of words “If and only if” or “iff”, then i) The Sun rises in the East if and only if
the resulting compound statement “p if and only 4+3=7
if q” is called biconditional of p and q, is written
in symbolic form as p ↔ q and read as “p if and ii) The Sun rises in the East if and only if
only if q”. 4 + 3 = 10
8
iii) The Sun rises in the West if and only if ii) It is false that Nagpur is capital of India iff
4+3=7 3+2=4
iv) The Sun rises in the West if and only if iii) ABCD is a parallelogram but it is not a
4 + 3 = 10 quadrilateral.
iv) It is false that 32 + 42 = 52 or 2 is not a
Solution: rational number but 32 + 42 = 52 and 8 > 3.
p : The Sun rises in the East;
q : 4 + 3 = 7; Solution:
p is true, q is true. i) Let p : quadrilateral is a square
The truth value of each statement is given q : quadrilateral is a rhombus.
by Then, p → ∼ q is symbolic form.
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements (i.e. ii) Let p : Nagpur is capital of India
“The Sun rises in the East” and “4 + 3 = 7”) q : 3 + 2 = 4
are true. (As T ↔ T = T) Then, ∼ p ↔ q is the symbolic form.
ii) False (F), since both the sub-statements iii) Let p : ABCD is a parallelogram
have opposite truth values (i.e. “The Sun
rises in the East” is true but “4 + 3 = 10” is q : ABCD is a quadrilateral
false.). (As T ↔ F = F) Then, p ∧ ∼ q is the symbolic form.
iii) False (F), since both the sub-statements iv) Let p : 32 + 42 = 52
have opposite truth values (i.e. “The Sun q : 2 is a rational number
rises in the East” is false but “4 + 3 = 7” is r : 8 > 3.
true.). (As F ↔ T = F)
Therefore, (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (p ∧ r) is the
iv) True (T), since both the sub-statements symbolic form of the required statement.
have same truth values (i.e. they are false.)
(As F ↔ F = T) Ex. 2: Express the following statements in
Therefore, p ↔ q is the symbolic form. symbolic form and write their truth values.
Note: i) It is not true that 2 is a rational number.
i) The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the ii) 4 is an odd number iff 3 is not a prime factor
compound statement “p → q” and “q → p” of 6.
of two compound statements. iii) It is not true that i is a real number.
ii) p ↔ q can also be read as –
a) q if and only if p. Solution:
q is true T. i) (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)
∴ ∼ q is false F. ii) (p → r) ∨ (q → s)
10
Ex. 2: Find truth value of each of the following 1.2.1 Quantifiers and Quantified statements:
statements.
i) For every x ∈ R, x2 is non negative. We
i) It is not true that 3 − 7i is a real number. shall now see how to write this statement
ii) If a joint venture is a temporary partnership, using symbols. ‘∀x’ is used to denote “For
then discount on purchase is credited to the all x”.
supplier.
Thus, the above statement may be written
iii) Every accountant is free to apply his own in mathematical notation " z ∈ R, z2 ≥ 0.
accounting rules if and only if machinery is The symbol ‘"’ stands for “For all values
an asset.
of”. This is known as universal quantifier.
iv) Neither 27 is a prime number nor divisible
by 4. ii) Also we can get x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
To write this in symbols we use the symbol
v) 3 is a prime number and an odd number. ∃ x to denote “there exists x”. Thus, we have
∃ x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
Ex. 3: If p and q are true and r and s are false,
find the truth value of each of the following The symbol ∃ stands for “there exists”. This
compound statements. symbol is known as existential quantifier.
i) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
Thus, there are two types of quantifiers.
ii) (p → q) ∨ (r ∧ s)
a) Universal quantifier (")
iii) ∼ [(∼ p ∨ s) ∧ (∼ q ∧ r)]
b) Existential quantifier (∃)
iv) (p → q) ↔ ∼ (p ∨ q)
Quantified statement:
v) [(p ∨ s) → r] ∨ ∼ [∼ (p → q) ∨ s]
An open sentence with a quantifier becomes
vi) ∼ [p ∨ (r ∧ s)] ∧ ∼ [(r ∧ ∼ s) ∧ q]
a statement and is called a quantified statement.
Ex. 4: Assuming that the following statements
are true, SOLVED EXAMPLES
p : Sunday is holiday,
q : Ram does not study on holiday, Ex. 1: Use quantifiers to convert each of the
find the truth values of the following following open sentences defined on N, into a
statements. true statement.
i) Sunday is not holiday or Ram studies on i) 2x + 3 = 11
holiday.
ii) If Sunday is not holiday then Ram studies ii) x3 < 64
on holiday. iii) x + 5 < 9
iii) Sunday is a holiday and Ram studies on
holiday. Solution:
11
Ex. 2: If A = {1, 3, 5, 7} determine the truth For example:
value of each of the following statements.
i) (p ∨ q) → r
i) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x2 < 1.
ii) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x + 5 ≤ 10 ii) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
iii) " x ∈ A, x + 3 < 9 iii) ∼ (p ∨ q) are statement patterns
iii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q iii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)
Truth table 1.12 iv) ∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ (q → r) → ∼ p
p q ∼p ∼q ∼p∨q (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q
Solution:
T T F F T T i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
T F F T F T
Truth table 1.14
F T T F T T
F F T T T T p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∧ q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
iv) (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
T T F F T F F
Complete the following truth table :
T F F T F T T
Truth table 1.13
F T T F F T T
p q r p∧r q∧r (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
F F T T F T T
T T T T
T F From the truth table 1.14, we observe that
F
all entires in 6th and 7th columns are identical.
F T T
∴ ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
F F
F T F ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
T F F
Truth table 1.15
T
p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∨ q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
F F F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B) Logical Equivalence: T T F F T F F
Two or more statement patterns are said to T F F T T F F
be logically equivalent if and only if the truth
values in their respective columns in the joint F T T F T F F
truth table are identical. F F T T F T T
If s1 , s2 , s3 , .... are logically equivalent From the truth table 1.15, we observe that
statement patterns, we write s1 ≡ s2 ≡ s3 ≡ ... all entires in 6th and 7th columns are identical.
∴ ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q.
For example: Using a truth table, verify that
i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
13
iii) Activity
p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ r)
iv) Activity
∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ (q → r) → ∼ p
14
Truth table 1.18 In the table 1.20, the entries in the last
column are not all T and not all F. Therefore, the
p q p∧q p∨q (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q)
given statement pattern is a contingency.
T T T T T
SOLVED EXAMPLES
T F F T T
F T F T T Ex. 1: Using the truth table, examine whether
F F F F T the following statement patterns are tautology,
contradictions or contingency.
In the above table, all the entries in the last
column are T. Therefore, the given statement i) (p ∧ q) → p
pattern is a tautology. ii) (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼ (p ∧ q)
iii) (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q
Contradiction:
iv) p → (∼ q ∨ r)
A statement pattern always having the truth
value ‘F’ irrespective of the truth values of its
Solution:
component statements is called a contradiction.
i) The truth table for (p ∧ q) → p
For example:
Truth table 1.21
Consider p ∧ ∼ p
p q p∧q (p ∧ q) → p
Truth table 1.19 T T T T
p ∼p p∧∼p T F F T
T F F F T F T
F T F F F F T
In the above truth table, all the entries in the In the table 1.21, all the entries in the last
last column are F. Therefore, the given statement column are T. Therefore, the given statement
pattern is a contradiction. pattern is a tautology.
Contingency:
ii) Activity:
A statement pattern which is neither
a tautology nor a contradiction is called a Prepare the truth table for (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼
contingency. (p ∧ q)
For example: Truth table 1.22
Consider (p → q) ∧ (q → p) p q ∼ p ∼ q p ∧ q ∼ (p ∧ q) (∼ p ∨∼ q) ( ∼ p ∨∼ q)
↔ ∼ ( p ∧ q)
Truth table 1.20
p q p → q q → p (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
iii) The truth table for (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q
F F T T T
15
Truth table 1.23 i) q ∨ [∼ (p ∧ q)]
p q ∼q ∼q∧p (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q ii) (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ p)
T T F F F iii) (p ∧ ∼ q) → (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
T F T T F iv) ∼ p → (p → ∼ q)
F T F F F
3. Prove that each of the following statement
F F T F F pattern is a tautology.
In the table 1.23, all the entries in the last i) (p ∧ q) → q
column are F.
ii) (p → q) ↔ (∼ q → ∼ p)
Therefore, the given statement pattern is a
contradiction. iii) (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) → (p → q)
iv) The truth table for p → (∼ q ∨ r) iv) (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼ (p ∧ q)
i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
EXERCISE 1.6
ii) p → (p → q) ≡ ∼ q → (p → q)
1. Prepare truth tables for the following iii) ∼ (p → ∼ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ (∼ q) ≡ p ∧ q
statement patterns.
iv) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p
i) p → (∼ p ∨ q)
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) 7. Prove that the following pairs of statement
patterns are equivalent.
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q)
i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
iv) (p ∧ q) ∨ ∼ r
ii) p ↔ q and (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
2. Examine whether each of the following iii) p → q and ∼ q → ∼ p and ∼ p ∨ q
statement patterns is a tautology, a
contradiction or a contingency iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) and ∼ p ∨ ∼ q.
16
D) Duality:
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Two compound statements s1 and s2 are said
to be duals of each other, if one can be obtained Ex. 1: Write the duals of the following statements:
from the other by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧,
and c by t and t by c, where t denotes tautology i) ∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ q ∧ ∼ p)
and c denotes contradiction. ii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (r ∨ s)
iii) [(p ∧ q) ∨ r] ∧ [(q ∧ r) ∨ s]
Note:
i) Dual of a statement is unique. Solution: The duals are given by
ii) The symbol ∼ is not changed while finding i) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ q ∨ ∼ p)
the dual. ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ (r ∧ s)
iii) Dual of the dual is the original statement iii) [(p ∨ q) ∧ r] ∨ [(q ∨ r) ∧ s]
itself.
Ex. 2: Write the duals of the following statements:
iv) The connectives ∧ and ∨, the special
statements t and c are duals of each other. i) All natural numbers are integers or rational
numbers.
v) T is changed to F and vice-versa.
ii) Some roses are red and all lillies are white.
For example: Solution: The duals are given by
i) Consider the distributive laws, i) All natural numbers are integers and rational
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) ... (1) numbers.
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ... (2) ii) Some roses are red or all lillies are white.
Observe that (2) can be obtained from (1)
by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧ i.e. interchanging EXERCISE 1.7
∧ and ∨.
1. Write the dual of each of the following :
Hence (1) is the dual of (2).
i) (p ∨ q) ∨ r
Similarly, (1) can be obtained from (2) by
replacing ∨ by ∧ and ∧ by ∨. Hence, (2) is the ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∧ [p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ ∼ r)]
dual of (1). iii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r
Therefore, statements (1) and (2) are called iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
duals of each other.
2. Write the dual statement of each of the
following compound statements.
ii) Consider De-Morgan’s laws :
i) 13 is prime number and India is a
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q ... (1) democratic country.
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q ... (2) ii) Karina is very good or every body likes
her.
Statements, (1) and (2) are duals of each
other. iii) Radha and Sushmita can not read
Urdu.
iv) A number is real number and the square
of the number is non negative.
17
E) Negation of a compound statement: 3) Negation of negation:
We have studied the negation of simple Let p be a simple statement.
statements. Negation of a simple statement is Truth table 1.25
obtained by inserting “not” at the appropriate
p ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
place in the statement e.g. the negation of “Ram
is tall” is “Ram is not tall”. But writing negations T F T
of compound statements involving conjunction., F T F
disjunction, conditional, biconditional etc. is not
straight forward. From the truth table 1.25, we see that
∼ (∼ p) ≡ p
1) Negation of conjunction:
Thus, the negation of negation of a
In section 1.3(B) we have seen that ∼ (p statement is the original statement - ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p.
∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q. It means that negation of the
conjunction of two simple statements is the For example:
disjunction of their negation.
Let p : 5 is an irrational number.
Consider the following conjunction.
The negation of p is given by
“Parth plays cricket and chess.”
∼ p : 5 is not an irrational number.
Let p : Parth plays cricket.
∼ (∼ p) : 5 is an irrational number.
q : Parth plays chess.
Therefore, negation of negation of p is
Given statement is p ∧ q. ∼ (∼ p) i.e. it is not the case that 5 is not an
You know that ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q irrational number.
18
All the entries in the columns 4 and 6 of 5) Negation of Biconditional (Double
table 1.26 are identical. implication):
∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q Consider the biconditional p ↔ q.
e.g. If every planet moves around the Sun Method 1:
then every Moon of the planet moves around the We have seen that
Sun. (p ↔ q) ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Negation of the given statement is, Every ∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ ∼ [(p → q) ∧ (q → p)]
planet moves around the Sun but (and) every ≡ ∼ (p → q) ∨ ∼ (q → p)
Moon of the planet does not move around the ... by De-Morgans law
Sun. ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
... by negation of the
conditional statement
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
Method 2:
We also prove this by using truth table 1.27.
Truth Table 1.27
p q p ↔ q ∼ (p ↔ ∼ q) ∼p ∼q p ∧ ∼ q q ∧ ∼ p (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
T T T F F F F F F
T F F T F T T F T
F T F T T F F T T
F F T F T T F F F
Since all the entries in the columns 4 and 9 of truth table 1.27 are identical.
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p).
For example: 2n is divisible by 4 if and only if For example: Consider the statement pattern
n is an even integer. (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q). Its negation is given by :
Let p : 2n is divisible by 4 i.e. ∼ [(∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q)]
q : n is an even integer. ≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ q)
6) Negation of a quantified statement:
Therefore, negation of the given statement
is “2n is divisible by 4 and n is not an even integer While forming negation of a quantified
or n is an even integer and 2n is not divisible statement, we replace the word ‘all’ by ‘some’,
by 4”. “for every” by “there exists” and vice versa.
19
ii) If India is playing world cup and Rohit is Converse: q → p i.e. If a man is happy
the captain, then we are sure to win. then he is rich.
iii) Some bureaucrats are efficient. Inverse: ∼ p → ∼ q i.e. If a man is not rich
then he is not happy.
Solution: Contrapositive: ∼ q → ∼ p i.e. If a man is
i) The negation is, not happy then he is not rich.
Some girls are not sincere ii) Let p : The train reaches on time.
OR, There exists a girl, who is not sincere. q : I can catch the connecting flight.
ii) Let p : India is playing world cup Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
q : Rohit is the captain statement is p → q.
(p ∧ q) → r Contrapositive i.e.
Therefore, the negation is, Ex. 3: Using the rules of negation, write the
∼ [(p ∧ q) → r] ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ r negation of the following :
India is playing world cup and Rohit is the i) (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r)
captain and we are not sure to win. ii) (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q
iii) The negation is, all bureaucrats are not iii) The crop will be destroyed if there is a
efficient. flood.
For example: Write the converse, inverse and ... by De-Morgan's law and
contrapositive of the following compound ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p and ∼ (∼ r) = r.
statements.
ii) The negation of (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q is
i) If a man is rich then he is happy.
ii) If the train reaches on time then I can catch ∼ [(p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q]
the connecting flight. ≡ ∼ (p ∨ ∼ r) ∨ ∼ (∼ q)
... by De Morgan's law
Solution:
≡ (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ q
i) Let p : A man is rich.
q : He is happy. ... by De Morgan's law and
∼ (∼ q) ≡ q.
Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
statement is p → q.
20
iii) Let p : The crop will be destroyed. 2. Using the rules of negation, write the
q : There is a flood. negations of the following :
21
Note: In case of three simple statements p,q,r, ≡ [(p ∧ ∼ p) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
we note the following : ... by Distributive law
i) p ∧ q ∧ r is true if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ [(c ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
true and p ∧ q ∧ r is false even if any one of
p, q, r is false. ... by Complement law
ii) p ∨ q ∨ r is false if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ (∼ p ∧ q) → q ... by Commutative law
false, otherwise it is true. ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ q
... by ∼ ∼ (p → q) ≡ ∼ (p ∧ ∼ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ q
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex. 1: Without using truth table, show that ≡ [(p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ q ... by De Morgan's law
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q) ≡ p ≡ p ∨ (∼ q ∨ q)] ... by Associative law
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ≡p∨t
iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ p ∨ q ≡t
Solution:
EXERCISE 1.9
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q)
≡p∨c ... by complement law 1. Without using truth table, show that
≡ p ... by Identity law i) p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ii) p ∧ [(∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q] ≡ p
≡ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) ∼ [(p ∧ q) → ∼ q] ≡ p ∧ q
... by De Morgans law iv) ∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ [∼ (q → r)] → ∼ p
v) (p ∨ q) → r ≡ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)
≡ ∼ p ∧ (∼ q ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 2. Using the algebra of statement, prove that
≡∼p∧t i) [p ∧ (q ∨ r)] ∨ [∼ r ∧ ∼ q ∧ p] ≡ p
... by Complement law ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ≡
≡ ∼ p ... by Identity law p ∨ ∼ q)
iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧
(∼ p ∨ q)
≡ (p ∨ ∼ p) ∧ (p ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 1.5 Venn Diagrams:
≡ t ∧ (p ∨ q) ... by Complement law We have already studied Venn Diagrams
while studying set theory. Now we try to
≡ p ∨ q ... by Identity law
investigate the similarly between rules of logical
connectives and those of various operations on
Ex. 2: Without using truth table, prove that
sets.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q is a tautology.
The rules of logic and rules of set theory go
Solution: hand in hand.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q
22
i) Disjunction in logic is equivalent to the iii) iv)
union of sets in set theory.
ii) Conjunction in logic is equivalent to the
intersection of sets in set theory.
A = B A∩B≠φ
iii) Negation of a statement in logic is equivalent
to the complement of a set in set theory. v)
iv) Implication of two statements in logic is
equivalent to ‘subset’ in set theory.
v) Biconditional of two statements in logic is
A ∩ B = φ
equivalent to “equality of two sets” in set
Fig. 1.1
theory.
Main object of this discussion is actually to Observe the following four statements
give analogy between algebra of statements in i) a) All professors are educated.
logic and operations on sets in set theory. b) Equiangular triangles are precisely
Let A and B be two nonempty sets equilateral triangles.
i) The union of A and B is defined as ii) No policeman is a thief.
iii) Some doctors are rich.
A∪B = {x / x∈A or x∈B}
iv) Some students are not scholars.
ii) The intersection of A and B is defined as
These statements can be generalized respectively
A∩B = {x / x∈A and x∈B} as
iii) The difference of A and B (relative a) All x’s are y’s c) Some x’s are y’s
complement of B in set A) is defined as b) No x’s are y’s d) Some x’s are not y’s
A−B = {x / x∈A, x∉B}
a) Diagram for “All x’s are y’s”
Note: One of the possible relationships between There are two possibilities
two sets A and B holds .
i) All x’s are y’s i.e. x ⊂ y
i) A ⊂ B ii) x’s are precisely y’s i.e. x = y
ii) B ⊂ A For example:
iii) A = B i) Consider the statement
iv) A ⊄ B , B ⊄ A and A ∩ B ≠ φ “All professors are educated”
v) A ⊄ B , B ⊄ A and A ∩ B = φ Let p : The set of all professors.
E : The set of all educated people.
Figure:
Let us choose the universal set as
i) ii) u : The set of all human beings.
A ⊂ B B⊂A
P⊂E
Fig. 1.2
23
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.2) represents the
truth of the statement i.e. P ⊂ E.
ii) Consider the statement
India will be prosperous if and only if its
citizens are hard working. E∩O=φ
Let P : The set of all prosperous Indians. Fig. 1.5
H : The set of all hard working Indians.
U : The set of all human beings. The Venn diagram (fig. 1.5) represents the
truth of the statement i.e. E ∩ O = φ.
Diagram for “Some X’s are Y’s”
24
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.7) represents the SOLVED EXAMPLES
truth of the statement i.e. I⊂R.
Ex. 1: Express the truth of each of the following
Diagram for “Some X’s are not Y’s” statement by Venn diagram.
i) Consider the statement i) Equilateral triangles are isosceles.
Some squares of integers are not odd ii) Some rectangles are squares.
numbers. iii) No co-operative industry is a proprietary
Let S : The set of all squares of integers. firm.
O : The set of all odd numbers. iv) All rational numbers are real numbers.
Let us choose the universal set as v) Many servants are not graduates.
U : The set of all integers. vi) Some rational numbers are not integers.
vii) Some quadratic equations have equal roots.
viii) All natural numbers are real numbers and x
is not a natural number.
Solution:
S − O ≠ φ
i) Let us choose the universal set.
Fig. 1.8 U : The set of all triangles.
Let I : The set of all isosceles triangles.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.8) represents the
E : The set of all equilateral triangles.
truth of the statement i.e. S − O ≠ φ.
25
iii) Let us choose the universal set. vi) Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all industries. U : The set of all real numbers.
Let C : The set of all co-operative industries. Let Q : The set of all rational numbers.
P : The set of all proprietary firms. I : The set of all integers.
C∩P=φ Q−I≠φ
Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.15
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.12) represents the The Venn diagram (fig. 1.15) represents
truth of the given statement i.e. C ∩ P = φ. truth of the given statement i.e. Q − I ≠ φ shaded
portion.
iv) Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all complex numbers. vii) Let us choose the universal set.
Let A : The set of all rational numbers. U : The set of all equations.
B : The set of all real numbers. Let A : The set of all quadratic equations.
B : The set of all quadratic equations
having equal roots.
A⊂B
Fig. 1.13
B⊂A
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.13) represents Fig. 1.16
truth of the given statement i.e. A ⊂ B.
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.16) represents the
v) Let us choose the universal set. truth of the given statement i.e. B ⊂ A.
U : The set of all human beings.
Let G : The set of all servants. viii) Let us choose the universal set.
C : The set of all graduate people. U : The set of all complex numbers.
Let N : The set of all natural numbers.
R : The set of all real numbers.
G−C≠φ
Fig. 1.14
(a) (b)
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.14) represents Fig. 1.17
truth of the given statement i.e. G − C ≠ φ.
26
The Venn diagram (fig. 1.17) represents the By Venn diagrams (fig. 1.19), we observe
truth of the given statement. that truth set of statements (i) and (ii) are equal.
Hence, statements (i) and (ii) are logically
Ex. 2: Draw the Venn diagram for the truth of equivalent.
the following statements.
i) There are students who are not scholars. EXERCISE 1.10
ii) There are scholars who are students.
1. Represent the truth of each of the following
iii) There are persons who are students and
statements by Venn diagrams.
scholars.
i) Some hardworking students are
obedient.
Solution:
ii) No circles are polygons.
Let us choose the universal set. iii) All teachers are scholars and scholars
U : The set of all human beings. are teachers.
Let S : The set of all scholars. iv) If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then it
T : The set of all students. is a parallelogram.
27
2. Logical connectives:
Sr. Name of the
No. Compound Connective Symbolic form Negation
statement
1. Conjunction and p∧q ∼p∨∼q
2. Disjunction or p∨q ∼p∧∼q
3. Negation not ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
=p
4. Conditional or If ... then p→q p∨∼q
implication or
p⇒q
5. Biconditional or If and only p↔q (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨
double implication if ... iff ... (or p ⇔ q) (~p ∧ q)
3. Tautology: A statement pattern which is always true (T) is called a tautology (t).
Contradiction: A statement pattern which is always false (F) is called a contradiction (c).
Contingency \: A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor contradiction is called a
contingency.
4. Algebra of statements :
(Some standard equivalent statements)
1. p∨p≡p Idempotent laws p˄p≡p
2. p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws p ∧ (q ∧ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
≡p∨q∨r ≡p∧q∧r
3. p∨q≡q∨p Commutative laws p∧q≡q∧p
4. p ∨ (q ∧ r) Distributive laws p ∧ (q ∨ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
5. p∨c≡p Identity laws p∧c≡c
p∨t≡t p∧t≡p
6. p∨∼p≡t Complement laws p∧∼p≡c
∼t≡c ∼c≡t
7. ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p Involution law (law of
double negation)
8. ∼ (p ∨ q) DeMorgan’s laws ∼ (p ∧ q)
≡∼p∧∼q ≡∼p∨∼q
9. p→q Contrapositive law
≡∼q→∼p
28
i) p→q≡∼q→∼p≡∼p∨q 2. Which of the following is an open statement?
ii) p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ a) x is a natural number.
(∼ q ∨ p) b) Give me a glass of water.
5. Venn-diagrams : c) Wish you best of luck.
i) All x’s are y’s d) Good morning to all.
29
6. If p : He is intelligent. b) truth value of p is F
q : He is strong c) p is both true and false
Then, symbolic form of statement “It is d) p is neither true nor false.
wrong that, he is intelligent or strong” is
a) ∼ p ∨ ∼ p b) ∼ (p ∧ q) 13. Conditional p → q is equivalent to
c) ∼ (p ∨ q) d) p ∨ ∼ q a) p → ∼ q
b) ∼ p ∨ q
7. The negation of the proposition “If 2 is
prime, then 3 is odd”, is c) ∼ p → ∼ q
b) 2 is prime and 3 is not odd. 14. Negation of the statement “This is false or
c) 2 is not prime and 3 is odd. That is true” is
d) If 2 is not prime, then 3 is odd. a) That is true or This is false
b) That is true and This is false
8. The statement (∼ p ∧ q) ∨∼ q is
c) That is true and That is false
a) p ∨ q b) p ∧ q
d) That is false and That is true
c) ∼ (p ∨ q) d) ∼ (p ∧ q)
15. If p is any statement then (p ∨ ∼ p) is a
9. Which of the following is always true?
a) contingency
a) (p → q) ≡ ∼ q → ∼ p
b) contradiction
b) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
c) tautology
c) ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q
d) None of them.
d) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
II) Fill in the blanks:
10. ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) is logically equivalent
to i) The statement q → p is called as the
––––––––– of the statement p → q.
a) ∼ p b) p
ii) Conjunction of two statement p and q
c) q d) ∼ q is symbolically written as –––––––––.
11. If p and q are two statements then (p → q) iii) If p ∨ q is true then truth value of
↔ (∼ q → ∼ p) is ∼ p ∨ ∼ q is –––––––––.
30
viii) Let p : the problem is easy. r : It is xi) If x is real number then x2 ≥ 0.
not challenging then verbal form of xii) Do not come inside the room.
∼ p → r is –––––––––.
xiii) What a horrible sight it was!
ix) Truth value of 2 + 3 = 5 if and only if
− 3 > − 9 is –––––––––.
2. Which of the following sentences are
III) State whether each is True or False: statements? In case of a statement, write
i) Truth value of 2 + 3 < 6 is F. down the truth value.
ii) There are 24 months in year is a i) What is happy ending?
statement. ii) The square of every real number is
iii) p ∨ q has truth value F is both p and q positive.
has truth value F. iii) Every parallelogram is a rhombus.
iv) The negation of 10 + 20 = 30 is, it is iv) a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b) for all a, b ∈ R.
false that 10 + 20 ≠ 30.
v) Please carry out my instruction.
v) Dual of (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ t is (p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ C.
vi) The Himalayas is the highest mountain
vi) Dual of “John and Ayub went to the range.
forest” is “John and Ayub went to the
forest”. vii) (x − 2) (x − 3) = x2 − 5x + 6 for all x∈R.
32
iv) Kanchanganga is in India and Everest 16. State the dual of each of the following
is in Nepal. statements by applying the principle of
v) If x∈A∩B, then x∈A and x∈B. duality.
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧∼ (p ∧ q)
11. Construct the truth table for each of the ii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ ∼ [(p ∧ q) ∨ (r ∨ s)]
following statement pattern.
iii) 2 is even number or 9 is a perfect
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ↔ (q → p) square.
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q) 17. Rewrite the following statements without
using the connective ‘If ... then’.
iv) (p ∨ r) → ∼ (q ∧ r)
i) If a quadrilateral is rhombus then it is
v) (p ∨ ∼ q) → (r ∧ p) not a square.
v v v
34
2 Matrices
Let's Study
• Types of Matrices
• Algebra of Matrices
• Properties of Matrices
• Elementary Transformation
• Inverse of Matrix
• Application of Matrices
• Determinant of a Matrix
Let's Recall
• Determinant of a Matrix
2.1 Introduction:
The theory of matrices was developed by the mathematician Arthur Cayley. Matrices are useful in
expressing numerical information in a compact form. They are effectively used in expressing different
operations. Hence they are essential in economics, finance, business and statistics.
Definition: A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers in m rows and n columns, enclosed in [ ] or ()
is called a matrix of order m by n. A matrix by itself does not have a value or any special meaning.
The order of a matrix is denoted by m × n, read as m by n.
Each member of a matrix is called an element of the matrix.
Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters like A, B, C, …. and their elements are denoted by
small letters like aij, bij, cij, ….. etc. where aij is the element in ith row and jth column of the matrix A.
2 3 9
For example: i) A 1 0 7 here a32 = −2
4 2 1
A is a matrix having 3 rows and 3 columns. The order of A is 3×3. There are 9 elements in the
matrix A.
1 5
ii) B 2 6
0 9
B is a matrix having 3 rows and 2 columns. The order of B is 3×2. There are 6 elements in the
matrix B.
In general, a matrix of order m × n is represented by
35
a11 a12 ... a1 j ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 j ... a2 n
21
a31 a32 ... a3 j ... a3n
A aij
... ... ... ... ... ...
m×n
2) Column Matrix: A matrix that has only one column is called a column matrix. It is of order
m × 1, where m ≥ 1.
5
1
For example: i) ii) 9
21
0
3 31
Note: A real number can be treated as a matrix of order 1×1. It is called a singleton matrix.
3) Zero or Null Matrix : A matrix in which every element is zero is called a zero or null matrix. It
is denoted by O.
0 0
For example: O = 0 0
0 0 32
4) Square Matrix : A matrix with the number of rows equal to the number of columns is called a
square matrix. If a square matrix is of order n×n then n is called the order of the square matrix.
5 3 i
For example: A = 1 0 7
2i 8 9 33
36
(iii) elements aij, where i < j, are called elements above the diagonal;
(iv) elements aij, where i > j, are called elements below the diagonal.
Statements iii) and iv) are to be verified by looking at matrices of different orders.
5) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which every non-diagonal element is zero, is called a
diagonal matrix.
5 0 0
1 0
For example: i) A = 0 0 0 ii) B =
0 0 0 33 0 5 22
Note : If a11, a22, a33 are diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix A of order 3, then we write the matrix
A as A = Diag[a11, a22, a33].
6) Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are same is called a scalar
matrix.
5 0 0
For example: A = 0 5 0
0 0 5 33
7) Unit or Identity Matrix : A scalar matrix in which all the diagonal elements are 1(unity), is
called a Unit Matrix or an Identity Matrix. Identity Matrix of order n is denoted by In.
1 0 0
For example: I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Note :
1. Every Identity Matrix is a scalar matrix but every scalar matrix need not be Identity Matrix.
However a scalar matrix is a scalar multiple of the identity matrix.
2. Every scalar matrix is diagonal matrix but every diagonal matrix need not be scalar matrix.
8) Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which every element below the diagonal is zero
is called an upper triangular matrix.
Matrix A = [aij]n×n is upper triangular if aij = 0 for all i > j.
4 1 2
For example: i) A = 0 0 3
0 0 9 33
9) Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which every element above the diagonal is zero,
is called a lower triangular matrix.
Matrix A = [aij]n×n is lower triangular if aij = 0 for all i < j.
2 0 0
For example: A = 1 0 0
5 1 9 33
37
10) Triangular Martix: A square matrix is called a triangular matrix if it is an upper triangular or a
lower triangular matrix.
Note: The diagonal, scalar, unit and square null matrices are also triangular matrices.
(11) Determinant of a Matrix: Determinant of a matrix is defined only for a square matrix.
If A is a square matrix, then the same arrangement of the elements of A also gives us a determinant.
It is denoted by |A| or det(A).
If A = [aij]n×n then |A| is of order n.
1 3 1 3
For example: i) If A = then |A| =
5 4 22 -5 4
2 1 3 2 -1 3
ii) If B = 4 1 5 then |B| = - 4 1 5
7 5 0 33 7 -5 0
2 3 4 2 3 4
For example: i) If B = 3 4 5 then B = 3 4 5
4 5 6 33 4 5 6
|B| = 2(24 − 25) − 3(18 − 20) + 4(15 − 16)
= −2 + 6 − 4
= 0
|B| = 0
Therefore B is a singular matrix.
2 1 3 2 -1 3
ii) A = 7 4 5 Then A = - 7 4 5
2 1 6 33 -2 1 6
|A| = 2(24 − 5) − (−1)(−42 + 10) + 3(−7 + 8)
= 38 − 32 + 3
= 9
|A| = 9
As |A| ≠ 0, A is a non-singular matrix.
38
SOLVED EXAMPLES
x y yz z x
Ex. 1) Show that the matrix 1 1 1 is a singular matrix.
z x y
x y yz z x
Solution : Let A = 1 1 1
z x y
x+ y y+z z+x
∴ |A| = 1 1 1
z x y
Now |A| = (x + y) (y − x) − (y + z) (y − z) + (z + x) (x − z)
= y2 − x2 − y2 + z2 + x2 − z2
=0
∴ A is a singular matrix.
EXERCISE 2.1
i j i j
2 3
(2) Classify each of the following matrices as a row, a column, a square, a diagonal, a scalar, a unit,
an upper traingular, a lower triangular matrix.
3 2 4 5
6 0
(i) 0 0 5 (ii) 4 (iii) 9 2 3 (iv)
0 0 0 0 6
3
2 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0
(v) 3 1 0 (vi) 0 5 0 (vii) 0 1 0
7 3 1 1 0 0 1
0 0
3
(3) Which of the following matrices are singular or non singular?
a b c 5 0 5
r (ii) 1 99 100
(i) p q
2a p 2b q 2c r 6 99 105
39
3 5 7
7 5
(iii) 2 1 4 (iv)
4 7
3 2 5
4 3 1 K 1 2 3
7 3 7 K 1 3
(i) (ii) (iii) 1 2
2 K 10 9 1 1 2 4
1 5
1 3 4
For example: i) If A = 3 2 then AT =
5 2 7 23
4 7 32
1 0 2 1 8 4
ii) If B = 8 1 2 then BT = 0 1 3
4 3 5 33 2 2 5 33
i) Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n in which aij = aji, for all i and j, is called a
symmetric matrix.
a h g
For example: A = h b f
g f c 33
Let's Note: The diagonal matrices are symmetric. Null square matrix is symmetric.
ii) Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n in which aij = −aji, for all i and j, is called
a skew symmetric matrix.
Here for i = j, aij = −aji, ∴ 2aii = 0 ∴ aii = 0 for all i = 1, 2, 3, ........ n.
In a skew symmetric matrix, each diagonal element is zero.
0 4 7
For example: B = 4 0 5
7 5 0 33
40
Let's Note:
1) (AT)T = A
2) If A is a symmetric matrix then A = AT
3) If B is a skew symmetric matrix then B = −BT
4) A null square matrix is also skew symmetric.
Let's note: |A| = |AT|
(3) Equality of Two matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if (i) order of A = order of
B and (ii) corresponding elements of A and B are same. That is aij = bij for all i, j. Symbolically,
this is written as A=B.
2 1
2 4 1
For example: i) If A = and B = 4 0
1 0 0 23 1 0 32
2 4 1
Here BT = In matrices A and B, A ≠ B, but A = BT.
1 0 0 23
2a b 4 1 4
For example: ii) If , then find a and b.
7 2 7 a 3b
Using definition of equality of matrices, we have
2a − b = 1 ...... (1) and
a + 3b = 2 ...... (2)
5 3
Solving equation (1) and (2), we get a = and b =
7 7
Let's note: If A = B, then B = A
(4) Addition of Two Matrices: A and B are two matrices of same order. Their addition, denoted by
A + B, is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B. Note that orders
of A, B and A + B are same.
Thus if A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n then A + B = [aij+ bij]m×n
2 3 1 4 3 1
For example: i) If A = and B = find A + B.
1 2 0 23 5 7 8 23
Solution: Since A and B have same order, A + B is defined and
2 (4) 3 3 11 2 6 2
A+B=
1 5 2 7 0 (8) 23 4 5 8 23
Let's Note: If A and B are two matrices of same order then subtraction of two matrices is defined as,
A − B = A + (−B), where −B is the negative of matrix B.
1 4 1 5
2 6
For example: i) If A = 3 2 and B = , Find A − B.
0 5 32 4 9 32
41
Solution: Since A and B have same order, A − B is defined and
1 4 1 5 1 1 4 (5) 0 1
3 2 2 6 4
A − B = A + (−B) = − = 3 (2) 2 6 1
0 5 32 4 9 32 0 (4) 5 (9) 4 4
(5) Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix: If A is any matrix and k is a scalar, then the matrix obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k is called the scalar multiple of the matrix A and
is denoted by kA.
Thus if A = [aij]m×n and k is any scalar then kA = [kaij]m×n.
Here the orders of matrices A and kA are same.
1 5
3
For example: i) If A = 3 2 and k = , then kA.
2
4 7 32
3 15
2 2
1 5
3 3
3 2 = 3
9
A =
2 2 2
4 7 32
6 21
2 32
42
SOLVED EXAMPLES
5 3 2 7
3 1
Ex. 1) If A = 1 0 and B = , find 2A − 3B.
4 2 2 2
5 3 2 7
3 1
Solution: Let 2A − 3B = 2 1 0 − 3
4 2 2 2
10 6 6 21
= 2 0 + 9 3
8 4 6 6
10 6 6 21
0 3
= 29
8 6 4 6
4 27
3
= 11
14 2
Ex. 2) If A = diag(2, −5, 9), B = diag(−3, 7, −14) and C = diag(1, 0, 3), find B−A−C.
Solution: B − A − C = B − (A + C)
Now, A + C = diag(2, −5, 9) + diag(1, 0, 3) = diag(3, −5, 12)
B − A − C = B − (A + C) = diag(−3, 7, −14) − diag(3, −5, 12)
= diag(−6, 12, −26)
6 0 0
0 12 0
=
0 0 26
2 3 1 1 3 2 1 1 6
Ex. 3) If A = ,B= 4 6 1 and C = 0 2 5 , find the matrix X such that
4 7 5
3A − 2B + 4X = 5C.
Solution: Since 3A − 2B + 4X = 5C
∴ 4X = 5C − 3A + 2B
1 1 6 2 3 1 1 3 2
∴ 4X = 5 −3 +2
0 2 5 4 7 5 4 6 1
43
5 5 30 6 9 3 2 6 4
= +
+
0 10 25 12 21 15 8 12 2
5 6 2 5 9 6 30 3 4
=
0 12 8 10 21 12 25 15 2
1 8 37
=
4 1 42
1 1 8 37
∴ X =
4 4 1 42
1 37
4 2 4
X =
1 1 21
4 2
2 x 1 1 1 6 4 5
Ex. 4) If + = , find x and y.
3 4 y 3 0 6 12
2 x 1 1 1 6 4 5
Solution: Given + =
3 4 y 3 0 6 12
2 x 5 4 5
∴
6 4 y 6 12
∴ x = 2, y = 3
2 a 3
Ex. 5) Find a, b, c if the matrix A = 7 4 5 is a symmetric matrix.
c b 6
2 a 3
Solution: Given that A = 7 4 5 is a symmetric matrix.
c b 6
44
1 5
Ex. 6) If A = 2 0 Find (AT)T.
3 4 32
1 5
Solution: Let A = 2 0
3 4 32
1 2 3
∴ AT =
5 0 4 23
1 5
Now (AT)T = 2 0
3 4 32
=A
2 1 2 1
3 1
Ex. 7) If X + Y = 1 3 and X − 2Y = then find X, Y.
3 2 4 2
2 1 2 1
3 1
Solution: Let A = 1 3 and B =
3 2 4 2
X + Y = A ......... (1), X − 2Y = B ......... (2), Solving (1) and (2) for X and Y
Consider (1) − (2), 3Y = A − B,
1
∴ Y = (A − B)
3
2 1 2 1
1
∴ Y = 1 3 3 1
3
3 2 4 2
4 2
1
= 2 4
3
7 0
4 2
3
3
=
2 4
3 3
7 0
3
45
From (1) X + Y = A,
∴ X = A − Y, 4 2
3
2 1 3
1 3 2 4
∴ X = −
3 3
3 2
7 0
3
2 1
3 3
5 5
X=
3 3
2 2
3
EXERCISE 2.2
2 3 1 2 4 3
5 4 1 4
(1) If A = , B = 2 2 and C =
6 1 0 3 2 1
Show that (i) A + B = B + A
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
1 2 1 3
(2) If A = ,B= 4 7 , then find the matrix A − 2B + 6I, where I is the unit matrix of
5 3
order 2.
1 2 3 9 1 2
4 2 5
(3) If A = 3 7 8 , B = then find the matrix C such that A + B + C is a zero
0 6 1 4 0 3
matrix.
1 2 1 2 2 4
4 2 1 4
(4) If A = 3 5 , B = and C = , find the matrix X such that
6 0 1 5 3 6
3A − 4B + 5X = C.
5 1 4
(5) If A = , find (AT)T.
3 2 0
7 3 1
2 4 1
(6) If A = , find (A ) .
T T
5 9 1
46
3
1 5 a
(7) Find a, b, c if b 5 7 is a symmetric matrix.
4 c 0
0 5i x
(8) Find x, y, z if y 0 z is a skew symmetric matrix.
3
2 0
2
(9) For each of the following matrices, find its transpose and state whether it is symmetric, skew-
symmetric or neither.
1 2 5 2 5 1 0 1 2i i 2
(i) 2 3 4 (ii) 5 4 6 (iii) 1 2i 0 7
5 4 9 1 6 3 2 i 7 0
(10) Construct the matrix A = [aij]3×3 where aij = i − j. State whether A is symmetric or skew symmetric.
1 1 0 1
(11) Solve the following equations for X and Y, if 3X − Y = and X − 3Y = 0 1
1 1
6 6 0 3 2 8
(12) Find matrices A and B, if 2A − B = and A − 2B =
4 2 1 2 1 7
2 x y 1 1 1 6 4 3 5 5
(13) Find x and y, if
3 4 y 4 3 0 3 6 18 7
2a b 3a b 2 3
(14) If , find a, b, c and d.
c 2d 2c d 4 1
(15) There are two book shops own by Suresh and Ganesh. Their sales ( in Rupees) for books in three
subject - Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics for two months, July and August 2017 are given
by two matrices A and B.
July sales ( in Rupees), Physics Chemistry Mathematics
47
(6) Multiplication of Two Matrices:
Two Matrices A and B are said to be conformable for multiplication if the number of columns in
A is equal to the number of rows in B. For example, A is of order m × n and B is of order n × p.
In this case the elements of the product AB form a matrix defined as follows:
n
Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p , where Cij = a
k 1
b
ik kj
SOLVED EXAMPLES
b11
Ex.1: Let A = a11 a12 a13 13 and B = b21 Find AB.
b31 31
Solution: Since number of columns of A = number of rows of B = 3
Therefore product AB is defined and its order is 1.
AB = [a11 × b11 + a12 × b21 + a13 × b31]
3
Ex.2: Let A = 1 3 213 and B = 2 , find AB. Does BA exist? If yes, find it.
1 31
48
3
∴ AB = 1 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 1111
1
Again, number of column of B = number of rows of A = 1.
∴ product BA is also defined and the order of BA is 3.
3
BA = 2 1 3 213
1 31
3 1 3 3 3 2 3 9 6
2 1 2 3 2 2 2 6 4
=
11 1 3 1 2 33 1 3 2 33
Remark: Here AB and BA both are defined but they are different matrices.
1 2
1 2
Ex.3: A = 3 2 , B = Find AB and BA if they exist.
1 2 22
1 0 32
Solution: Here A is order of 3 × 2 and B is order of 2 × 2. By conformability of product, AB is
defined but BA is not defined.
1 2
1 2
∴ AB = 3 2 1 2
1 0
1 2 2 4
3 2 6 4
=
1 0 2 0
1 2
5 10
=
1 2
3 2 1 3 3
Ex.4: Let A = , B = Find AB and BA whichever exists.
2 5 4 23 4 2 22
Solution: Since number of columns of A ≠ number of rows of B
∴ Product of AB is not defined. But number of columns of B = number of rows of A=2,
the product BA is exists,
3 3 3 2 1
∴ BA =
4 2 2 5 4
49
96 6 15 3 12
=
12 4 8 10 4 8
15 9 15
=
16 2 12
4 3 1 3
Ex.5: Let A = and B = , Find AB and BA which ever exist.
5 2 4 2
Solution: Since A and B are two matrices of same order 2×2.
∴ Both the products AB and BA exist and both the products are of same order 2×2.
4 3 1 3
AB =
5 2 4 2
4 12 12 6
=
5 8 15 4
16 18
=
3 11
1 3 4 3
BA = 5 2
4 2
4 15 3 6
=
16 10 12 4
11 9
=
6 16
Here again AB ≠ BA
50
1 1 2 2 6
=
4 4 3 8 9
1 3 8
= 4 7 17
2 1
1 3 8
(AB)C = 3 1
4 7 17 0 2
2 9 1 3 16
= 8 21 4 7 34
11 20
= 29 45 ..... (1)
2 1
1 1 2
∴ BC =
3 1
0 1 3
0 2
2 3 1 1 4
= 3
1 6
5 6
= 3 7
1 2 5 6
Now, A(BC) =
4 3 3 7
5 6 6 14
= 20 9 24 21
11 20
= 29 45 ..... (2)
From (1) and (2), (AB)C = A(BC)
3) For three matrices A, B, C, matrix multiplication is distributive over addition.
i) A(B + C) = AB + AC (left distributive law)
ii) (B + C)A = BA + CA (right distributive law)
These laws can be verified by examples.
4) For a given square matrix A, there exists a unit matrix I of the same order as that of A, such that
AI = IA = A. I is called Identity matrix for matrix multiplication.
3 2 1 1 0 0
2 0 4
For example: Let A = , I = 0 1 0
1 3 2 0 0 1
51
3 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 0
Then AI = 2 0 4
1 3 2 0 0 1
3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1
= 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 2
3 2 1
= 2 0 4
1 3 2
= IA
5) For any matrix A, there exists a null matrix O such that a) AO = O and b) OA = O.
6) The products of two non zero matrices can be a zero matrix. That is AB = O but A ≠ O, B ≠ O.
1 0 0 0
For example: Let A = , B = ,
2 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
Here A ≠ O, B ≠ O but AB = = 0 0 , that is AB = O
2 0 1 1
7) Positive integer powers of a square matrix A are obtained by repeated multiplication of A by
itself. That is A2 = AA, A3 = AAA, ....., An = AA….n times
SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 1
1 1 2
Ex.1: If A = , B = 3 1 , show that the matrix AB is non singular,
0 1 3
0 2
2 1
1 1 2 3 1
Solution: let AB =
0 1 3
0 2
2 3 0 1 1 4
=
0 3 0 0 1 6
5 6
= ,
3 7
5 6
∴ |AB| = = −35 + 18 = −17 ≠ 0
3 7
∴ By definition, matrix AB is non singular.
52
1 3 3
Ex. 2: If A = 3 1 3 find A2 − 5A. What is your conclusion?
3 3 1
1 3 3 1 3 3
= 3 1 3 3 1 3
3 3 1 3 3 1
1 9 9 3 3 9 3 9 3
= 3 3 9 9 1 9 9 3 3
3 9 3 9 3 3 9 9 1
19 15 15
= 15 19 15
15 15 19
19 15 15 1 3 3
3 1 3
∴ A2 − 5A = 15 19 15 − 5
15 15 19 3 3 1
14 0 0 1 0 0
∴ A2 − 5A = 0 14 0 = 14 0 1 0 = 14 I
0 0 14 0 0 1
∴ By definition of scalar matrix, A2 − 5A is a scalar matrix.
3 2
Ex. 3: If A = , find k, so that A2 − kA + 2I = O, where I is a 2×2 the identify matrix and
4 2
O is null matrix of order 2.
Solution: Given A2 − kA + 2I = O
∴ Here, A2 = AA
3 2 3 2
=
4 2 4 2
9 8 6 4
=
12 8 8 4
1 2
=
4 4
53
∴ A2 − kA + 2I = O
1 2 3 2 1 0
∴ − k 4 2 + 2 0 1 = O
4 4
1 2 3k 2k 2 0 0 0
∴ − + =
4 4 4k 2k 0 2 0 0
1 3k 2 2 2k 0 0
∴ =
4 4k 4 2k 2 0 0
∴ Using definition of equality of matrices, we have
1 3k 2 0 3k 3
2 2k 0 2k 2
k=1
4 4k 0 4k 4
4 2k 2 0 2k 2
6 3 4 1
Ex. 4: Find x and y, if 2 0 3 3 1 2 2 1 0 x
y
5 4 3 4
6 3 4 1
Solution: Given 2 0 3 3 1 2 2 1 0 x
y
5 4 3 4
18 9 8 2
∴ 2 0 3 3 6 2 0 x y
15 12 6 8
10 7
∴ 2 0 3 1 6 x y
9 4
∴ 20 27 14 12 x y
∴ 47 26 x y
∴ x = 47, y = 26 by definition of equality of matrices.
(A + B) (A − B) = A2 − AB + BA − B2
Let's Note :
Using the distributive laws discussed earlier, we can derive the following results. If A and B are
square matrices of the same order, then
i) (A + B)2 = A2 + AB + BA + B2 ii) (A − B)2 = A2 − AB − BA + B2
54
Ex 5: A School purchased 8 dozen Mathematics books, 7 dozen physics books and 10 dozen chemistry
books of standard XI. The price of one book of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry are Rs.50,
Rs.40 and Rs.60 respectively. Use matrix multiplication to find the total amount that the school
pays the book seller.
Solution: Let A be the column matrix of books of different subjects and let B be the row matrix of
prices of one book of each subject.
8 12 96
A = 7 12 = 84 B = 50 40 60
10 12 120
∴ The total amount received by the bookseller is obtained by the matrix BA.
96
∴ BA = 50 40 60 84
120
= [50 × 96 + 40 × 84 + 60 × 120]
= [4800 + 3360 + 7200]
= [15360]
Thus the amount received by the bookseller from the school is Rs. 15360.
EXERCISE 2.3
3 4
1) Evaluate i) 2 2 4 3 ii) 2 1 3 3
1 1
1 1 1 2 1 4
3 0 2
2) If A = 2 3 0 , B = . State whether AB = BA? Justify your answer.
1 3 1 1 2 1
2 3 1 1 3 1
2 2 1
3) Show that AB = BA where, A = 1 2 1 , B =
6 9 4 3 0 1
1 0 1 2 2
1 1 3 2 1
4) Verify A(BC) = (AB)C, if A = 2 3 0 , B = and C = 2 0 2
0 3
0 4 5
4 2 1 1 4 1
5) Verify that A(B+C) = AB + AC, if A = ,B= 3 2 and C = 2 1
2 3
55
1 2
4 3 2
6) If A =
, B = 1 0 show that matrix AB is non singular.
1 2 0
1 2
1 2 0
7) If A + I = 5 4 2 , find the product (A + I)(A − I).
0 7 3
1 2 2
8) If A = 2 1 2 , show that A2 – 4A is a scalar matrix.
2 2 1
1 0
9) If A = , find k so that A2 – 8A – kI = O, where I is a 2×2 unit and O is null matrix of
1 7
order 2.
3 1
10) If A = , prove that A2 – 5A + 7I = 0, where I is 2×2 unit matrix.
1 2
1 2 2 a
11) If A = ,B= 1 b and if (A + B)2 = A2 + B2, find value of a and b.
1 2
3 2
12) Find k, If A = and A2 = kA – 2I.
4 2
2
2 1 3 3 3 4 x
13) Find x and y, If 4 1
1 0 2 2 1 1 1 y
2 0 1 1 x 3
1
14) Find x, y, z if 3 0 2 4 1 2 y 1
3 1 2 z
2 2 2
15) Jay and Ram are two friends. Jay wants to buy 4 pens and 8 notebooks, Ram wants to buy 5 pens
and 12 notebooks. The price of One pen and one notebook was Rs. 6 and Rs.10 respectively.
Using matrix multiplication, find the amount each one of them requires for buying the pens and
notebooks.
• Properties of the transpose of a matrix:
(i) If A and B are two matrices of same order, then (A + B)T = AT + BT
(ii) If A is a matrix and k is a constant, then (kA)T = kAT
(iii) If A and B are conformable for the product AB, then (AB)T = BT AT
56
2 3
1 2 1 1 2
For example: Let A = ,B= , ∴ AB is defined and
3 1 3 1 2
2 2 1 3 4 2 5 9 5 10
AB = ∴ (AB)T = ......... (1)
6 1 3 9 2 6 10 17 9 17
1 3 1 3
2 1 1 2 1 1
Now A = 2 1 , BT =
T
3 2 2 , ∴BA =
T T
2 1
3 2 2
1 3 1 3
2 2 1 6 1 3 5 10
∴ BTAT = = ......... (2)
3 4 2 9 2 6 9 17
∴ From (1) and (2) we have proved that, (AB)T = BTAT
In general (A1A2A3……..An)T = AnT………… A3TA2TA1T
2 3 4
A = 3 5 2 = A
T
4 2 1
0 5 4
For example: Let A = 5 0 2 be a skew symmetric matrix.
4 2 0
0 5 4 0 5 4
5 0 2
∴ A = 5 0 2 = −
T
= − A, ∴ AT = −A.
4 2 0 4 2 0
3 5 7 3 2 3
5 4 8
For example: (a) Let A = 2 4 6 , ∴ AT =
3 8 5 7 6 5
57
3 5 7 3 2 3 6 7 10
7 8 2
Now A + AT = 2 4 6 + 5 4 8 =
3 8 5 7 6 5 10 2 10
∴ A + AT is a symmetric matrix, by definition.
3 5 7 3 2 3 0 3 4
(b) Let A − AT = 2 4 6 − 5 4 8 = 3 0 14
3 8 5 7 6 5 4 14 0
∴ A − AT is a skew symmetric matrix, by definition.
Let's Note: A square matrix A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix as follows.
1 1
A= (A + AT) + (A − AT)
2 2
4 5 3 4 6 7
5 2 8
For example: Let A = 6 2 1 , ∴ AT =
7 8 9 3 1 9
4 5 3 4 6 7 8 11 10
A + AT = 6 2 1 + 5 2 8 = 11 4 9
7 8 9 3 1 9 10 9 18
11
4 5
8 11 10 2
1 1 11 9
Let P = (A + A ) =
T
11 4 9 = 2
2 2 2 2
10 9 18
5 9
18
2
The matrix P is a symmetric matrix.
4 5 3 4 6 7 0 1 4
6 2 1 5 2 8
Also A − A =
T
− = 1 0 7
7 8 9 3 1 9 4 7 0
1
0 2
2
0 1 4
1 1 = 1 7
Let Q = (A − A ) =T
1 0 7 0
2 2 2 2
4 7 0 7
2 0
2
The matrix Q is a skew symmetric matrix.
Since P + Q = symmetric matrix + skew symmetric matrix.
Thus A = P + Q.
58
EXERCISE 2.4
1 3 2 6 1
(1) Find AT, if (i) A = (ii) A =
4 5 4 0 5
(2) If A = [aij]3×3 where aij = 2(i – j). Find A and AT. State whether A and AT both are symmetric or
skew symmetric matrices ?
5 3
(3) If A = 4 3 , Prove that (AT)T = A.
2 1
1 2 5
(4) If A = 2 3 4 , Prove that AT = A.
5 4 9
2 3 2 1 1 2
4 1 1 4
(5) If A = 5 4 , B = ,C= then show that
6 1 3 3 2 3
1 2 4 5 2 4
3 2 1
(i) A = (ii) A = 3 7 2
2 3 2 4 5 3
(11) Express each of the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
3 3 1
4 2
(i) (ii) 2 2 1
3 5 4 5 2
59
2 1
0 3 4
(12) If A = 3 2 and B = 2 1 1 , verify that
4 1
For Example:
5 7 3 2
If A = then R1 ↔ R2 gives new matrix 5 7
3 2
7 5
and C1 ↔ C2 gives new matrix
2 3
b) Multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero scalar: If k is a non zero
scalar and the row Ri is to be multiplied by a Scalar k, then we multiply every element of Ri by
the Scalar k. Symbolically the transformation is denoted by kRi or Ri(k)
1 2 3 1 2 3
8 20 0
For example: If A = 2 5 0 then 4R2 gives
4 1 3 4 1 3
Similarly, if any column of the matrix is multiplied by a constant then we multiply every element
of the column by the constant. It is denoted by kCi or Ci(k)
2 3 2 9
If B = then 3C2 gives 5 3
5 1
c) Adding the scalar multiples of all the elements of any row (column) to corresponding
elements of any other row (column): If k is a non-zero scalar and the k-multiples of the elements
of Rj(Cj) are to be added to the elements of Ri(Ci) then the transformation is symbolically denoted
as Ri+kRj or Ci+kCj
For example:
2 5 2 5
1) If A = then R + 2R gives =
7 8
2 1
7 2(2) 8 2(5)
2 5
=
11 18
60
3 2 3 2(2) 2
2) If B = then C1 − 2C2 =
1 4 1 2(4) 4
7 2
=
7 4
Let's Note:
1) After transformation Ri + kRj, Rj remains same as in the original matrix. Similarly with the
transformation Ci + kCj, Cj remains same as in the original matrix.
2) The elements of a row or multiples of the element of a row can not be added to the elements of
a column or conversely.
3) When any elementary row transformations are applied on both the sides of AB = C, the prefactor
A changes and B remains unchanged. The same row transformations are applied on C.
For Example:
1 2 1 0 1 10
If A = , B= then AB = = C say
3 4 1 5 1 20
Now if we require C to be transformed to a new matrix by R1 ↔ R2
1 20
C → 1 10
3 4
If the same transformation used for A then A → and B remains unchanged then product
1 2
3 4 1 0
AB =
1 2 1 5
3 4 0 20
=
1 2 0 10
1 20
=
1 10
=C
SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 4
1) If A = then apply the transformation R1 ↔ R2 on A.
1 7
2 4 1 7
Solution: As A = R1 ↔ R2 gives R12 =
1 7 2 4
1 2 3
2) If B = 4 7 1 then apply the transformation C2 – 2C1.
3 2 1
61
1 2 3 1 2 2(1) 3
4 7 2(4) 1
Solution: As B = 4 7 1 C2 – 2C1 =
3 2 1 3 2 2(3) 1
1 2 2 3
= 4 7 8 1
3 2 6 1
1 0 3
= 4 1 1
3 4 1
1 2 7
5 then apply the transformation R2 + 2R1.
3) If A = 2 1
3 2 1
1 2 7
5 R2 + 2R1,
Solution: As A = 2 1
3 2 1
1 2 7
2 2(1) 1 2(2) 5 2(7)
` =
3 2 1
1 2 7
= 2 2 1 4 5 14
3 2 1
1 2 7
= 0 3 9
3 2 1
2 3
4) Convert into identity matrix by suitable row transformations.
1 6
2 3
Solution: Given A = R1 ↔ R2
1 6
1 6 1 6
= By R2 − 2R1 0 9
2 3
-1 1 6
R ,A= 0 1
9 2
1 0
By R1 − 6R2 = =I
0 1
62
2.6 Inverse of a matrix :
If A is a square matrix of order m and if there exists another square matrix B of the same order
such that AB = BA = I, where I is the unit matrix of order m then B is called the inverse of A and
is denoted by A−1 (read as A inverse)
Using the notation A−1 for B we write the above equations as AA−1 = A−1A = I
Let's Note: For the existence of inverse of matrix A, it is necessary that |A| ≠ 0, that is
A is a non singular matrix.
• Uniqueness of the inverse of a matrix:
It can be proved that if A is a square matrix where |A| ≠ 0, then its inverse, say A−1, is unique.
Theorem: Prove that, if A is a square matrix and its inverse exists then the inverse is unique.
Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order m and let its inverse exist.
Let, if possible, B and C be two inverses of A
Then, by definition of the inverse matrix,
AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I
Now consider B = BI
= B(AC)
= (BA)C
= IC
B = C
Hence B = C, that is, the inverse of a matrix is unique.
Inverse of a matrix (if it exists) can be obtained by any of the two methods:
(1) Elementary Transformations (2) Adjoint Method.
1) Inverse of a non singular matrix by elementary transformations:
By the definition of inverse of a matrix A, if A−1 exists, then AA−1 = A−1A = I .
To find A−1, we first convert A into I. This can be done by using elementary transformations.
Hence the equation AA−1 = I can be transformed into an equation of the type A−1 = B, by applying
the same series of row transformations on both sides of the above equation. Similarly, if we
start with the equation A−1A = I then the transformations should be applied to the columns of
A. Apply column transformations to post factor and the other side, whereas prefactor remains
unchanged.
AA−1 = I (Row transformation) A−1A = I (column transformation)
a11 a12 a13
a23 is a non singular matrix then reduce A into I
Now if A = a21 a22
a31 a32 a33
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
63
The suitable row transformation are as follows
1) Reduce a11 to 1
2) Then reduce a21 and a31 to 0
3) Reduce a22 to 1
4) Then reduce a12 and a32 to 0
5) Reduce a33 to 1
6) Then reduce a13 and a23 to 0
Remember that the similar working rule (but not the same) can be used if you are using column
transformations
a11 → 1 a12 and a13 → 0
a22 → 1 a21 and a23 → 0
a33 → 1 a31 and a32 → 0
SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 4
ii) B =
3 6
2 4
|B| =
3 6
= 12 − 12 = 0
∴ B is singular matrix and hence B−1 does not exist.
∴ B is not invertible matrix.
64
1 2 3
iii) A = 2 4 5
2 4 6
1 2 3
|A| = 2 4 5
2 4 6
1 2 3
|A| = 2 2 4 5 (By property of determinant)
1 2 3
|A| = 2(0) (Row R1 and R3 are identical)
∴ A is singular matrix and hence A−1 does not exist.
∴ A is not invertible matrix.
2 5
2) Find the inverse of A = by elementary transformation.
1 3
2 5
Solution: A =
1 3
2 5
|A| =
1 3
=6−5=1≠0
∴ A−1 is exist.
(I) AA−1 = I By Row transformation
2 5 −1 1 0
A = 0 1
1 3
Using R1 ↔ R2
1 3 −1 0 1
2 5 A = 1 0
Using R2 → R2− 2R1
1 3 −1 0 1
0 1 A = 1 2
Using R1 → R1 + 3R2
1 0 −1 3 5
0 1 A = 1 2
65
∴ R2 → (−1)R2
0 1 −1 3 5
1 0 A =
1 2
3 5
IA−1 =
1 2
3 5
∴ A−1 = ............... (I)
1 2
(II) A−1A = I By column transformations we get,
-1 2 5 1 0
A =
1 3 0 1
1
C1 → C1
2
1 5 1
-1 0
1 = 2
A 3
2 0 1
Using C2 → C2 − 5C1
1 0 1 5
-1
A 1 1 = 2 2
2 2 0 1
Using C2 → 2C2
1 0 1
5
A 1 = 2
-1
1 0
2 2
1
Using C1 → C1 − C2
2
1 0 3 5
A−1 = 1 2
0 1
3 5
A−1 I =
1 2
3 5
A−1 = ........... (II)
1 2
From I and II
A−1 is unique.
66
2 0 1
3) Find the inverse of A = 5 1 0 by using elementary row transformation.
0 1 3
2 0 1
Solution: Let A = 5 1 0
0 1 3
2 0 -1
|A| = 5 1 0
0 1 3
= 2(3 − 0) − 0(15 − 0) − 1(5 − 0)
= 6−0−5
= 1≠0
∴ A−1 is exist.
Consider AA−1 = I
2 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0
5 1 0 A−1 =
0 1 3 0 0 1
6 0 3 3 0 0
5 1 0 A−1 = 0 1 0
By R1 → 3R1
0 1 3 0 0 1
1 1 3 3 1 0
5 1 0 A−1 = 0 1 0
By R1 → R1 − R2
0 1 3 0 0 1
1 1 3 3 1 0
15 6 0
By R2 → R2 − 5R1 0 6 15 A−1 =
0 1 3 0 0 1
1 1 3 3 1 0
By R2 ↔ R3 0 1 3 A−1 = 0 0 1
0 6 16 15 6 0
1 0 0 3 1 1
0 0 1
By R1 → R1 + R2 and R3 → R3 − 6R2 0 1 3 A−1 =
0 0 3 15 6 6
67
1 0 0 3 -1 1
1
By R3 → R3 0 1 3 A−1 = 0 0 1
3
0 0 1 5 -2 2
1 0 0 3 1 1
0 1 0 −1 15 6 5
By R2→ R2 − R3 A =
0 0 1 5 2 2
3 1 1
IA = 15 6 5
−1
5 2 2
3 1 1
A−1 = 15 6 5
5 2 2
2) Inverse of a non singular matrix by Adjoint Method: This method can be directly used for
finding the inverse. However, for understanding this method we should know the definitions of
minor and co-factor.
Definition: Minor of an element aij of matrix is the determinant obtained by ignoring ith row and jth
column in which the element aij lies. Minor of an element aij is denoted by Mij.
Definition: Cofactor of an element aij of matrix is given by Aij = (−1)i+jMij, where Mij is minor of
the element aij. Cofactor of an element aij is denoted Aij.
Adjoint of a Matrix:
The adjoint of a square matrix is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix of A.
The adjoint of a matrix A is denoted by adjA.
For Example: If A is a square matrix of order 3 then the matrix of its cofactors is
A11 A12 A13
A
21 A 22 A 23
A 31 A 32 A 33
and the required adjoint of A is the transpose of the above matrix. Hence
A11 A 21 A 31
adjA = A 21 A 22 A 23
A 31 A 32 A 33
If A = [aij]m×m is non singular square matrix then the inverse of matrix exists and given by
1
A−1 = adj (A)
A
68
SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 4
1) Find the cofactor matrix of A =
1 7
Solution: Here a11 = 2, a12 = 4, a21 = −1, a22 =7
Minor of a11 i.e., M11 ∴ A11= (−1)1+1M11 = (−1)2 7 = 7
Similarly we can find M12 = −1, and A12 = (−1)1+2M12 = −1(−1) = 1
M21 = 4, and A21 = (−1)2+1M21 = −1(4) = −4
M22 = 2, and A22 = (−1)2+2M22 = 1(2) = 2
∴ Required cofactors are 7, 1, −4, 2
7 1
∴ Cofactor Matrix = [Aij]2×2 =
4 2
2 3
2) Find the adjoint of A =
4 6
Solution: Minor of a11 = M11 = −6
∴ A11= (−1)1+1M11 = 1(−6) = −6
Minor of a12 = M12 = 4
∴ A12 = (−1)1+2M12 = −1(4) = −4
Minor of a21 = M21 = −3
∴ A21 = (−1)2+1M21 = −1(−3) = 3
Minor of a22 = M22 = 2
∴ A22 = (−1)2+2M22 = 1(2) = 2
6 4
∴ Cofactor of matrix [Aij]2×2 =
3 2
6 3
adj (A) = [Aij]T =
4 2
2 2
3) If A = then find A−1 by the adjoint method.
4 3
2 2
Solution: Given A =
4 3
2 -2
|A| = = 6 + 8 = 14 ≠ 0
4 3
∴ A−1 is exist.
M11 = 3 ∴ A11 = (−1)1+1M11 = 1(3) = 3
69
M12 = 4, ∴ A12 = (−1)1+2M12 = −1(4) = −4
M21 = −2, ∴ A21 = (−1)2+1M21 = −1(−2) = 2
M22 = 2, ∴ A22 = (−1)2+2M22 = 1(2) = 2
3 4
∴ Cofactor matrix [Aij]2×2 =
2 2
3 2
adj (A) = [Aij]T =
4 2
1
A−1 = adj (A)
A
1 3 2
A−1 =
14 4 2
2 1 1
4) If A = 1 2 1 then find A−1 by the adjoint method.
1 1 2
2 1 1
Solution: Given A = 1 2 1
1 1 2
2 -1 1
|A| = - 1 2 -1 = 2(4 − 1) + 1(−2 + 1) + 1(1 − 2)
1 -1 2
= 6−1−1=4≠0
∴ A−1 exists.
For the given matrix A
2 -1
∴ A11 = (−1)1+1 = 1(4 − 1) = 3
-1 2
-1 -1
∴ A12 = (−1)1+2 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
1 2
-1 2
∴ A13 = (−1)1+3 = 1(1 − 2) = −1
1 -1
-1 1
∴ A21 = (−1)2+1 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
-1 2
70
2 1
∴ A22 = (−1)2+2 = 1(4 − 1) = 3
1 2
2 -1
∴ A23 = (−1)2+3 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
1 -1
-1 1
∴ A31 = (−1)3+1 = 1(1 − 2) = −1
2 -1
2 1
∴ A32 = (−1)3+2 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
-1 -1
2 -1
∴ A33 = (−1)3+3 = 1(4 − 1) = 3
-1 2
3 1 1
∴ Cofactor matrix [Aij]3 = 1 3 1
1 1 3
3 1 1
adj (A) = [Aij]T = 1 3 1
1 1 3
1
A−1 = adj A
A
3 1 1
= 1 3 1
1
A−1
4
1 1 3
EXERCISE 2.5
3 4
i) , R1 ↔ R2
2 2
2 4
1 5 ,
ii) C1 ↔ C2
3 1 1
1 3 1 3R and C → C − 4C
iii)
2 2 2 1
1 1 3
1 1 2
2) Transform 2 1 3 into an upper triangular matrix by suitable row transformations.
3 2 4
71
3) Find the cofactor of the following matrices
5 8 7
1 2
i) ii) 1 2 1
5 8
2 1 1
1 0 1
7) Find the inverse A = 0 2 3 by elementary column transformation.
1 2 1
1 2 3
8) Find the inverse 1 1 5 of by the elementary row transformation.
2 4 7
1 0 1 1 2 3
1 1 5 then find matrix X such that XA = B
9) If A = 0 2 3 and B =
1 2 1 2 4 7
1 2 3 1
2
10) Find matrix X, If AX = B where A = 1 1 2 and B =
1 2 4 3
72
Now consider the 2×2 matrix formed by coefficient of x and y
a1 b1 x c1
A= , X = y , B = c
a2 b2 2
Now consider the following matrix equation AX = B
a1 b1 x c1
a = c
2 b2 y 2
a1 x b1 y c1
a x b y = c ................. (ii)
2 2 2
∴ a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
Hence the matrix equation (ii) is equivalent to pair of simultaneous linear equations given by (i)
∴ Matrix form of a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2 is
a1 b1 x c1
a b y = c
2 2 2
Similarly suppose we have three simultaneous equations in three variables
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
This can be summarized by the matrix equation
a1 b1 c1
x d1
a b2 y
c2
2 = d2
a3 b3 z
c3 d3
For example: Write the following linear equations in the form of a matrix equation.
1) 3x + 5y =2
−2x + y = 5
3 5 2 x
Solution : A = ,B= 5 , X = y
2 1
AX=B
3 5 x 2
=
2 1 y 5
2) 3x + 2y − z = 4
7x – 2y – 2z = 3
2x –3y + 5z = 4
73
3 2 1 x 4
y 3
Solution: A = 7 2 2 , X = ,B=
2 3 5 z 4
AX = B
3 2 1 x 4
7 2 2 y
= 3
2 3 5 z 4
There are two methods for solving linear equations (I) Method of Inversion (II) Method of
Reduction
(I) Method of Inversion: Consider a system of linear equations. Suppose we express it in the
matrix form AX=B, where A is non singular (|A| ≠ 0). Then A has a unique inverse A−1.
Pre multiplying AX=B by A−1, we get
A−1(AX) = A−1B
(A−1A)X = A−1B
IX = A−1B
∴ X = A−1B. Thus, there is a unique solution to the given system of linear equations.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
74
3 1
1 1 0
Using R1 → R1 2 A−1 = 2
2
6 2 0 1
3 1
1 2 0
Using R2 → R2 − 6R1
A =
−1 2
0 11
3 1
1
3 2 0
1
Using R2 → R2
1
2 A−1 =
11 3 1
0 1
11 11
2 3
3 1 0 22 22
Using R1 → R1 − R2 A−1 =
2 0 1 3 1
11 11
3
1 1
A −1
= 2
11
3 1
3
1 1 5
∴X=A B −1
= 2
11 4
3 1
11
1 56 1 11 11
X = = =
11 15 4 11 11 11
11
x 1
y = 1
∴ x = 1, y = 1
Hence the solution of given linear equations are x = 1, y = 1.
2) Solve the following equations by the inversion method
x–y+z=4
2x + y – 3z = 0
x+y+z=2
Solution: The matrix equation is
1 1 1 x 4
2 1 3 y
= 0
1 1 1 z 2
AX=B
75
Pre-multiplying AX = B by A−1 we get
A−1(AX) = A−1B
(A−1A)X = A−1B
IX = A−1B
X = A−1B
First we find the inverse of A by adjoint method
1 -1 1
|A| = 2 1 -3
1 1 1
|A| = 1(1 + 3) + 1(2 +3) + 1(2 − 1)
=4+5+1
= 10 ≠ 0
A−1 is exist
1 1 1
A = 2 1 3
1 1 1
1 -3
M11 = = 1 + 3 = 4 ∴A11 = (−1)2M11 = 1(4) = 4
1 1
2 -3
M12 = = 2+3 = 5 ∴A12 = (−1)3M12 = (−1)(5) = −5
1 1
2 1
M13 = = 2−1 = 1 ∴A13 = (−1)4M13 = 1(1) = 1
1 1
-1 1
M21 = = −1−1 = −2 ∴A21 = (−1)3M21 = (−1)(−2) = 2
1 1
1 1
M22 = = 1−1 = 0 ∴A22 = (−1)4M22 = 1(0) = 0
1 1
1 -1
M23 = = 1+1 = 2 ∴A23 = (−1)5M23 = (−1)(2) = −2
1 1
-1 1
M31 = = 3−1 = 2 ∴A31 = (−1)4M31 = 1(2) = 2
1 -3
1 1
M32 = = −3−2 = −5 ∴A32 = (−1)5M32 = (−1)(−5) = 5
2 -3
76
1 -1
M33 = =1+2=3 ∴A33 = (−1)6M33 = 1(3) = 3
2 1
4 5 1
2 0 2
∴ [Aij] =
2 5 3
adj(A) = [Aij]T
4 2 2
= 5 0 5
1 2 3
1
A−1 = Adj(A)
A
4 2 2
1
= 5 0 5
10
1 2 3
X = A−1B
4 2 2 4
1
= 5 0 5 0
10
1 2 3 2
16 0 4
1
= 20 0 10
10
4 0 6
20 2
1
= 10 = 1
10
10 1
x 2
= y = 1
z 1
∴ x = 2, y = −1, z = 1
77
After this, we rewrite the equations in the form of a system of linear equations. Now they are
in such a form that they can be easily solved by elimination method. The required solution is
obtained in this way.
Solved Examples
2 1 x 2
3 4 y = 3
By R1 ↔ R2
3 4 x 3
2 1
y = 2
By R1↔ R1−R2
1 5 x 5
2 1 y
= 2
By R2↔ R2 − 2R1
1 5 x 5
= 12
0 11 y
We write equations as
x + 5y = 5 --------------------------- (1)
−11y = −12 --------------------------- (2)
12
from (2), y = --------------------------- (3)
11
12
Put y = in equation (1) to get
11
12
x+5× =5
11
60 55 - 60 -5
x=5− = = 11
11 11
-5 12
∴ x = 11 , y =
11
78
2) Express the following equations in matrix form and solve them by the method of reduction
x – y + z = 1, 2x – y = 1, 3x + 3y – 4z = 2.
Solution: The given equations can be write as
x – y + z = 1
2x – y = 1
3x + 3y – 4z = 2
Hence the matrix equation is AX = B
1 1 1 x 1
y
∴ 2 1 0 = 1
3 3 4 z 2
1 1 1 x 1
0 1 2 y 1
By R2 → R2 – 2R1 =
3 3 4 z 2
1 1 1 x 1
0 1 2 y 1
By R3→ R3 – 3R1 =
0 6 7 z 1
1 1 1 x 1
0 1 2
By R3→ R3 – 6R2 y = 1
0 0 5 z 5
We write equations as
x – y + z = 1 --------------------------------- (1)
y – 2z = −1 ----------------------------------- (2)
5z = 5 ----------------------------------------- (3)
From (3), z = 1
Put z = 1 in equation (2) y – 2(1) = −1 ∴y=2–1=1
Put y = 1, z = 1 in equation (1) x – 1 + 1 = 1, ∴ x = 1
∴ x = 1, y = 1, z = 1
EXERCISE 2.6
Let's Remember
where cij = a
k 1
ik bkj i = 1, 2, ....., m
j = 1, 2, ....., n.
• If A = [aij]m×n is any matrix, then the transpose of A is denoted by AT = B = [bij]n×m and bij = aji
• If A is a square matrix, then
i) A + AT is a symmetric matrix ii) A − AT is a skew-symmetric matrix.
• Every square matrix A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix as
1 1
A = [A + AT] + [A − AT]
2 2
• Elementary Transformations:
a) Interchange of any two rows or any two columns
b) Multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero scalar
c) Adding the scalar multiples of all the elements of any row (column) to the corresponding
elements of any other row (column).
80
• If A and B are two square matrices of the same order such that AB = BA = I, then A and B are
inverses of each other. A is denoted by B−1 and B is denoted by A−1.
• For finding the inverse of A, if row transformation are to be used then we consider AA−1 = I and
if column transformation are to be used then we consider A−1A = I.
• For finding the inverse of any nonsingular square matrix, two methods can be used
i) Elementary transformation method. ii) Adjoint Method.
• A system of linear equations can be solved using matrices. The two methods are
i) Method of inversion. ii) Method of reduction (Row transformations).
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 2
3 7
5 3 1 1
a) b) c) 1 d)
3 5 2
7 3
8 0 0
2) The matrix 0 8 0 is ………
0 0 8
0 0 0
3) The matrix is ………
0 0 0
a) Identity matrix b) diagonal matrix c) scalar matrix d) null matrix
a 0 0
4) If A = 0 a 0 , then |adj.A| = .............
0 0 a
a)
a12 b) a9 c) a6 d) a−3
2 3
5) Adjoint of is ……….
4 6
6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3
a) b) c) d) 4 2
4 2 4 2 4 2
81
6) If A = diag. [d1,d2,d3,…….,dn], where di ≠ 0, for i = 1,2,3,……,n then A−1 = ……….
a) diag.[1/d1,1/d2,1/d3,……,1/dn] b) D c) I d) O
7)
If A2 + mA +nI = O & n ≠ 0, |A| ≠ 0, then A−1 = ……….
1 1 1
a) A nI b) n A mI c) n I mA d) (A + mnI)
m
8) If a 3×3 matirx B has its inverse equal to B, then B2 = ……………
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
a) 0 1 0 b) 1 1 1 c) 0 1 0 d)
0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
4
9) If A = & |A3| = 729 then α = ……….
4
a) ± 3 b) ± 4 c) ± 5 d) ± 6
10) If A and B square matrices of order n×n such that A2 – B2 = (A – B)(A + B), then which of the
following will be always true ?
a) AB = BA b) either of A or B is a zero matrix
c) either of A and B is an identity matrix d) A = B
2 5
11) If A = then A−1 = ………………
1 3
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
a)
1 2 b) c) 1 2 d)
1 2 1 2
5 0
12) If A is a 2×2 matrix such that A(adj.A) = , then |A| = ………………
0 5
a) 0 b) 5 c) 10 d) 25
1 2 1 0
14) If A = B = 1 5 then AB =
3 1
1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10
a) b) c) d)
1 20
1 20 1 20 1 20
82
II. Fill in the blanks.
3
1) A = is ……………… matrix.
1
2 1 1
2) Order of matrix is …………………
5 1 8
4 x
3) If A = is a singular matrix then x is ……………….
6 3
0 3 1
4) Matrix B = 3 0 4 is skew symmetric then value of p is ……………….
p 4 0
5) If A = [aij]2×3 and B = [bij]m×1 and AB is defined then m = …………….
3 5
6) If A = then cofactor of a12 is ……………..
2 5
1
7) If A = [aij]m×m is non-singular matrix then A−1 = adj(A)
....
8) (AT)T = …………..
2 1 1 1
9) If A = and A =
−1
x 2 then x = ……………..
1 1
... ... x ...
10) If a1x + b1y = c1 and a2x + b2y = c2, then matrix form is y =
... ... ...
83
IV. Solve the following.
7 3
1) Find k, if is singular matrix.
5 k
2 x 5
2) Find x,y,z if 3 1 z is symmetric matrix.
y 5 8
1 5 2 4 2 3
1 5 1 5
3) If A = 7 8 , B = C= then show that (A+B) + C = A + (B+C)
9 5 8 6 7 8
2 5 1 7
4) If A = ,B= 3 0 Find matrix A – 4B + 7I where I is the unit matrix of order 2.
3 7
2 3
3 4 1
5) If A = 3 2 , B = Verify
2 1 3
1 4
3 1 1 2
7) If A = , B = 5 2 , verify |AB| = |A| |B|
1 5
2 1
8) If A = then show that A2 – 4A + 3I = 0
1 2
3 2 1 a
9) If A = ,B= b 0 and ( A + B )( A – B ) = A2 – B2, find a and b.
2 4
1 2
10) If A = , then find A3
1 3
0 1 2 1 x 1
2
11) Find x, y, z if 5 1 0 3 2 y 1
1 1 1 3 1 2z
2 4
1 1 2
12) If A = 3 2 , B = 2 1 0 then show that (AB) = B A
T T T
0 1
84
1 0 0
13) If A = 2 1 0 then reduce it to unit matrix by row transformation.
3 3 1
14) Two farmers Shantaram and Kantaram cultivate three crops rice, wheat and groundnut. The sale
(in Rupees.) of these crops by both the farmers for the month of April and May 2016 is given
below,
April 2016 (In Rs.)
Rice Wheat Groundnut
Shantaram 15000 13000 12000
Kantaram 18000 15000 8000
May 2016 (In Rs.)
Rice Wheat Groundnut
Shantaram 18000 15000 12000
Kantaram 21000 16500 16000
Find i) The total sale in rupees for two months of each farmer for each crop.
ii)the increase in sale from April to May for every crop of each farmer.
15) Check whether following matrices are invertible or not.
3 4 3 1 2 3
1 0 1 1 2 4 5
i) ii) iii) 1 1 0 iv)
0 1 1 1 2 4 6
1 4 5
16) Find inverse of the following matrices (if they exist) by elementary transformation.
2 3 3 2 0 1
1 1 2 1
i) ii) 7 4 iii) 2 2 3 iv) 5 1 0
2 3
3 2 2 0 1 3
3 1 5
17) Find the inverse of 2 7 8 by adjoint method.
1 2 5
18) Solve the following equations by method of inversion.
i) 4x – 3y – 2 = 0 , 3x – 4y + 6 = 0
ii) x + y – z = 2 , x – 2y + z = 3 and 2x – y – 3z = −1
iii) x – y + z = 4 , 2x + y – 3z = 0 and x + y + z = 2
19) Solve the following equation by method of reduction.
i) 2x + y = 5 , 3x + 5y = −3
ii) x + 2y – z = 3 , 3x – y + 2z = 1 and 2x – 3y + 3z = 2
iii) x – 3y + z = 2 , 3x + y + z = 1 and 5x + y + 3z = 3
85
20) The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add it the second number
we get 11. By the adding first and third number we get a number which is double the second
number. Use this information and find a system of linear equations. Find the three number using
matrices.
Activities
(i j ) 2
1) Construct a matrix of order 2×2 where the (ij)th element given by aij
2i
a11 a12
Solution: Let A = be the required matrix.
a21 a22 22
i j .......
2
.......
2 2
4 9
Given that aij = , a11 = = , a12 = = = .......
2i .... 1 3 ....... 3
1 5 2 3
2) If A = ,B= 4 8 , Find AB – 2I, where I is unit matrix of order 2.
6 7
1 5 2 3
Solution: Given A = , B = 4 8
6 7
1 5 2 3 ... ...
Consider AB − 2I = 4 8 − 2
6 7 ... ...
....... 3 40 ... 0 ... 43 ... 0
∴ AB − 2I = − = −
12 28 ....... 0 ... 40 ... 0 ...
... 43
∴ AB − 2I =
40 ...
1 1
3) If A = then find A−1 by the adjoint method.
2 3
1 1
Solution: Given A =
2 3
1 1
|A| = = ............ = ............... ≠ 0
2 3
∴ A−1 is exist
86
M11= …….., ∴ A11= (−1)1+1M11 = ….. = ……
M12 = …….., ∴ A12 = (−1)1+2M12 = ….. = ……
M21 = …….., ∴ A21 = (−1)2+1M21 = …… = ……..
M22= ………, ∴ A22 = (−1)2+2M22 = …… = ………
... ...
∴ [Aij]2×2 =
... ...
... ...
Adj (A) = [Aij]T =
... ...
1
A−1 = A Adj(A)
1 ... ...
A−1 =
.... ... ...
1 2 −1 1 0
Using R2 → R2 – 2R1 0 ... A = ... 1
1 0
1 1 2 −1
Using R2 0 ... A = ... 1
7 ... ...
... ...
1 0 −1 ... ...
Using R1 → R1 – 2R2 0 1 A =
... 1
... ...
87
3
1 1
A−1 = 2
....
3 1
-1 1 ... ... 1
X = AB=
.... ... ... 4
5) Express the following equations in matrix form and solve them by the method of reduction
x + 3y + 3z = 12, x + 4y + 4z = 15, x + 3y + 4z = 13.
Solution: The given equations can be write as
x + 3y + 3z = 12, x + 4y + 4z = 15, x + 3y + 4z = 13.
Hence the matrix equation is AX = B
... ... ... x ...
y
... ... ... = ... (i.e. AX = B)
... ... ... z ...
1 3 3 x 12
y ...
By R2 → R2 – R1 and R3 → R3 – R1 ... ... ... =
... ... ... z ...
We write equation as
x + 3y + 3z = 12 ----------------------- (1)
y + z = …….. -------------------------- (2)
z = ……… ----------------------------- (3)
from (3) , z =1
Put z = 1 in equation (2) y + ……. =…….. y = ……….
Put y = ……… , z = 1 in equation (1) x + …… + …….. = ………. , x = …….
∴ x = ………. , y = ……….. , z = 1
v v v
88
3 Differentiation
dy du dv
Let's Study 2. y = u − v then = −
dx dx dx
1. Derivatives of composite functions. dy dv du
3. y = u.v then =u + v
2. Derivatives of inverse functions. dx dx dx
dy
y = f(x) = f '( x)
dx Let's Learn
1 K(constant) 0
2 x 1 3.1 Derivative of a Composite Function:
3 Sometimes complex looking functions
x 1
can be greatly simplified by expressing
2 x
them as compositions of two or more
4 1 −1 different functions. It is then not possible
x x2 to differentiate them directly is possible
with simple functions.
5 xn n.xn−1
6 ax ax.loga Now, we discuss differentiation of such
composite functions using the chain rule.
7 ex ex
8 logx Result 1: If y = f(u) is a differentiable function
1
of u and u = g(x) is a differentiable function
x of x then
4. Rules of Differentiation: dy
= dy × du
If u and v are differentiable functions of x dx du dx
and if (This is called Chain Rule)
dy du dv
1. y = u + v then = +
dx dx dx
89
Generalisation: dy 1
∴ = (8x + 3)
If y is a differentiable function of u1, ui is a du (4 x 3 x 1)
2
dy du1 du2 du dy
dy 3x 8 x 7 , find
5
= × × × ......... × n 3) If y = 3 2
3x 8x 7
5
Solution: Given y = 3 2
SOLVED EXAMPLES
5
∴ y = u6 dy 5 2
∴ = u3
dy = 6u5 du 3
∴
du dy 5 2
∴ = (3 x 2 8 x 7) 3
dy = 6(4x3 + 3x2 − 2x)5 du 3
∴
du
and du = (6x +8)
and du = 12x2 + 6x − 2 dx
dx
dy
By chain Rule
dy
= dy × du By chain Rule = dy × du
dx du dx dx du dx
dy dy 2
∴ = 6 (4x3 + 3x2 − 2x)5 (12x2 + 6x − 2) ∴
5
= (3 x 2 8 x 7) 3 (6x +8)
dx du 3
dy
2) y = log(4x2 + 3x − 1). Find dy
dx 4) If y = e(log x +6 ) , find
dx
Solution: Given y = log(4x + 3x − 1)
2
90
EXERCISE 3.1 SOLVED EXAMPLES
dx 1 3x + 7
dy y =
and = dy , ≠0 2x2 + 5
dy dx
dx 3x + 7
Solution: Let y =
2x2 + 5
91
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we 3.3 Derivative of a Logarithmic Function:
get Sometimes we have to differentiate a
∴
dy
=
2 x 5 (3) (3x 7)(4 x)
2
dy x y=
∴ = (3 + x)x log(3 x) 3 x 13 5 x 2
dx 3 x
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
dy xx
2) Find , if y = x 1 2 x 3
5
dx ∴ logy = log
3 x 1 5 x 2
xx 3
Solution: Let y = x 2
dy x1 dx x dy 1 10 9 5
∴ = y x log( x). .......... (I) ∴ = y
dx x dx dx 2 2 x 3 3 x 1 5 x 2
Let u = xx
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get dy 1 2 x 3
5
10 5
∴ =
9
dx 2 2 x 1 5 x 2
3
2 x 3 3 x 1 5 x 2
∴ logu = x.log(x)
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, dy
4) Find , if y = xx + (logx)x
we get dx
1 du 1 Solution: Let y = xx + (logx)x
∴ = x. + log(x).1
u dx x Let u = xx and v = (logx)x
du ∴ y = u + v
∴ = u [1 + logx]
dx Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
du we get
∴ = xx(1 + logx) .......... (II)
dx dy du dv
Substituting eqn (II) in eqn (I), we get = +
dx dx dx
dy x1 Now, u = xx
∴ =y x
x x log( x).x (1 log x)
dx
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
dy xx x 1 ∴ logu = x logx
∴ = x .x log( x).(1 log x)
dx x
93
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
we get,
3x 1
3) y= 3
2 x 3 5 x
2
1 du 1
∴ = x + log x.1
u dx x dy
Q.3 Find if,
du dx
∴ = u (1 + log x)
dx 1) y = (logx)x + xlogx
du 2) y = (x)x + (a)x
= xx (1 + log x) ............. (II)
∴
dx xx x10 10 x
3) y = 10 + 10 + 10
Now, v = (logx)x
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get 3.4 Derivative of an Implicit Function:
∴ logv = x log(logx) If the variable y can be expressed as
a function of the variable x. that is,
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
y = f(x) then the function f(x) is called an
we get,
explicit function of x.
1 dv 1 For Example: f(x) = x2 + x−3, y = logx + e
∴ =x + log (logx).1
v dx x.log x
If it is not possible to express y as a function
dv 1 of x or x as a function of y then the function
∴ =v log x log(log x) is called an implicit function.
dx
For Example: ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 ;
dv 1 xm + yn = (x + y)m+n
∴ = (logx)x log(log x) ..... (III)
dx log x
The general form of an implicit function of
Substituting eqn (II) and eqn (III) in eqn (I), we two variables x and y is f(x,y)=0
get
Solved Examples:
dy x 1
∴ = x (1 + log x) + (logx)x log(log x) dy
dx log x 1) Find if y3− 3y2x = x3 + 3x2y
dx
Solution: Given y3− 3y2x = x3 + 3x2y
96
If f ′′(x) is a differential function of x
EXERCISE 3.5
d2y
d 2 d3y
dy then dx denoted by or f ′′′(x) is
Q.1 Find if,
dx dx dx 3
1) x = at2, y = 2at called the third order derivative of y with respect
2) x = 2at , y = at
2 4 to x. It is also denoted by y′′′ or y3.
3)
x = e3t, y = e(4t + 5)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
dy
Q.2 Find if,
dx
d2y
2 1) Find , if y = x2
1 1
dx 2
1) x = u , y = 2 u
u
u Solution: Given y = x2
2)
x = 1 + u 2 , y = log(1 + u2) Differentiate with respect to x
dy
3) Differentiate 5x with respect to log x ∴ = 2x
dx
Q.3 Solve the following. Differentiate with respect to x, again
1 1
d2y
1) If x = a 1 , y = a ∴ =2
1 then, dx 2
t t
d2y
dy 2) Find , if y = x6
show that = −1 dx 2
dx
Solution: Given y = x6
4t 1 t2 Differentiate with respect to x
2) If x = , y = 3 2 then,
1+ t2 1 t dy
∴ = 6x5
−9 x dx
dy
show that = Differentiate with respect to x, again
dx 4y
d2y
∴ = 6(5x4)
3) If x = t.logt, y = t t then, show that dx 2
dy
−y=0 d2y
dx ∴ 2
= 30x4
dx
3.6 Second Order Derivative:
Consider a differentiable function y = f(x) d2y
3) Find , if y = log x
dy dx 2
then = f '(x)is the first order derivative of
dx Solution: Given y = log x
y with respect to x. It is also denoted by y′ or y1
Differentiate with respect to x
If f ′(x) is a differentiable function of x
dy 1
∴ =
dy d2y dx x
then d dx denoted by or f ′′(x) is called
dx 2 Differentiate with respect to x, again
dx
d 2 y 1
the second order derivative of y with respect to ∴
dx 2 x 2
x. It is also denoted by y′′ or y2
97
d2y Rules of Differentiation:
4) Find
2
, if y = e4x
dx If u and v differentiable function of x and if
Solution: Given y = e4x dy du dv
1. y = u + v then = +
Differentiate with respect to x dx dx dx
dy dy du dv
∴ = 4e4x 2. y = u – v then = −
dx dx dx dx
d2y dv
∴ = 4(4e4x) dy du
dx 2 3. y = u.v then =u +v
dx dx dx
d2y
∴ 2
= 16e4x du dv
dx v −u
u dy dx dx , v ≠ 0
4. y = then = 2
EXERCISE 3.6 v dx v
dy y
1 dy and = then m = ?
2) If y = x + then =? dx x
x dx
a) 8 b) 4 c) 5 d) 20
x2 1 1 x2
a) b ) et − e − t
2x x 1 2 x2 x2 1 et e t dy
9) If x = , y= then =?
2 2
2 2 dx
x2 1 1 x2 x
c)
d) −y y −x
2x x x2 1 2 x x x2 1 a) b) c) d)
x x y y
dy dy
3) If y = elogx then =? 10) If x = 2at2, y = 4at then =?
dx dx
elogx 1 1 1 1
a) b) c) 0 d) a) − b)
x x 2 2at 2 2at 3
dy 1 1
4) If y = 2x2 + 22 + a2 then = ? c) d)
dx t 4at 3
a) x b) 4x c) 2x d) −2x
Q.II] Fill in the blanks:
dy
5) If y = 5x.x5 then =? 1) If 3x2y + 3xy2 = 0
dx
a) 5x.x4 (5 + log5) b) 5x.x5 (5 + log5) dy
then =
dx
c)5x.x4 (5 + xlog5) d)5x.x5 (5 + xlog5)
dy .......
2) If xm.yn = (x+y)(m+n) then =
ex dx x
dy
6) If y = log 2 then =?
x dx dy −y
3) If 0 = log(xy) + a then =
2− x x−2 dx .....
a) b)
x x dy
4) If x = t logt and y = tt then = ........
e− x x−e dx
c
) d)
ex ex d2y
5) If y = x.logx then = ........
dx 2
99
d2y dy
6) If y = log x then
2
= ....... 3) If y = [log(log(logx))]2 , find
dx 2 dx
1 4) Find the rate of change of demand (x) of a
dy
7) If x = y + then = ........ commodity with respect to its price (y)
y dx
if y = 25+30x – x2.
dy
8) If y = eax, then x. = ....... 5) Find the rate of change of demand (x) of a
dx
commodity with respect to its price (y)
dy
9) If x = t.logt , y = tt then = ....... 5x 7
dx if y =
2 x 13
m
10) If y = x x 2 1
dy
6) Find , if y = xx
dy dx
t
hen ( x 2 − 1) = .......
dx dy x
7) Find , if y = 2x
dx
Q.III] State whether each of the following is
3x 4
3
True or False: dy
8) Find , if y =
dx ( x 1) 4 ( x 2)
1) If f ′ is the derivative of f, then the derivative
of the inverse of f is the inverse of f’ dy
9) Find , if y = xx + (7x – 1)x
2) The derivative of logax, where a is constant dx
dy
is
1
. 10) If y = x3+3xy2+3x2y Find
x.log a dx
dy
11) If x3+y2+xy = 7 Find
3) The derivative of f(x) = ax, where a is dx
constant is x.ax−1
dy
12) If x3y3 = x2−y2 Find
4) The derivative of polynomial is polynomial. dx
d
5) (10 x ) x.10 x 1 13) If x7.y9 = (x+y)16 then show that
dx
dy 1 dy y
6) If y = log x then = Find =
dx x dx x
100
18) Differentiate e(4x+5) with respective to 104x Solution : Let y = 30 + 25x + x2
dx y=u+v
Solution:- Given
Now, u = xlogx
y = (6x − 5x + 2x + 3)
4 3 5
Taking log on both sides, we get
Let u = [6x4 − 5x3 + + 3]
logu = logxlogx
∴y=u
logu = logx.logx.logx
dy
∴ = 5u4
logu = (logx)2
du
Diff. w.r.to x, we get
du
And = 24x3 − 15( )+2 1 du d
dx ∴ 2(log x)
u dx dx
dx
By chain rule
du 1
dy ∴ u 2 log x
dy × dx x
=
dx dx
1
∴ du x log x 22 1× .........(II)
dx
dy
∴ = 5(6x4 − 5x3 + 2x + 3)
dx Now, v = 10x
dv
∴ = 10 x.
(2): The rate of change of demand (x) of a dt
commodity with respect to its price (y).
Substitution equation (II) & (III) in
If y = 30 + 25x + x2 equation (I), we get
101
dy 1 dy t
∴ x log x 2 log x 10 x.log(10) 5: Find if x = et, y = e
dx x dx
t
Solution:- given, x = et, y = e e
dy
(4): Find , if yx = ex+y t
dx Now, y = e
Solution:- Given yx = ex+y
Diff. w.r.to t
Taking log on both side, we get,
∴ log (y)x = log (e)x+y ∴ dy = e t d
dt dtdt
∴ x. = .log e
dx 1
∴ = e t. ......... (I)
∴ x. log y = (x + ). 1 dt 2 t
∴ x. log y = x + Now, x = et
Diff. w.r.to x, we get Diff.w.r.to t
1 d dy dx
∴x + log y. 1 = + ∴ = ....... (II)
y dx dx dt
1 dy dy
∴ x + log y = 1 + dy dy
y dx dx Now, = dt
dx
x dy dy
∴ − =1−
y dx dx
e t
dy x ∴ =
∴ 1 = − log y
dx y
et
dy ( - log y) (y) dy e t
∴ = x-y ∴
dx =
dx 2 t et
v v v
102
4 Applications of Derivatives
• Meaning of Derivatives f ( a h) f ( a )
The slope of the chord PQ =
h
• Increasing and Decreasing Functions.
Let the point Q move along the curve such
• Maxima and Minima
that Q→P. Then the secant PQ approaches the
• Application of derivatives to Economics. tangent at P as h→0
f ( a h) f ( a )
∴ Qlim
→P
(slope of secant PQ) = lim
h 0 h
Introduction
Slope of tangent at P = f ′(a) (if limit exists)
Derivatives have a wide range of Thus, the derivative of a function y = f(x) at
applications in everyday life. In this chapter, any point P(a,b) is the slope of the tangent at the
we shall discuss geometrical and physical point P(a,b) on the curve.
significance of derivatives and some of their
The slope of the tangent at any point P(a,b)
applications such as equation of tangent and
is also called gradient of the curve y = f(x) at
normal at a point on the curve, rate measure in
physical field, approximate values of functions dy
point P and is denoted by f ′(a) or .
and extreme values of a function. dx p
Normal is a line perpendicular to tangent,
Let's Learn passing through the point of tangency.
∴ Slope of the normal is the negative
4.1 Meaning of Derivative:
reciprocal of slope of tangent.
Let y = f(x) be a continuous function of x. −1 1
Thus, slope of normal = =
It represents a curve in XY-plane. (fig. 4.1). f '(a ) dy
dx P
Hence,
(i) The equation of tangent to the curve
y = f(x) at the point P(a,b) is given by
(y − b) = f ′(a)(x − a)
(ii) The equation of normal to the curve
y = f(x) at the point P(a,b) is given by
−1
(y − b) = (x − a)
f '(a )
Fig. 4.1
103
dy
SOLVED EXAMPLES ∴ = −2x1
dx x x1
1) Find the equation of tangent and normal to ∴ The slope of the tangent as P(x1,y1)
the curve y = x2 + 4x + 1 at P(−1, −2). = −2x1
Solution: Given equation of curve is
∴ The slope of the normal at P(x1,y1)
y = x2 + 4x + 1
1
Differentiating with respect to x =
2 x1
dy 1
∴ = 2x + 4 Now, slope of x − 4y + 3 = 0 is
dx 4
dy 1
∴ dx = 2(−1) + 4 ∴ The slope of the normal = (since
p(-1,-2) 4
=2 normal is parallel to given line)
y + 2 = 2(x + 1) ∴ x1 = 2
∴ y + 2 = 2x + 2 P(x1,y1) lies on the curve y = 6 − x2
∴ 2x − y = 0 ∴ y1 = 6 − x12
Now, The slope of Normal at ∴ y1 = 6 − 4
−1 ∴ y1 = 2
P(−1, −2) is
2 ∴ The point on the curve is (2, 2)
∴ The equation of normal is
∴ The slope of tangent at (2,2) is
−1 −2x1 = −2(2) = −4
y + 2 = (x + 1)
2
∴ The equation of tangent is
2(y + 2) = −1(x + 1) (y − 2) = −4 (x − 2)
2y + 4 = −x − 1 ∴ y − 2 = −4x + 8
x + 2y + 5 = 0 ∴ 4x + y − 10 = 0
2) Find the equation of tangent and normal to ∴ The equation of normal is
the curve y = 6 − x2 where the normal is 1
parallel to the line x − 4y + 3 = 0. (y − 2) = (x − 2)
4
Solution: Let P(x1,y1) be the point on the curve y ∴ 4(y − 2) = 1 (x − 2)
= 6 − x2 where the normal is parallel to the
∴ 4y − 8 = x − 2
line x − 4y + 3 = 0
∴ x − 4y + 6 = 0
Consider, y = 6 − x2
dy
∴ = −2x
dx
104
Definition: A function y = f(x) is said to
EXERCISE 4.1
be a decreasing function of x in an interval
(a,b). if f(x2) < f(x1), whenever x2 > x1 for all
Q.1 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
x1, x2 in the interval (a, b).
the curve at the given points on it.
i) y = 3x2 − x + 1 at (1,3)
ii) 2x2 + 3y2 = 5 at (1,1)
iii) x2 + y2 + xy = 3 at (1,1)
Q.2 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
the curve y = x2 + 5 where the tangent is
parallel to the line 4x − y + 1 = 0.
Q.3 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
the curve y = 3x2 − 3x − 5 where the tangent
is parallel to the line 3x − y + 1 = 0.
Fig. 4.3
4.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions:
Geometrically, as we move from left to
Definition : The function y = f(x) is said
right along the curve y = f(x) in (a,b), then
to be an increasing function of x in the
the curve falls. (see fig.4.3)
interval (a,b) if f(x2) > f(x1), whenever
x2 > x1 in the interval (a,b). ∴ Slope of tangent f ′(x) < 0
∴ The slope of tangent is negative.
If f ′(x) < 0 in (a,b) then f(x) is a decreasing
function in the interval (a,b).
Note: Every function may not be either
increasing or decreasing.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
105
2) Test whether the following function is Now, f ′(x) < 0
increasing or decreasing. ∴ 6(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0
f(x) = 2 − 3x + 3x − x , ∀x ∈ R
2 3
(if ab < 0 either a < 0 and b > 0 or a > 0 and
Solution: f(x) = 2 − 3x + 3x − x
2 3
b < 0)
∴ f ′(x) = −3 + 6x − 3x2 Case I] (x − 1) < 0 and x − 2 > 0
∴ f ′(x)= −3(x2 − 2x + 1) ∴ x < 1 and x > 2 which is contradiction
∴ f ′(x) = −3(x − 1)2 Case II] x − 1 > 0 and x − 2 < 0
Since (x − 1)2 is always positive, x ≠ 1 ∴ x > 1 and x < 2
∴ f ′(x) < 0, ∀ x ∈ R − {1} ∴ 1 < x < 2
Hence, function f(x) is decreasing function ∴ f(x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 2 is decreasing
∀ x ∈ R − {1} function if x ∈ (1,2).
106
Thus, the function f(x) will have a First Derivative Test : A function
maximum at x = c if f(x) is increasing for y = f(x) is said to have a maximum
x < c and f(x) is decreasing for x > c as value at x = c if the following three
shown in Fig. 4.4 conditions are satisfied.
i) f ′(c) = 0
ii) f ′(c − h) > 0
iii) f ′(c + h) < 0 where h a is small
positive number (see fig. 4.4)
A function y = f(x) is said to have a
minimum value at x = c if the following
conditions are satisfied.
i) f ′(c) = 0
ii) f ′(c − h) < 0
iii) f ′(c + h) > 0 where h is a small
positive number (see fig. 4.5)
Fig. 4.4
Remark :
b) Minimum value of f(x): A function f(x) is If f′(c) = 0 and f′(c − h) > 0, f′(c + h) > 0
said to have a minimum at a point x = c or f′(c − h) < 0, f′(c + h) < 0 then f(c) is neither
if f(x) > f(c) for all x ≠ c. maximum nor minimum. In this case x = c is
called a point of inflection (see.fig. 4.6)
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.5 A function may have several maxima and
several minima. In such cases, the maxima are
The value of f(c) is called the minimum called local maxima and the minima are called
value of f(x). local minima. (see. fig. 4.7)
The function will have a minimum at
x = c if f(x) is decreasing for
x < c and f(x) is increasing for x > c as
shown in fig. 4.5
At x = c if the function is neither increasing
nor decreasing, then the function is
stationary at x = c
Note: The maximum and minimum values
of a function are called its extreme values.
To find extreme values of a function, we
use the following tests. Fig. 4.7
107
In this figure the function has a local 2) Divide the number 84 into two parts such
maximum at x = a and a local minimum at x = b that the product of one part and square of
and still f(b) > f(a). the other is maximum.
Solution: Let one part be x then other part will
SOLVED EXAMPLES be 84 - x
1) Find the maximum and minimum value of f(x) = x2 (84 − x)
the function f(x) = 84x2 − x3
f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 f ′(x) = 168(x) − 3x2
Solution: Given f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 f ′′(x) = 168 − 6x
∴ f ′(x) = 9x2 − 18x − 27 For extream value f ′(x) = 0
∴ f ′′(x) = 18x − 18 ∴ 168x − 3x2 = 0
= 54 − 18 ∴ 2y = 108 − 2x
∴ 2y = 2(54 − x)
= 36 > 0
∴ y = 54 − x ................. (1)
∴ f(x) attains minimum at x = 3
Now, area of the rectangle = xy
Minimum value is, = x (54 − x)
f(3) = 3(3)3 − 9(3)2 − 27(3) + 15 = −66 f(x) = 54x − x2
∴ The function f(x) has maximum value f ′(x) = 54 − 2x
30 at x = −1 and minimum value − 66 f ′′(x) = −2
at x = 3
108
For extreme value, f ′(x) = 0 3. Total cost function C = f(x), where x is
∴ 54 − 2x = 0 number of items produced,
∴ 2x = 54 dC
Marginal cost = Cm =
dx
∴ x = 27
C
f ′′(27) = −2 < 0 Average cost = CA =
x
∴ Area is maximum when x = 27, y = 27
4. Total Revenue R = P.D where P is price and
∴ The dimension of rectangle are D is demand.
27m × 27m. R PD
Average Revenue RA = = =P
∴ It is a square. D D
Total profit = R − C
With this knowledge, we are now in a
EXERCISE 4.3 position to discuss price elasticity of demand;
which is usually referred as 'elasticity of demand'
Q.1 Determine the maximum and minimum denoted by 'η'.
values of the following functions. _P dD
i) f(x) = 2x3 − 21x2 + 36x − 20 Elasticity of demand .
D dP
ii)
f(x) = x. logx
We observe the following situations in the
16 formula for elasticity of demand.
iii) f(x) = x2 +
x i) Demand is a decreasing function of price.
Q.2 Divide the number 20 in to two parts such
dD
that their product is maximum. ∴ <0
dP
Q.3 A metal wire of 36cm long is bent to form
a rectangle. Find it's dimensions when it's Also, price P and the demand D are always
area is maximum. positive.
_P dD
Q.4 The total cost of producing x units is ∴ . >0
Rs. (x2 + 60x + 50) and the price is D dP
Rs. (180 − x) per unit. For what units is the ii) If η = 0, it means the demand D is constant
profit maximum? function of price P.
4.4 Applications of derivative in Economics: dD
∴ <0
We ave discussed the following functions dP
in XIth standard. In this situation demand is perfectly
1. Demand Function D = f(P). inelastic.
iii) If 0 < η < 1, the demand is relatively
dD inelastic.
Marginal demand = Dm =
dP
iv) If η = 1, the demand is exactly proportional
to the price and demand is said to be unitary
2. Supply function S = g (P)
elastic.
dS
Marginal supply =
dP
109
v) If η > 1, the demand is relatively elastic. S
Average propensity to save (APS) =
Now let us establish the relation between x
marginal revenue (Rm), average revenue Note here that x = Ec + S
(RA) and elasticity of demand (η)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.x
dR
As, Rm = dE c dS
dD 1
dx dx
But R = P.D.
∴ MPC + MPS = 1
d
∴ Rm = (P.D) Also as x = EC + S,
dD
Ec S
dP ∴ 1
= P+ D x x
dD
∴ 1 = APC + APS
D dP
= P 1 ...... (1)
P dD
SOLVED EXAMPLES
_
P dD
But
η = .
D dP 1) The revenue function is given by
_ R = D2 − 40D, where D is demand of the
1 D dP commodity. For what values of D, the
. = .
η P dD revenue is increasing?
Substituting in (1) we get, Solution: Given R = D2 − 40D
1 Differentiating w.r.t.D
Rm = P 1
dR
= 2D - 40
dD
1
Rm = RA 1 (as RA = P) As revenue is increasing
dR
Marginal propensity to consume: For ∴ > 0
dD
any person with income x, his consumption
expenditure (Ec) depends on x. ∴ 2D − 40 > 0
∴ Ec = f(x) ∴ D > 20
110
dC iii) the price p for which elasticity of
A = 2x − 16 demand is equal to one.
dx
dCA Solution: (i) Elasticity of demand
Now CA is decreasing if <0
dx − p dx
that is 2x − 16 < 0 η = .
x dp
∴ x < 8
For
x = 200 − 4p,
Average cost is decreasing for x < 8
dx
= −4
3) In a factory, for production of Q articles, dp
standing charges are 500/-, labour charges − p dx
∴ η = .
are 700/- and processing charges are 50Q. x dp
The price of an article is 1700 - 3Q. For −p
what values of Q, the profit is increasing? = (−4) (For p < 50)
(200 − 4 p )
Solution: Cost of poduction of Q aricles p
∴ η = (For p < 50)
C = standing charges + labour charges + (50 − p )
processing charges
(ii) When P = 10
∴ C = 500 + 700 + 50Q 10
η =
∴ C = 1200 + 50Q (50 − 10)
Revenue R = P.Q. 10
=
= (1700 − 3Q) Q 40
= 1700Q - 3Q2 = 0.25 < 1
∴ Q < 275 As η = 1,
p
∴ Profit is increasing for Q < 275 ∴ = 1
50 − p
4) Demand function x, for a certain commodity ∴ p = 50 − p
is given as x = 200 − 4p, where p is the unit
price. Find ∴ 2p = 50
ii) elasticity of demand when p = 10; ∴ For elasticity equal to 1 then price is
p = 30. Interpret your results. 25/unit.
111
5) If the average revenue RA is 50 and
EXERCISE 4.4
elasticity of demand η is 5, find marginal
revenue Rm.
1) The demand function of a commodity at
Solution: Given RA = 50 and η = 5, 5P
price is given as, D = 40 − . Check
1 8
Rm = RA 1 whether it is increasing or decreasing
function.
1
= 50 1 2) The price P for demand D is given as
5
P = 183 + 120D − 3D2; find D for which
4 price is increasing.
= 50
5
Rm = 40 3) The total cost function for production of
6) The consumption expenditure EC of a articles is given as C = 100 + 600x − 3x2.
person with income x, is given by Find the values of x for which total cost is
decreasing.
EC = 0.0006x2 + 0.003x. Find average
propensity to consume, marginal propensity 4) The manufacturing company produces
to consume when his income is Rs. 200/- x items at the total cost of Rs. 180 + 4x.
Also find his marginal propensity to save. The demand function for this product is
P = (240 − x). Find x for which (i) revenue
Solution: Given EC = 0.006x2 + 0.003x
is increasing, (ii) profit is increasing.
Ec
∴ APC = 5) For manufacturing x units, labour cost is
x
150 − 54x and processing cost is x2. Price
= 0.0006x + 0.003 of each unit is p = 10800 − 4x2. Find the
At x = 200, values of x for which.
APC = 0.0006 × 200 + 0.003 i) Total cost is decreasing
= 0.12 + 0.003 ii) Revenue is increasing
= 0.123 6) The total cost of manufacturing x articles
dE C = 47x + 300x2 − x4. Find x, for which
MPC = c
dx average cost is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
d 7) i) Find the marginal revenue, if the
= (0.0006x2 + 0.003x)
dx average revenue is 45 and elasticity of
= 0.0006 (2x) + 0.003 demand is 5.
At x = 200, ii) Find the price, if the marginal revenue
is 28 and elasticity of demand is 3.
MPC = 0.0006 × 400 +0.003
= 0.24 + 0.003 iii) Find the elasticity of demand, if the
marginal revenue is 50 and price is
= 0.243 Rs. 75/-.
As MPC + MPS = 1 p6
8) If the demand function is D = ,
∴ MPS = 1 − MPC p 3
find the elasticity of demand at p = 4.
= 1 − 0.243
= 0.757
112
9) Find the price for the demand function • A function y = f(x) is said to have local
2p 3 minimum at x = c, if f '(c) = 0 and f ''(c) > 0.
D= , when elasticity of demand is
3 p 1
11
. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 4
14
I) Choose the correct alternative.
10) If the demand function is D = 50 − 3p −p2.
Find the elasticity of demand at (i) p = 5 1) The equation of tangent to the curve
(ii) p = 2. Comment on the result. y = x2 + 4x + 1 at (−1, −2) is
p2 (a) 2x − y = 0 (b) 2x + y − 5 = 0
11) For the demand function D = 100 − .
2
Find the elasticity of demand at (i) p = 10 (c) 2x − y − 1 = 0 (d) x + y − 1 = 0
(ii) p = 6 and comment on the results. 2) The equation of tangent to the curve
12) A manufacturing company produces x2 + y2 = 5 where the tangent is parallel to
x items at a total cost of Rs. 40 + 2x. Their the line 2x − y + 1 = 0 are
price is given as p = 120 − x. Find the value (a) 2x − y + 5 = 0; 2x − y − 5 = 0
of x for which (i) revenue is increasing.
(ii) profit is increasing. (iii) Also find (b) 2x + y + 5 = 0; 2x + y − 5 = 0
elasticity of demand for price 80. (c)
x − 2y + 5 = 0; x − 2y − 5 = 0
13) Find MPC, MPS, APC and APS, if the (d)
x + 2y + 5; x + 2y − 5 = 0
expenditure Ec of a person with income I is
3) If elasticity of demand η = 1 then demand
given as
is
EC = (0.0003)I2 + (0.075)I
(a) constant (b) in elastic
when I = 1000.
(c) unitary elastic (d) elastic
4) If 0 < η < 1, then the demand is
Let's Remember
(a) constant (b) in elastic
• A function f is said to be increasing at a (c) unitary elastic (d) elastic
point c if f '(c) > 0.
5) The function f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 100,
• A function f is said to be decreasing at a x ∈ R is
point c if f '(c) < 0. _P dD (a) Increasing for all x ∈ R, x ≠ 1
• Elasticity of demand .
D dP (b) decreasing
1 1 (c) Neither, increasing nor decreasing
• Rm = P 1 = RA 1
(d) Decreasing for all x ∈ R, x ≠ 1
• For a person with income x, consumption 6) If f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 then
or expenditure Ec and saving S,
(a)
f has maximum value 66
x = Ec + S
(i)
(b)
f has minimum value 30
(ii) MPC + MPS = 1
(c)
f has maxima at x = −1
(iii) APC + APS = 1
(d)
f has minima at x = −1
• A function y = f(x) is said to have local
maximum at x = c, if f '(c) = 0 and f''(c) < 0.
113
II) Fill in the blanks: 6x + 3y − 4 = 0
x2
1) The slope of tangent at any point (a,b) is 3) Show that the function f(x) = , x ≠ −1
x 1
called as .......... is increasing
2) If f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 100, x ∈ R then 3
4) Show that the function f(x) = + 10, x ≠ 0
f ′′(x) is .............. x
is decreasing
7 5) If x + y = 3 show that the maximum value
3) If f(x) = − 3, x ∈ R, x ≠ 0 then f ′′(x) is
.................x of x2y is 4.
4) A rod of 108m length is bent to form 6) Examine the function for maxima and
a rectangle. If area at the rectangle is minima f(x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x
maximum then its dimension are ...........
5) If f(x) = x.log.x then its maximum value is Activities
............
(1) Find the equation of tangent to the curve
III) State whether each of the following is
x − y = 1 at P(9,4).
True or false:
1) The equation of tangent to the curve Solution : Given equation of curve is
y = 4xex at ( −1, −4 ) is y.e. + 4 = 0. x− y=1
e
Diff. w.r.to x
2) x + 10y + 21 = 0 is the equation of normal
to the curve y = 3x2 + 4x − 5 at (1,2). 1 1 dy
∴ − =0
2 x 2 x
3) An absolute maximum must occur at a
critical point or at an end point. 1 dy 1
∴ =
4) The function f(x) = x.ex(1−x) is increasing on 2 y dx 2
−1 1 dy 1
( , 1). ∴ =
2 y dx x
114
(2): A rod of 108 meters long is bent to form (3): Find the value of x for which the function
rectangle. Find its dimensions if the area of f(x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 2 is decreasing.
rectangle is maximum.
Solution: Given f(x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 2
Solution: Let x be the length and y be breadth of
the rectangle. ∴ f ′(x) = x2 − +
∴ 2x + 2y = 108 ∴ f ′(x) = 6(x − 1) ( )
∴ x + y = Now f ′(x) < 0
∴ y = 54 − ∴ 6(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0
Now area of the rectangle = x y since ab < 0 ⇔ a < 0 & b > 0 or a > 0
= x &b<0
v v v
115
5 Integration
Rules of integration:
k f ( x) k f ( x) ... k f ( x) dx k f ( x)dx k
1 1 2 2 n n 1 1 2
5.1.3 Theorem 1: If f is a real valued
integrable functionof k xf and
1 1 ( x) k kis fa constant,
2 2 f ( x) dx k f ( x)dx k f ( x)dx ... k f ( x)dx
( x) ... kthen
n n 1 1 2 2 n n
117
x 4 3x 2
(2) Evaluate 11 t (4t 5) 4 dt
7
1
= 3 log x 2 c
3 4 2 2x
1 (8 x3 1 12 x 2 6 x)
(6) Evaluate 2 (2 x 1) dx
3
dx
x x2
Solution : I = 11 t dt (4t 5) 4 dt
7
3 1 (8 x 3 1 12 x 2 6 x)
Solution:
( 2 x 1) 3
I
dx =
dx
7 1 x2 x2
t
11 (4t 5) 41 1 6 1 1
= 3
3 c = 8 x 12 2 dx 4 x 2 12 x 6 log x c
x x x
7 1 4 1 4
= (4 x3 12 x 2 9 x)dx
dx
(4) Evaluate x x2 = 4
x4 x3 x2
12 9 c
4 3 2
1 x x2 = x 4 4 x3
9 2
x c
Solution: I = dx
x x2 x x2 2
Solution: I = x 2 4 x 6 5 dx
1
= x1/ 2 dx ( x 2)1/ 2 dx
2 x
1 x3/ 2 ( x 2)3/ 2 1
= c = x 2 dx 4 x dx 6 dx 5 dx
2 3 2 3 2 x
1
= x3/ 2 ( x 2)3/ 2 c x3 x2
3 = 4 6 x 5 log x c
3 2
3
1 1 3
(5) Evaluate: x dx x 3 3 3 x dx
x (10) Evaluate (e a log x e x log a )dx (eloge x eloge a )dx
a x
x x
3
1 1 3
Solution:
x dxI = x 3 3 3 x dx
a x
(e a log xSolution:
e x log a )dxI = (eloge x eloge a )dx
x x x
x4 3x 2 = a x x a 1 ax
= 2
1
3 log x c ( x a ) dx c
4 2x 2 a 1 log a
118
1 5.2 Method of Change of Variable or Method
(11) Evaluate e(15t ) dt of Substitution
5t 1
In this method, we reduce the given
(15t ) 1 function to standard form by changing variable
Solution: I = e dt dt
5t 1 x to t, using some suitable substitution x = φ(t)
e(15t ) log 5t 1 Theorem 4 : If x = φ(t) is a differentiable
I= c function of t, then
(5) 5
(12) If f ′(x) = 8x3 + 3x2 − 10x − k, f(0) = −3 and f ( x)dx f (t ) '(t )dt
f(−1) = 0, find f(x) 5.2.1 Corollary 1:
f ( x)
n 1
Solution: By the definition of integral
f ( x)
n
f '( x)dx c
(n 1)
f(x) = f '( x)dx (8 x 3 x 10 x k )dx
3 2
= 8 x3 dx 3 x 2 dx 10 x dx k dx
SOLVED EXAMPLES
x4 x3 x2
Evaluate ∫ (log x) dx
7
= 8 3 10 kx c 1.
4 3 2 x
f(x) = 2 x 4 x3 5 x 2 kx c Solution: Put log x = t
1
Now f(0) = −3 gives c = −3 ∴ dx = dt
x
and f(−1) = 0 gives k = 7 ∴ t 7 1 1
I t 7 dt c (log x)8 c
f(x) = 2 x 4 x3 5 x 2 7 x 3 7 1 8
2. Evaluate 1
dx
EXERCISE 5.1 2x x n
1
Solution: I = dx
(i) Evaluate 2 1
dx 2x n
5x 4 5x 2 x
xn
=
( n 1) dx
x2 2x 1
(ii) Evaluate 1 x dx
2!
Put x ( n 1) t
3x 2 x
3
(iii) Evaluate dx ∴ (n 1) x n dx dt
x
(iv) Evaluate (3 x 2 5) 2 dx ∴ x n dx dt
n 1
(v) Evaluate 1 1 dt
dx ∴ I =
x( x 1) (2t 1) (n 1)
(vi) If f ′(x) = x2 + 5 and f(0) = −1, then find the 1 dt
value of f(x). =
(n 1) (2t 1)
(vii) If f ′(x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + 2x + k, f(0) = 1 and
1 log 2t + 1
f(1) = 4, find f(x) = +c
n +1 2
x2 1
(viii) If f ′(x) = kx 1 , f(0) = 2 and f(3) = 5, I= log 2 x n +1 + 1 + c
find f(x)
2 2(n + 1)
119
3. Evaluate 4x 6 1 dt 1 1 1
dx I = ∫ dt = log t + c
3
t 3 3 t 3
( x 2 3 x 5) 2
1 3x
2(2 x 3) = log e + 1 + c
Solution: I = 3
dx 3
( x 3 x 5)
2 2
6. Evaluate 1
Put ( x 2 3 x 5) t dx
x(log x 1)
∴ (2 x 3)dx dt Solution: Put log x 1 t
3 1
2dt dx = dt
I 2t 2
dt x
t
3
2
1 1
I dx
1 log x 1 x
t 2 4 1
=
2 c dt log t c log log x 1 c
1 t t
2
d x
ex 1 (e x )
4 dx = dx x
I = c 7. Evaluate x dx
x 3x 5
2 e x e x
= log e x + x + c
10 x x10 ∴ x n1dx dt / n
1
Solution: Put 10 x x10 t 1 dt 1
I= (1 t ) 2 dt
1 t n n
x
∴ (10 .log 10 10 x )dx dt 9
1
1 1 (1 t ) 2
I dt log t c
=
. c
2
1 xn c
t n 1 n
= log 10 x + x10 + c
2
14. Evaluate 3 x dx
2
11. Evaluate 1 dx 1 dx
1 e x 1 1 x3
1 x
e
Solution: Put 1 x 3 t
d x
(e 1)
∴ 3 x 2 dx = dt
ex
Solution: I = x dx dx x dx
e 1 e 1 1
I dt 3 x dx = dt
2
log e x 1 c t
e2 x 1 2 t c 2 1 x3 c
x
e2 x 1 e dx
12. Evaluate I = 2 x dx 2 x
e 1 e 1 Integral of Type: (ax b) cx d dx
x
e x (e x e x ) e
Solution: I = x x x dx
e (e e ) 15. Evaluate (2 x 1) x 4 dx
d x x
(e e ) Solution: Put ( x 4) t
e x e x
x x dx dx x x dx ∴ dx = dt
e e e e
x x x t4
I log e e c
I = 2(t 4) 1 t dt (2t 9) t dt
f '( x) 3 1
3 1
5.2.3 Corollary 3: f x
dx 2 f ( x) c
=
2
2t 9t 2 dt 2 t dt 9 t dt
2 2
( )
5 3
5.2.3 Corollary 4: t
2
t
2
4 5 3
= 2 9 c ( x 4) 2 6( x 4) 2 c
n n f ( x) 5 3
n 1
f '( x) 5
n f ( x)
dx
n 1
c 2 2
1
121
Solution: Put 2 − 3x = t 1 5t 2 30t 45 8t 24 28
= dt
∴ −3 dx = dt 2 3
4t 2
dx = −dt / 3 Also x = (2 − t)/3
1 5t 2 22t 49
2 t
1
dt = 3
dt
I = 5 3 (t )
3
2
3
8
t
2
1
1 2
1 3
1
1
= (5 2 t )(t ) 2 dt = 5t 22t 2
49t 2 dt
3 8
1
1
= (3 t )(t ) 2 dt 5
1
22
1
49
3
3 = t 2 dt t 2 dt t 2 dt
8 8 8
1 1 1
= 3(t ) 2 (t ) 2 dt 3
1
1
3 5t 2
11 t 49 t
2 2
= c
3
1
1 1 8 3 4 1 4 1
= t
3
2
dt t 2 dt 2 2 2
3
5 11
1 3
=
(2 x 3)3/ 2 (2 x 3)1/ 2
t 2 1 t 2 12 2
= c 2 2 3 x
1 33 49 1
2
2 =
2 x 3 2 c
2
= −2 2 − 3x
18. Evaluate x7
dx
(1 x 4 ) 2
3
2
(2 3x) 2 c
9
Solution: Let, I = x7 x 4 x3
dx dx
5x2 4 x 7 (1 x 4 ) 2 (1 x 4 ) 2
17. Evaluate 3
dx
(2 x 3) 2 Put 1 x 4 t
Solution: Put 2x + 3 = t ∴ 4 x3 dx = dt
∴ 2 dx = dt dt
∴ x3 dx =
dt 4
∴ dx =
2
A lso x 4 t 1
(t 3)
Also x t 1 dt 1 1 1
2 I dt
(t ) 2 4 4 t t 2
t 3 t 3
2
122
EXERCISE 5.2 SOLVED EXAMPLES
(ii) 1 x 4
dx d
( Denominator)
dx
d
(iii) (e
x
e x ) 2 (e x e x ) dx 4 e x − 25 = A(2 e x 5) B (2 e x 5)
dx
1 x
(iv) xe x
dx A(2 e x 5) B(2 e x )
=
( 2 A 2 B )e x 5 A
=
(v) ( x 1)( x 2) ( x 3) dx
7
2x 6 ∴ 4e 25 5(2e 5) 3(2e )
(viii) dx x x
x 6x 3
2 ∴ I = 5(2e 5) 3(2e ) dx
2e x 5
1
(ix) dx
=
3(2e x )
xx 5 x dx
2e 5
1
(x) x( x 6
1)
dx
= 5 dx 3
2e x
dx
2e x 5
= 5 x 3 log 2e x 5 c
Activities
123
5.4.1 Results 1
1 1 xa 3. 9 x 2 25
dx
1. 2 dx log c
x a 2
2a xa
1 1
3
1 1 ax Solution: I = dx
2. a 2 x 2 dx 2a log a x c x 225
9
1
3. dx log x x 2 a 2 c 1 1
3
= dx
x a
2 2
2
5
x2
1 3
4. x a
2 2
dx log x x 2 a 2 c
2
1 5
= log x x c
2
SOLVED EXAMPLES 3 3
Evaluate the following.
1 1 1
1. 2
1 1 1
dx dx
4. 4x2 9
dx
2 9
dx
9x 4 9 x2 4 x
2
9 1 1 1 4
Solution: I =
1 1
dx Solution:
4x 9
2
I =
dx
2 9
dx
9 2 2 2 x2
x 4
3
1 1
x
2 = dx
1 1 2 3
2
3 c
=
2 log x2
2
9 x
2 2
3 3
2
1 3
1 3x 2 = log x x c
2
= log c 2 2
12 3x 2
1
2.
1 1 1
16 9 x 2 dx 9 16 2 dx
5. x (log x) 2 5
dx
x
9 1
1 1 1 Solution: Put log x t dx dt
Solution:
16 9 x
dx
2 I =
9 16 x 2
dx x
9 ∴ I 1
dt
=
1 1
dx t 2 ( 5 )2
2
9 4
x
2
3 log t t 2 ( 5 ) 2 c
=
4
x log log x (logx) 2 ( 5 ) 2 c
=
1 1 3
= 4 log 4 c
9 2 x
3 3
1 4 3x
= log c
24 4 3x
124
P( x) 1
5.4.2 Integrals of the form ∫ Q( x ) dx where 5.4.3 Integrals of the type ax 2
bx c
dx
degree (P(x)) ≥ degree (Q(x)). In order to find this type of integrals we
may use the following steps :
P( x)
Method: To evaluate ∫ Q( x) dx Step 1 : Make the coefficient of x2 as one if
1 1
1. Divide P(x) by Q(x). it is not, then dx
a x2 x c
b
After dividing P(x) by Q(x) we get a a
quotient q(x) and remainder r(x).
Step 2: Add and subtract the square of the
2. Use Dividend = quotient × divisor 2
+ remainder b
half of coefficient of x that is to complete
2a
q(x) × Q(x) + r(x)
P(x) = 1 1
a
the square dx =
P( x) r ( x) b b b c
2 2
=
q(x) + x x
2
Q( x) Q( x) a 2a 2a a
P( x) r ( x) 1 1
∫ Q( x) dx = ∫q(x) dx + ∫ Q( x) dx
a b 4ac b 2
2
dx
x
2a 4a 2
3. Using standard integrals, evaluate I.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Evaluate the following.
x3 x 1
1. Evaluate I dx 1
x2 1 1. 2x 2
x 1
dx
x3 x 1
Solution: I dx 1 1
x2 1
xQ
Solution: I =
2 x2 x 1
1
dx
2
)
D x 1 x x 1
3
1
2
1
2
x3 x = dx
2 x2 1 x 1 1 1
2x 1 R 2 16 16 2
R
∴ I Q dx
1 1
= dx
D
2 2
2 1 3
x
2 x 1 4 4
I x 2 dx
x 1 1 3
1 x
2x 1 1
log 4 4
c
= x dx x dx 2 dx =
1 x 1 2 3 1 3
x
2
4
2
4 4
x2 1
= log x 2 1 2 2 dx c
2 x 1 1
1 x
x 2
1 x 1 = log 2 c
= log x 2 1 log c 3
x 1
2 2 x 1
125
2x 1 4. 1
1
log c dx
3 2( x 1) ( x 2)( x 3)
1
1 Solution: I = dx
2. 1 x x 2 dx x2 5x 6
1
1 = dx
Solution: I = dx 25 25
1 1
1 x x 2 x2 5x 6
4 4 4 4
1
1 = dx
= 1 2 1
dx
2
5 1
2
1 x x x
4 4 2 2
1 5 5 1
2 2
2
dx
= log x x c
= 5 x 1
2
2 2 2
2 2
5
= log x c
5 1 2
x
1 2 2
= log c
5 5 1 2x 1
2
2
2
x
2
5. x2 2x 3
dx
1 5 1 2x Solution: I
2x 2 1 dx
= log c
5 5 1 2x x2 2x 3
2x 2 dx
= I dx
ex x2 2x 3 x2 2x 3
3. e2 x 6e x 5 dx
1
Solution: Put e x = t = 2 x 2 2 x 3 log
∴ e x dx = dt x 2
2 x 1 2
dt = 2 x 2 2 x 3 log ( x 1) x 2 2 x 3 c
I =
t 6t 5
2
dt x 1
= t 2 6t 9 9 5 6. x 2 3x 2
dx
d 2
dt Solution: x 1 A( x 3 x 2) B
= (t 3)2 22
dx
x 1 A(2 x 3) B 2 Ax 3 A B
1 (t 3) 2 ∴ 2 A 1 and 3 A B 1 Solving we get
= log c
2(2) (t 3) 2 1 −1
A= and B =
2 2
1 ex + 1
= log x +c 1 1
4 e +5 (2 x 3)
∴ I 2 2 dx
x 3x 2
2
126
2x 3 dx
5
1 1
dx
2
= log t t 2
= c
2 x 2 3x 2 2 x 2 3x 2
2 2 1 1 =
log log x (log x) 2 5 c
=
2
x 3x 2
2 2 2
dx
3 1
x
2 2 x 2 dx
2.
1 3 x 6 2 x3 3
= x 3 x 2 log x x 3 x 2 c Solution: Put x 3 = t
2 2
2 2
dt
= 3 x 2 dx dt= : x 2 dx
5.4.4 Integrals reducible to the form 3
1 dt
1 I = 2
ax 2 bx c dx t 2t 3 3
1 1
= 2
To find this type of integrals we use the 3 t 2t 1 2
following steps: 1
= log (t + 1) + t 2 + 2t + 3
Step 1: Make the coefficients of x as one
2 3
1 dx 1
if it is not, ie
a bx c
. =
3
log (t + 1) + t 2 + 2t + 3 + c
x2
a a 1
= log ( x 3 + 1) + x 6 + 2 x 3 + 3 + c
Step 2: Find half of the coefficient of x. 3
px q
1
Step 3: Add and subtract ( coeff.of x)2
5.4.5 Integrals of the form ax 2 bx c
dx
2
inside the square root so that the square
To find this type of integrals we use the
root is in the form
following steps:
b 4ac b 2 4ac b 2 b
2 2
Step 1: Write the numerator px + q in the
x or x
2a 4a 2
4a 2
2a following form
Step 4: Use the suitable standard form for d
evaluation. px q A (ax 2 bx c) B
dx
SOLVED EXAMPLES Step 2: Obtain the values of A and B by
equating the coefficients of same power of
dx x on both sides.
1. x (logx) 2 5
Step 3: Replace px + q by A(2ax + b) + B
in the given integral to get in the form of
Solution : Put log x = t
px q
∴
dx
= dt ax 2 bx c
dx
x
1 2ax b 1
I = t2 5
dt
A
ax 2 bx c
dx B
ax 2 bx c
dx
1
= dt dx
5 =A ax 2 bx c B
2
t
2
ax 2 bx c
127
1 1
(2 x 3)
= 2
x 2 3x 2
dx − 2
x 3x 2
dx
SOLVED EXAMPLES
2
1 1
= 2 x 2 + 3 x + 2 − log
2 2
2x 8 3 3 1
2 2
1. x 2 6 x 13
dx x x c
2 2 2
d 2
Let 2x + 8 = A (x + 6x + 13) + B 1
dx 1 (2 x 3)
= dx − 2
2 2
dx
2 x 2 3x 2 3 1
2x + 8 = A (2x + 6) + B x
2 2
∴ A = 1, B = 2
1 3
= x 2 3 x 3 log x x 3x 2 c
2
2x 6 2 2 2
= x 6 x 13
2
dx
x 6 x 13
2
dx
2x 1
3. x2 2 x 1
dx
= x 2 6 x 13 2 log x 3 x 2 6 x 13 c d 2
Solution : Let 2x + 1 = A (x + 2x +1) + B
dx
f ' x = A (2x + 2) + B
(using f x dx 2 f x c in the 1st integral)
2x + 1 = 2Ax +(2A + B)
x 1 Comparing the coefficient of x, we get
2. x2
dx
2 =2A and 1 = 2A + B
x 1 x 1 A = 1 and B = −1
Solution: I = x 2 x 1 dx (2 x 1) 1
I = dx
x2 2 x 1
x 1
= x 2 3x 2 dx (2 x 2) 1
= x 2 2 x 1 dx − x2 2x 1
dx
d 2
L et x + 1 = A (x + 3x + 2) + B
dx (2 x 2) 1
= A(2x + 3) + B
x 2 2 x 1 dx − ( x 1)2 dx
128
(1 x)(1 x) (1 x) x3
dx dx
x(1 x)
=
x2 x
5) 16 x8 25 dx
d 2
Let x + 1 = A (x + x) + B 1
dx 6) a 2
b2 x2
dx
1 = 2A and 1=A+B 1
1 1
8) 3x 2 8
dx
A = and B =
2 2 1
1 1
9) x 4 x 29
2
dx
(2 x 1)
x 1
x x
2
dx 2
x x
2
2 dx
10)
1
dx
3x 2 5
1 1
(2 x 1) 1
= 2 x 2 x dx x 22 x dx 11) x 2 8 x 20
dx
1
1 (2 x 1) 5.5 Integration by Parts.
2 x2 x
= dx 2 dx
2 2 5.5.1 Theorem 5: If u and v are two functions of
1 1
x x then
2 2
du
1 1 1
2
1 1
2
u.v dx u v dx v dx. dx dx
= 2 x 2 x log x x c
2 2 2 2 2
The method of integration by parts is used
when the integrand is expressed as a product of
1 1
= x 2 x log x x 2 x c two functions, one of which can be differentiated
2 2 and the other can be integrated conveniently.
Note:
EXERCISE 5.4 (1) When the integrand is a product of two
functions, out of which the second has to
Evaluate the following. be integrated (whose integral is known),
hence we should make proper choices of
1
1) 2 dx first function and second function.
4x 1
1 (2) We can also choose the first function as
2) 2 dx the function which comes first in the word
x 4x 5
'LAE' where
1
3) 2 dx L - Logarithmic Function
4 x 20 x 17
x A - The Algebraic Function
4) 4 dx
4 x 20 x 2 3 E - The Exponential Function
129
= ∫(logt).1 dt
SOLVED EXAMPLES
d
= (logt ) 1.dt (logt ) 1.dt dt
1. x e 2 x
dx 1 dt
=
tlogt tdt c
t
d =
tlogt dt c
Solution: I = x e dx ( x) e dx dx
2 x 2 x
dx
= t (log t 1) c
e 2 x e 2 x
2 2
= x 1 . dx c = (log x).(log (log x) 1) c
1 2 x 1 2 x 5. x.2
3 x
= xe e c dx
2 4 d
Solution: I = x (2 )dx x (2 )dx dx
3 x 3 x
dx
2. ∫logx dx
x(2 3 x ) (2 3 x )
Solution: I = ∫(logx).1 dx = dx c
3 log 2 3 log 2
d
= (logx) ∫ 1.dx − (logx) 1.dx dx x(23 x ) 1
dx =
3 log 2 3 log 2 (23 x ) dx c
1
= xlogx − xdx c
x x(23 x ) 1 23 x
= c
= xlogx − ∫ dx + c 3 log 2 3 log 2 3 log 2
= x(log x − 1) + c
x 23 x 1 1
= 23 x c
3. ∫ x3log x dx 3 log 2 9 (log 2) 2
d
= (logx) x3 dx (logx) x3 dx dx These integrals are evaluated by using
dx
e { f ( x) f '( x)} dx e
x x
f ( x) c
x log x 1 3 4
= x dx c x log x 1
1. e
x
4 4 dx
x
x 4 log x 1 x4
= dx c 1
4 4 4 Solution: I = e x log x dx
2
x 4 log x x 4 1
c Put
= log x f= ( x) f '( x)
= x
4 16
e { f ( x) f '( x)}dx e
x x
f ( x) c
log(log x) 1
4. ∫ dx = ∫ log (logx) dx = e x logx + c
x x
Solution: Put log x = t
1 (1 x 2 )
e
x
∴ dx = dt 2. dx
x (1 x) 2
I = ∫log t dt ( x 2 1) 2
Solution: I = e
x
dx
(1 x) 2
130
After applying these two steps the integrals
x x 1 2
e x 1 ( x 1)2 dx
= reduces to one of the following two forms
x
e { f ( x) f '( x)}dx e
x
f ( x) c 1. 4 x 2 5 dx
x 1 Solution: I = 2 x
2 5
dx
= ex c
x 1 4
2
5
( x 3) = 2 x
2
dx
3. ex dx
( x 4) 2 2
( x 4 1) x 2 5 5/ 4 5
Solution: I = e x dx = 2 x log x x 2 c 1
( x 4) 2 2 4 2 4
1 1 x
= ex 2
dx 5
= 4 x 2 + 5 + log 2 x + 4 x 2 + 5 + c
x 4 ( x 4) 2 4
1 1
Put f ( x) and f '( x)
x4 ( x 4) 2 2. 9 x 2 4 dx
e { f ( x) f '( x)}dx e
x x
f ( x) c
4
Solution: I = 3 x dx
2
1 9
= ex +c
x+4 2
2
=
3 x dx
2
x 2 a2 x 2 4 4/9 4
a 2 x 2 dx a x 2 log x a 2 x 2 c = 3 x log x x 2 c1
2 2 2 9 2 9
x 2 a2 x 2
x 2 a 2 dx
2
x a 2 log x x 2 a 2 c
2 = 2
9 x 2 4 log 3 x 9 x 2 4 c
3
In order to evaluate integrals of form 3. x 2 4 x 5 dx
a a 9
− log ( x 2) x 4 x 5 c
2
∴ x b 4ac 2 b
2 2 2
2a 4a
131
4.
1 (logx) 2
dx 7. x 2 x 1 dx
x
1 3
1
Solution: I = 1 (logx) dx 2 Solution: I = x 2 x dx
4 4
x
Put log x = t
2
1 3
2
1
= x 2 2 dx
∴ dx = dt
x
2
3
1 1 2
x x x 1
= 1 t dt = 2 1
2
2 2 2 log x x 2
3 2 2
t 1
= 1 + t + log t + 1 + t + c
2
2 2
1
2 2 loglog x x 2 x 1 c
2 2
(logx) 1 + (logx) 2
= Integrals of the form ( px q ) ax 2 bx c dx
2
SOLVED EXAMPLES
+ 1 log (logx) + 1 + (logx) 2 + c
2
I (3 x 2) x 2 x 1 dx
5. e e 2 x 1 dx
x
d ( x 2 x 1)
Solution: We express 3x 2 A B
Let ex = t dx
3x − 2 = A(2 x + 1) + B
Solution: Put e x dx = dt
= 2Ax + (A + B)
I = t 1 dt
2
Comparing coefficients of x and constant
t 2 1 term on both sides.
= t + 1 + log t + t + 1 + c
2
2 2 2A = 3 and A + B = −2
e x e2 x + 1 1 A = 3/2 and B = −7/2
= + log e x + e 2 x + 1 + c
2 2 ∴ I 3 (2 x 1) 7 x 2 x 1 dx
2 2
6. x 2 4 x 13 dx 3
= (2 x 1) x x 1 dx
2
2
Solution: I = x 2 4 x 4 9 dx
7 2
x x 1 dx
( x 2) 3 dx
= 2 2 2
Let
x+2 I1 (2 x 1) x 2 x 1 dx,
= ( x + 2) 2 + 32
2
7
++ 3 log
322
log ((xx++22))++ ((xx++22)) 2 ++332 ++cc
2 2
I 2
2 x 2 x 1 dx
22
x x 1 t in I1
Put 2
x+2 2 9
x + 4 x + 13 + log
=
2 2
∴ I1 = t dt f t1/ 2 dt
x+2 2 9 t 3/ 2
+ 4 x + 13 ++ log ( x + 2) + x + 4 x + 13 + c
x
2
= +c
2 2 3/ 2
132
2 2 x 1
7) e
x
I1 = ( x + x + 1) + c1
3/ 2
dx
3 ( x 1)3
7 2logx
I2 =
2 x 2 x 1 dx
e
(logx) x dx
8)
2 x
7 1 1 2
x 2 x 1 1 1
3 1
= 2 2 x 2 x x 1 logx 9) log x c2(logx)2 dx
8 2
1 logx
x x 2 x 1 c2 10) dx
2 (1 logx) 2
I = I1 + I2
5.6 Integration by method of Partial
Fractions:
EXERCISE 5.5
5.6.1 Types of Partial Fractions.
Evaluate the following. (1) If f(x) and g(x) are two polynomials then
f(x)/g(x) is a rational function where g(x)≠0.
1) ∫ x log x (2) If degree of f(x) < degree of g(x) then f(x)/
g(x) is a proper rational function.
∫ x e dx
4x
2)
2
px 2 qx r A B C D
5
( x a )3 ( x b) x a ( x a) ( x a) x b
2 3
px 2 qx r A Bx C
2
6 ( x a )(ax 2 bx c) x a ax bx c
2
where, ax ± bx ± c is non factorizable
133
SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 1 1 11 1
=
4 1 x
dx 2
x2
dx
4 x3
dx
x 1
1. x dx 1 11
= log x 1 2 log x 2 log x 3 c
2
5x 6 4 4
x 1
Solution: I = ( x 2)( x 3) dx 3. log x
x(1 log x)(2 log x) dx
x 1 A B
Consider
( x 2)( x 3) x 2 x 3 Solution: Put log x = t
x 1 A( x 3) B( x 2) 1
dx = dt
x
Put x = −2 and we get A = −1 t
I dt
Pur x = −3 and we get B = 2 (1 t )(2 t )
x 1 1 2 t A B
Consider
( x 2)( x 3) x 2 x 3 (1 t )(2 t ) 1 t 2 t
x 1 1 2 Put t = −1 A = −1
I = x 2
5x 6
dx dx
x2 x3
Put t = −2 B = 2
dx 1
= − x 2 2 x 3 dx
1
I
2
dt
1 t 2 t
= log x 2 2log x 3 c 1 1
= 1 t dt 2 2 t dt
x2 2
2. ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) dx = −log|t + 1| + 2log|t + 2| + c
= 2log|log x + 2| − log|logx +1| + c
Solution: I = Consider
= log|(logx + 2)|2 - log|(logx + 1)| + c
x2 2 A B C
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3
x3 4 x 2 3 x 11
x + 2 = A(x + 2)(x + 3) + B (x − 1)(x + 3) +
2 4. x 2 5 x 6 dx
C(x − 1) (x + 2)
x 1 Q
Put x = 1
Put x = −2
A = 1/4
B = −2
2
)
[D = x 5 x 6 x 4 x 3 x 11
3 2
( x3 5 x 2 6 x)
Put x = −3 C = 11/4
x 2 3 x 11
x2 2 1/ 4 2 11 / 4 ( x 2 5 x 6)
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3
2x 5 R
x 2 2
x 1 x 2 x 3
134
x3 4 x 2 3 x 11 5 7 1 5
= dx I log x 2 log x 2 c
x2 5x 6 16 4 ( x 2) 16
2x 5
= ( x 1) dx x 2 5 x 6 dx EXERCISE 5.6
x2 2x 5
= x 2 dx cv Evaluate:
2 x 5x 6
2x 1
Express 2
2x 5
A
B 1) ( x 1)( x 2) dx
x 5x 6 x 2 x 3
2x + 5 = A (x − 3) + B (x − 2) 2x 1
2) x( x 1)( x 4) dx
Put x = 2 we get A = −9
Put x = 3 we get B = 11 x2 x 1
3) x 2 x 6 dx
2x 5 9 11
I = x
x 5x 6 x 2 x 3 4) ( x 1) ( x 2) dx
2
2
∴ I x x 9 11 dx cv
2
x 2 x 3 3x 2
2 5) ( x 1) ( x 3) dx
2
∴ I x 4 x 3 x 11 dx x x
3 2 2
x2 5x 6 x 1
6) x( x 5
1)
dx
9log x 2 11log x 3 c
1
3x 1
7) x( x n
1)
dx
5. ( x 2)2 ( x 2) dx
5 x 2 20 x 6
Express 8) x3 2 x 2 x dx
3x 1 A B C
( x 2) ( x 2) x 2 ( x 2)
2 2
x2
3x + 1 = A (x − 2) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) +
Activity
C (x − 2)2
Put x = 2 B = 7/4
x 1
x = −2, C = −5/16 Evaluate: ( x 3)( x 2) dx
Comparig Coefficients of x2 on both sides
we get Now,
x 1
A+C=0 A = 5/16 ( x 3)( x 2) ( x 3) ( x 2)
5 7 5 There is no indicator of what the numerators
3x 1 should be, so there is work to be done to find
16 4 16
( x 2) 2 ( x 2) x 2 ( x 2) 2 x 2 them. If we let the numerator be variables, we
can use algebra to solve. That is we want to find
5 1 7 1 5 1 constants A and B that make equation 2 below
I
16 x 2
dx
4 ( x 2) 2
dx
16 x 2
dx
true for x = 2,3 which are the same constants that
make the following equation true.
135
x 1 A B 1 log ax b
( x 3)( x 2) ( x 3) ( x 2)
(1) 2. (ax b) dx a
c
x − 1 = A (x − 2) + B (x − 3) (2)
e ax b
e
ax b
[ ]x+[ ]=[ ]x + [ ] (3) 3. dx c
a
Note: Two polynomials are equal if a bx k
a dx
bx k
corresponding coefficients are equal. For linear 4. c
b.loga
functions, this means that ax + b = cx + d for all
x exactly when a = c and b = d 5. x 2 a 2 dx
Alternately, you can evaluate equation (2)
x a2
for various values of x to get equations relating
2
= x 2
a 2
log x x 2 a 2 c
A and B. Some values of x will be more helpful 2
than others
[ ]=[ ]
6. x 2 a 2 dx
x 2 a2
= 2 x a log x x 2 a 2 c
2
[ ]=[ ] 2
continue solving for the constants A and B. f '( x)
A= ,B=
7. f ( x)
dx log f ( x) c
∴
x 1
8.
f '( x)
dx 2 f ( x) c
( x 3)( x 2) ( x 3) ( x 2) f ( x)
f ( x)
n 1
n
∴
x 1
( x 3)( x 2) dx ( x 3) dx ( x 2) dx
9. f ( x) f '( x) dx
n 1
c, n 1
1 1 xa
I=[ ]+[ ]+c 10. x 2
a 2
dx
2a
log
xa
c
1 1 ax
Let's Remember
11. a 2
x 2
dx
2a
log
ax
c
dx
Rules of Integration: 12. x a
2 2
log x x 2 a 2 c
136
c) − logx + log (1 − x) + c
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 5
d
)
log (x − x2) + c
I. Choose the correct alternative from the
following. dx
6) ( x 8)( x 7)
dx
1) The value of 1 x
is
1 x2
a) log c
a) 15 x 1
2 1 x c b)
2 1 x c
c
) x + c d) x + c 1 x+8
b) log +c
15 x+7
x 8
2) 1 x 2 dx c
1
) log
15 x7
c
x 1
a) 1 + x 2 + log ( x + 1 + x 2 ) + c
d) (x - 8) (x - 7) + c
2 2
2
b) (1 + x ) + c
2 3/ 2
3
3 1
1 ( x)
7) x x dx =
c) (1 + x 2 ) + c d) 2 + c
3 1+ x 4
1 1
a) x c
4 x
3)
x (3)
x3
2
dx
(3) x
3
x 4 3x 2 1
a) (3) + c b) + cx3 b) 3 log x 2 c
3.log 3 4 2 2x
c
) log 3(3) x + c d)
x2(3)x3 x 4 3x 2
3
c
) 1
+ + 3 log x + 2 + c
4 2 x
x2 4x 6 1 d) (x - x -1)3 + c
4) 2 x 2 6 x 5 dx p 2 x 2 6 x 5 dx 2
dx e 2 x e 2 x
2 x 2 6 x 5 then P = ? e x dx
8)
1 1 1 1
a) b) a) e x 3 x c b) ex + 3x + c
3 2 3e 3e
1 1
c
1
) d) 2 c)
e x 3 x c d) e x 3 x c
3e 3e
4
(1 x)
2
9) dx =
dx
5) ( x x2 ) a) (1 x) 1 c
(1 x) 1 c b)
a) logx − log (1 − x) + c
c
) (1 x) 1 1 c d) (1 x) 1 1 c
b)
log (1 − x2) + c
137
( x3 3 x 2 3 x 1) IV. Solve the following:
10) dx 1) Evaluate.
( x 1)5
1
5
1 5x2 6 x 3
a) c b) c i) 2 x 3 dx
x 1 x 1
c
) log(x +1) + c d)
log |x +1|5 + c 4
ii) (5 x 1) 9
dx
II. Fill in the blanks.
1
5( x 6 1)
iii) (2 x 3) dx
1. dx x4 ......x3 5 x c
x2 1
x 1
x x6
2 iv) x4
dx
2. ( x 2)( x 1) dx x ...... c
v) If f '(x) = x and f(1) = 2 then find the
1 5 value of f(x).
3. If f '( x) x and f (1) = then
x 2
x2
f ( x) log x .......
vi) ∫ x dx if x < 0
2
(1 log x) dx
4. To find the value of the 2) Evaluate.
x
proper substitution is ......... 1
1 i) Find the primitive of
x3 log x dx p(log x) c then P =
x 2
5. 3
1+ e x
...... ae x be x
ii) (ae x be x ) dx
III. State whether each of the following is 1
True or False. iii) 2 x 3xlogx dx
1. The proper substitution for
x( x ) (2 log x 1)dx is (x ) = t
x x x x
1
iv) xx
dx
2. If ∫ x e2x dx is equal to e2xf(x) + c where C is
(2 x − 1) 2e x 3
constant of integration then f(x) is
2
v) 4e x 1 dx
f ( x)
3. If ∫ x f(x) dx = then f(x) = ex2
2 3) Evaluate.
( x 1) dx dx
4. If ( x 1)( x 2) A log|x+1| + B log|x−2| i) 4x2 5
then A + B = 1
dx
x 1 x
ii) 3 2x x 2
5. For e dx = ex f(x) + c, f(x) =
( x 1)3
dx
(x + 1)2. iii) 9x 2
25
138
ex Activities
iv) 2x
e 4e 13 x
dx
1
dx 1) (x 5 x 4)
2 x dx
x[(logx)2 4logx 1]
2
v)
2x C D
dx Solution:
vi)
5 16 x 2
x 4
∴ 2x = C (x − 4) + D (x − 1)
dx
vii)
25 x x(logx) 2 ∴ C= ,D=
x
e
viii) 4e 2x
1
dx
( x 1)( x 4) 2 x dx ( x 1) ( x 4) dx
∴
4) Evaluate. = ( x 1) dx ( x 4) dx
i) ∫ (logx) dx
2
= + +c
ii) 1 x
e
x
dx
(2 x) 2
2) x (1 x5/ 2 )1/ 2 dx
13/ 2
∫ xe
2x
iii) dx
Solution: ∫xx3/2 (1 + x5/2) dx = ∫(x5/2)2 x3/2
iv) log( x x)dx (1 + x5/2) dx
2
let 1 + x5/2 = t
v) dx
∫e
x
dx = dt
vi)
x 2 2 x 5dx
2
I = ∫ (t − 1)2 t1/2 dt
5
vii) x 2 8 x 7 dx
=
2 2
(t − 2t + 1) t1/2 dt
5
5) Evaluate. 2
= [ dt = ∫ dt + dt]
3x 1 5
i) 2 x 2 x 1 dx
2
= { − + }+c
2 x 3x 9 x 1
3 2
5
ii) 2 x 2 x 10 dx
dx
iii)
(1 log x)
dx
3) ( x 2)( x 2
1)
= .......... (given)
x(3 logx)(2 3logx)
1
x 2
1
dx tan 1 x c
1 Bx C
Solution: 2
( x 2)( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 1)
2
139
∴ 1 = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2) 1
1 4) If x 5
x
dx f ( x) c = f(x) + C, then the
Put x = −2 we get A =
5
Now comparing the coefficients of x2 and x4
constant term, we get
value of x x5 dx is equal to ............
O=A+B x4 1
I dx
and 1 = A + 2C xx
5
−1 2 1 1
∴ B= , C= dx 5 dx
5 5 x x x
1 x I c
2
( x 2)( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 1)
2
I log x f ( x) c1 .......c1 c
dx x dx
I ( x 2) x 2
1
dx x 2
1
= − + +c
v v v
140
6 Definite Integration
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Let's Study
Ex 1 : Evaluate:
• Definite Integral
• Properties of Definite Integral 3
i) ∫ x dx
4
Introduction 1
1
We know that if f(x) is a continuous function
ii) (2 x 5) dx
0
of x, then there exists a function φ(x) such that
φ'(x) = f(x). In this case, φ(x) is an integral of 1
1
f(x) with respect to x and we denote it by iii) 1 x x
dx
∫ f(x) dx = φ(x) + c. Now, if we restrict the domain of 0
f(x) to (a, b), then the difference φ(b) - φ(a) is called Solution:
definite integral of f(x) w.r.t. x on the interval
b x5
i) Here f(x) = x4, φ(x) = +c
[a, b] and is denoted by f x dx .
a 3
5
b
1
6.1 Fundamental theorem of Intergral = [log7 − log5]
Calculus.
2
Let f be a continuous function defined on 1 7
= log
(a, b) 2 5
f x dx = φ(x) + c.
1
1
b
iii)
0 1 x x
dx
a = [φ(b) + c] − [φ(a) + c] = dx
= φ(b) − φ(a)
0 1 x x 1 x x
1 x x
1
There in no need of taking the constant of = dx
integration c, because it gets eliminated. 0
1 x x
141
1 1
= 1 x x dx x3 x 2 ax 0
0
0
(1 1 a ) 0 0
2 3
2 31
= (1 x) 2 x 2 2+a−0=0
3 3 0
a = −2
2 3
2 32 2 3
2 3
= (1 1) 2
(1) (1 0) (0)
2 2 a
3 3 3 3 ii) 3x dx 8
2
2 32 2 x3
a
= 2 1 [1 0] 3 8
3 3 3 0
2 32 ( a 3 03 ) 8
= 2 2
3 a3 = 8
2 a=2
= 2 2 2 b b
3 2
iii) x dx 0 and x dx
3 2
4 3
= 2 1 a a
3 4
b
3
b
∴ x 0 and x 2
Ex 2 : Evaluate: 4 a 3 a 3
1 4
b a 4 0 and (b3 a 3 )
1 2
1
∴
i) If (3 x 2 x a ) dx 0 ; find a.
2
4 3 3
0
∴ b a 0 and b a 2
4 4 3 3
a
ii) If 3 x dx 8 ; find the value of a.
2 4 4
∴ b a b a
0
3 ∴ b ≠ a
a a
values of a and b. ∴ b = −a
a Substituting b = −a in b3 a 3 2
iv) If 4 x3 dx 16 , find α We get (−a)3 − a3 = 2, −2a3 = 2
0
We get a = −1
v) If f(x) = a + bx + c x2, show that
∴ b = −a = 1
1
1 1 ∴ a = −1 , b = 1
0
f ( x) dx f (0) 4 f
6
f (1)
2
a
iv) 4 x dx 16
3
Solution:
0
a
4
∴ 4 x 16
1
i) (3x 2 x a ) dx 0
2
0 4 0
1 4 4
Then 3 x 2 x ax 0 a 0 16
3 2
3 4
2 0
142
a4 = 16 Solution:
∴ a = 2 2
1
1
i) 4 x x
0
2
dx
v) ∫ f ( x)dx 2
1
0
1
= 0 x 2 x 4 dx
= (a bx cx 2 )dx 2
1
0
= 1 1
dx
1 1 1 0 x x 4
2
= a 1 dx b x dx c x 2 dx 4 4
1
0 0 0 2
bx cx
1
= 2
dx
1 17
2 3 2
=
ax 2 3
0
x
0 2 2
b c
= a + + ............(1) 2
1
2 3
Now f(0) = a + b(0) + c(0)2 = a
= 0 2 2
dx
17 1
x
f(1/2) = a + b(1/2) + c(1/2)2 = a + b/2 + c/4 2 2
and f(1) = a + b + c 2
17 1
x
1 1 =
1
log
2 2
∴ f (0) 4 f f (1)
6 2 17 17 1
x
2 2 0
1 b c
= a 4(a ) (a b c)
6 2 4 2
1 17 2 x 1
1 = log
= a 4a 2b c a b c 17 17 2 x 1 0
6
1
= 6a 3b 2c 1 17 4 1 17 1
6 = log log
b c
17 17 4 1 17 1
= a + + .............(2)
2 3 1 17 3 17 1
From (1) and (2) = log log
17 17 3 17 1
1 1
1
= f ( x)dx
6
f (0) 4 f f (1)
2
1 17 3 17 1
= log
17 1
0
17 17 3
Ex 3 : Evaluate: 1 20 4 17
= log
20 4 17
2
1 17
i) 4 x x 2
dx
0
1 5 17
= log
4
dx 17 5 17
ii)
0 x 2x 3
2
dx
143
dx log x
4 2
ii)
0 x 2x 3
2
ii) ∫
1
x 2
dx
4 2
1
dx 1
=
0 x 2x 11 3
2
= ∫ log x. 1
x2
.dx
2
1 1 x 1
2
4 1
=
1
dx = log x. x2
.dx
(log x
x 1 1 x 1
dx
0 ( x 1) ( 2 )
2 2
2
1 1
log ( x 1) ( x 1) 2 ( 2 ) 2
4
= log x x x
= 0 1
1 1 1
log ( x 1) x 2 2 x 3
4
= log 2 .log 1
= 0 2 2 1
1 1
= log(5 16 8 3) log (1 3 ) = log 2
2 2
= log(5 3 3) log (1 3 ) 1
= ( log 2 1)
2
53 3
= log 1
= ( log 2 log e)
(1 3 ) 2
1 e
Ex. 4: Evaluate: = log
2 2
2
i) ∫ log x dx
1
Ex. 5: Evaluate:
2
1
log x ( x 1)( x 3) dx
2
i)
ii) ∫ 2 dx
1
x 1
3
1
Solution: ii) x(1 x ) dx
1
2
2
i) I log x dx Solution:
1
2
1
2
I log x .1. dx
i) ( x 1)( x 3) dx
1
1
1 A B
2 Let
1
I log x. x 1 x dx
2
( x 1)( x 3) ( x 1) ( x 3)
1
x
1 = A(x + 3) + B(x + 1) ............. (1)
x log x x 1
2
=
Putting x + 1 = 0
= (2log 2 1log1) [2 1] i.e. x = −1 in equation (i) we get A =
1
2
= (log4 − 0) − 1 Putting x + 3 = 0
1
= log 4 − 1 i.e. x = −3 in equation (i) we get B
2
144
1 1 1
= (log 3 − log 5)
1 2
2 2
( x 1)( x 3) ( x 1) ( x 3)
= log 3 log 51/ 2 log 3 log 5
2
1
( x 1)( x 3) dx =
3
log
1
5
1 dx 1 dx
2 2
= EXERCISE 6.1
2 1 x 1 2 1 x 3
1 2
Evaluate the following definite intergrals:
= log x 1 log x 3 1
2
9
1
1 1
= (log 3 − log 2) − (log 5 − log 4) 1. ∫ x
dx
2 2 4
3
1 3 5 1
= log log
2 2 4
2. x 5 dx
2
1 6 3
x
= log
2 5 3. x
2
2
1
dx
3
1 x 2 3x 2
1
ii) 1 x(1 x 2 ) dx 4. 0 dx
x
1 A Bx c
Let
x
3
x(1 x ) x 1 x 2
2
5. ( x 2)( x 3) dx
1 A(1 x 2 ) ( Bx c) x .........(1)
2
a
dx
3
8. If (3 x 2 x 1) dx 11 , find a.
2
1 x(1 x 2 ) 1
1
1
1
3
x
3
9. dx
=
1 x dx 1 1 x 2 dx 0 1 x x
3x
2
=
1
log x 1 log 1 x 2
3 3
10. (9 x
1
2
1)
dx
2 1
3
11. ∫ log x dx
1
= (log 3 − log 1) − (log 10 − log 2)
2 1
3 1 10
= log log
1 2 2
145
6.2 Properties of definite integrals b
f ( x)
In this section we will study some properties
4. f ( x) f (a b x) dx
a
of definite integrals which are very useful in
evaluating integrals. 7
(11 x 2 )
a
5. 4 x 2 (11 x 2 ) dx
Property 1 : f ( x) dx 0
a
b a Solution:
Property 2 :
a
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
b
1 0 1
b b
1.
1
f ( x) dx =
1
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
0
Property 3 : f ( x) dx f (t ) dt 0 1
a
b
a
c
(1 2 x) dx (1 2 x) dx
=
1 0
Property 4 :
a
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
a
0
x x 2 x x 2
=
1
1 0
= (1 x) x dx
n
[If f(−x) = f(x), f(x) is an even function.
0
If f(−x) = −f(x), f(x) is an odd function.]
1
= ( x x ) dx
a a n n 1
Property 8 : f ( x) dx 2 f ( x) dx if f is an 0
a 0
1 1
even function x n 1 x n 2
=
= 0 if f is an odd function n 1 0 n 2 0
SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 1 (n 2) (n 1)
= =
Ex. Evaluate the following integrals: n 1 n 2 (n 1) (n 2)
1
1 2 x; x 0 1
=
1.
1
f ( x ) dx where f(x) = 1 2 x; x 0
n 1 n 2
a 3 3 ( x 4) dx
2. x(1 x) dx
n
3. Let I = 0
3 ( x 4) 3 ( 7 x )
............ (1)
0
a a
x4
3
f ( x) dx f (a x) dx
3
By property
3.
0
3
x4 3 7x
dx
0 0
146
3 3 (3 x) 4 b
f ( x) f (a b x)
I dx dx
(3 x) 4 3 7 (3. x)
f ( x) f (a b x)
3
0
a
7x b
3 3
dx ................. (2) 1 dx
0
3
7x 3 x4 a
x a
b
On adding equations (1) and (2)
33
x4 3
7x 2I b a
2I 3 dx
0 7x
3
x4 3 7x 3 x4 ba
I
2
3 3
x 4 3 (7 x )
2I dx b
f ( x) ba
0
3
x 4 (7 x ) 3 ∴ f ( x) f (a b x) dx
a
2
3
= ∫ 1 dx
(11 x 2 )
7
5. ......(1)
0
4 x 2 (11 x 2 ) dx
= x 0
3
x2
7
= 4 (11 x 2 ) x 2 dx ......(2)
2I = 3
3 By Property
I =
2 b b
3 3 ( x 4) 3 f ( x) dx f (a b x) dx
∴ ( x 4) 3 ( 7 x )
dx
2
a a
(11 x 2 ) x2
7 7
b
f ( x) 2I 2
4. dx ....... (1)
x (11 x 2 )
dx 4 (11 x 2 ) x 2 dx
a
f ( x) f (a b x) 4
( x 2 ) (11 x 2 )
7
b b
dx
By property f ( x) dx f (a b x) dx
a a
4
( x 2
) (11 x 2
)
7
b
f (a b x) 1 dx
I dx
a
f (a b x) f [(a b (a b x)] 4
= x 4
7
b 2I = 3
f (a b x)
I dx .............. (2) 3
a
f (a b x) f ( x) I =
2
Adding equations (1) and (2) we get, 7
(11 x 2 ) 3
b
f ( x)
∴ 4 x 2 (11 x 2 ) dx 2
2I dx
a
f ( x) f (a b x)
b
f (a b x)
dx
a
f (a b x) f ( x)
147
b c b
EXERCISE 6.2 3)
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
a a c
a a
a 5) f ( x) dx f (a x) dx
2) x (a x) dx
2 3/ 2 0 0
0 b b
6) f ( x) dx f (a b x) dx
x5
3 3 a a
3) 3
x5 3 9 x
dx
2a a a
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx f (2a x) dx
1
7)
x
5 0 0 0
4)
x 7x
dx a a
2 8)
a
f ( x) dx 2 f ( x) dx,, if f is even function,
0
x
2
5) dx =0 , if f is odd function
1 3 x x
7
x MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 6
6)
2 x 9 x
dx
I) Choose the correct alternative.
1
1
x3
9
7) 0 log x 1 dx 1) 4 x 2 dx =
9
1 a) 0 b) 3 c) 9 d) −9
8)
x(1 x) dx
5
dx
0 3
2) x5
2
=
Let's Remember
8 8
a) log b) log
Rules for evaluating definite integrals. 3 3
b b b
3
c) log
3
1) [ f ( x) g ( x)]dx [ f ( x)dx g ( x)dx
a a a
8
d) log
8
b b
x
3
2) k f ( x)dx k f ( x) dx 3) x dx =
a a
2
2
1
Properties of definite integrals 8 8
a) log b) log
a 3 3
1) f ( x) dx 0 1 8 −1 8
a c) log d) log
b a
2 3 2 3
2)
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
a b
148
9
dx II) Fill in the blanks.
4) ∫ x
=
2
∫ e dx = .................
4
1) x
a) 9 b) 4 c) 2 d) 0 0
3
a
2) ∫ x dx = .................
4
5) If 3 x dx 8 then a = ?
2
2
0
8
a) 2 b) 0 c) d) a dx
1
3 3) 2x 5
0
= .................
3
6) ∫x dx =
4
a
2 4) If 3 x 2 dx 8 then a = ..............
1 5 5 211
a) b) c) d)
0
2 2 211 5
9
5) 1
2 dx .................
x
∫e
x
7) dx = 4
0
x
3
6) dx .................
a) e − 1 b) 1 − e x
2
2
1
c) 1 − e2 d) e2 − 1
dx
3
b
7) x 5 .................
∫ f ( x) dx =
2
8)
a
x3
9
a
8) 9 4 x 2 dx .................
b
a) ∫ f ( x) dx
b
b) f ( x) dx
a
a a
b b
7
a) 7 b) 49 c) 0 d)
2
2)
a
f ( x) dx f (t ) dt
a
a 0
x
f ( x) dx f (a x) dx
7
3)
10)
2 x 9 x
dx =
0 a
b b
7 5
a)
2
b)
2
c) 7 d) 2 4) f ( x) dx f ( x a b) dx
a a
x3
5
5) x 2 7 dx 0
5
149
x
2 2
1
6) dx 12) ∫x dx
2
1 3 x x 2 1
1
x
7
9 13) 1
7) x 9 x
dx
2 4
x dx
2
1
(11 x) 2 1
14)
7
3 dx
8) 4 (11 x)2 x 2 dx 2 0 1 x x
4
15) 1
IV Solve the following.
0 x 2x 3
2
dx
x
3
1) ( x 2)( x 3) dx x
4
2
16) x
2
2
1
dx
x3
2 1
2) 1
1 x( x 2) dx 17) 2 x 3 dx
0
3
5x2
2
3) ∫ x log x dx 18) 1 x 2 4 x 3 dx
2
dx
1 2
4) ∫ e x dx 19) x(1 log x)
x 32
2
0 1
1 1
2 9
1
5) 1 e x 2 x 2 dx 1
2x
20) dx
0 x
9
1
6) ∫
4 x
dx
Activities
3
1
7) x 5 dx
2
1) Complete the following activity.
b
x If x dx 0 then
3 3
8) 2 x 2 1 dx a
b
x4
0
x 3x 2
1 2
9) x
dx a
1
0
0
∴
dx
5
4
10)
3 x4 x2 ∴ b 4 0
3
x ∴ (b 2 a 2 )( )0
11)
2 x 2 1 dx ∴ b 2 0 as a 2 b2 0
∴ b
150
dx
2 1
2) 0 4 x x 2 = 0 log 1 x dx ............(2)
2
dx Adding (i) and (ii), we get
= 0 x 2 1
1 x x
2 I log dx
x
dx
2 0
= 0 x2 x
1 1 1
4 log
2 I = dx o dx
4
0 0
dx
2
= 2
dx
1
x x5
0 2 8
2 4) 1 x 2 dx
8
1 20 4 17 x5
log f ( x)
17 20 4 17 1 x2
( x )5
f ( x)
1
1 1 x2 1 x2
3) log x 1 dx
0 Hence f is function
1 x
1
x5
8
= 0 log dx ........(1) ∴ 1 x 2 dx
8
1
1 1 x
= log 0
dx
v v v
151
7 Applications of Definite Integration
4. x2 = − 4by
Introduction
Fig. 7.2
2. y2 = − 4ax x2 y 2
2) 1 ( a b)
a 2 b2
3. x2 = 4by
Fig.7.3
152
7.3 Area under the curve (3) The area of the shaded region bounded by
To find the area under the curve, we state two curves y = f(x), y = g (x) as shown in
only formulae without proof. fig. 7.6 is obtained by
(1) The area "A" bounded by the curve
y = f(x), X-axis and bounded between the
lines x = a and x = b (fig 7.4) is given by
A = Area of the region PRSQ
b x b
= ydx f ( x) dx
a xa
Fig. : 7.6
x b x b
A f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
xa xa
153
(ii) The area of the portion lying above the
X-axis is positive. 0 0
= 0 4 4 sq. units
x2 4
4
A2 2 x dx 2 = (42-02) = 16-0 = 16
0 2 0
A = A1 + A2 = 4 + 16 = 20 sq. units
SOLVED EXAMPLES
154
3 Required area A = A1 + |A2|
(a) A = ∫ y dx 0 2
1
3
A2 (2 x) dx
1
2 x dx
0
= ∫ x dx
2
0
x2
2
1 2 x2
=
2
1 33 1 3 3 1
= [ x ]1 = 3 1 27 1 2 1 2 0
3 3 3 0 2
26 x 2 x 2
=
= sq. units 1 0
3
4
=
(0 1) (4 0)
(b) A = ∫ y dx
1
A = 5 sq. units
4 2. Find the area of the region bounded by the
∫ 2 x dx
=
1
parabola y2 = 16x and the line x = 4.
2 4 Solution: y2 = 16x
= 2. [ x3/ 2 ]14 = (43/2 - 13/2)
3 3 ∴ y = ± 4 x
4 28
= (8 - 1) = sq. units ∴ A = Area POCP + Area QOCQ
3 3
= 2(Area POCP) (why?)
4
= 2 ∫ y dx
0
4
= 2 ∫ 4. x dx
0
Fig. : 7.11
Fig. : 7.13
∫ 16 y dy = 4 ∫ y 2 . dy
1
∴ A =
1 1
4
2 3 8
= 4. y 2 7
3 1 3
Fig. : 7.15
56
= sq. units.
3 b 2
y = a − x2
a
a
b 2
= 4. a x 2 dx
0
a
a
4b x 2 a2 x
Fig. : 7.14 = a x 2 . sin 1
a 2 2 a 0
4b a 2 a2
Find the area of the ellipse x y 1 .
2 2
4. = sin 1 (1) sin 1 (0)
a 2 b2 a 2 2
Given
4b a 2 π
x 2 a2 x = . . - 0
a 2 2
a 2 x 2 dx
2
a x 2 sin 1
2 a
= π ab sq.units.
π
sin (1) = 2 , sin−1(0) = 0
−1
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the
curve y = x2 and the line y = 4.
Solution: From the equation of ellipse Solution:
x2 y 2
1 Equation of curve is y = x2 .......... (i)
a 2 b2
y2 x2 and equation of line is y = 4 .... (ii)
∴ = 1 −
b2 a2 Because of symmentry,
b2 2 Required area = 2 [Area in first quadrant]
y2 = 2 (a − x )
2
a 4
b 2 A = 2.∫ x . dy
y = a x2 0
a
156
4
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 7
= 2.∫ y dy
0
157
II. Fill in the blanks. 3) Find the area of the region bounded by the
1) Area of the region bounded by y = x4, x = 1, curve y = x2 and the line y = 10.
x = 5 and the X-axis is ___________ x2 y 2
4) Find the area the ellipse 1.
2) Using definite integration area of the circle 16 9
x2 + y2 = 49 is _________
5) Find the area of the region bounded by
3) Area of the region bounded by x2 = 16y, y = x2, the X-axis and x = 1, x = 4.
y = 1, y = 4 and the Y-axis lying in the first
quadrant is _____________ 6) Find the area of the region bounded by the
curve x2 = 25y, y = 1, y = 4 and the Y-axis.
4) The area of the region bounded by the
curve x2 = y, the X-axis and the lines x = 3 7) Find the area of the region bounded by the
and x = 9 is ___________ parabola y2 = 25x and the line x = 5.
and y = d is given by x dy
c y c
g ( y ) dy
∫ f ( x) dx
a
2)
4) If the curve, under consideration, is below
the X-axis, then the area bounded by curve,
X-axis and lines x = a, x = b is positive.
5) The area of the portion lying above the
X-axis is positive.
IV) Solve the following.
1) Find the area of the region bounded by
the curve xy = c2, the X-axis, and the lines
x = c, x = 2c.
2) Find the area between the parabolas
y2 = 7x and x2 =7y.
158
3) 5)
4)
v v v
159
8 Differential Equations and Applications
dr
Let's Study 4) r e 8
d
• Differential Equation dy d 2 y
5) 1
• Ordinary differential equation dx dx 2
• Order and degree of a differential equation 6) x dx y dy 0
• Solution of a differential equation 8.1.1 Ordinary differential equation
• Formation of a differential equation A differential equation in which the
• Applications of differential equations dependent variable, say y, depends only on one
independent variable, say x, is called an ordinary
differential equation.
Let's Recall
8.1.2 Order of a differential equation
• Independent variable It is the order of the highest order derivative
• Dependent variable occurring in the differential equation.
• Equation dy
y x is of order 1
dx
• Derivatives
d2y dy
• Integration x2 x y 0 is of order 2
dx 2
dx
2
d2y dy
Let's Learn 2 x 2 y is of order 2
dx dx
8.1 Differential Equations: 2dy
= e x is of order 1
dx
Definition: An equation involving
dependent variable(s), independent variable
and derivative(s)of dependent variable(s) with 8.1.3 Degree of a differential equation
respect to the independent variable is called a It is the power of the highest order
differential equation. derivative when all the derivatives are made free
For example : from fractional indices and negative sign,if any.
dy For example -
1) yx
dx
1
d2y dy
1) x 2 x y0
2
d y
2
dy dx dx
2) x2 x y0
dx 2
dx
In this equation, the highest order derivative
2
d y 2
d y
3) = 2t is and its power is one. Therefore this
dt 2 dx 2
160
equation has degree one. 2) Particular Solution:
2) d 2 y 3 dy A solution of the differential equation
2
1
dx 2 dx which can be obtained from the general solution
In this equation, the highest order by giving particular values to the arbitrary
constants is called a particular solution.
d2y
derivative is but to determine the degree of
dx 2 SOLVED EXAMPLES
this equation, first we have to remove the cube
root by raising both sides to the power 3. 1) Verify that the function y = aex + be−2x, a,b
∈ R is a solution of the differential equation
3 d 2 y dy
d2y dy 2y .
2
161
dy iii) y = ex, dy
∴ = − e−x + a ........................ II =y
dx dx
Differentiating both sides of equation II iv) y = 1 − logx d 2 y dy
with respect to x, we get x2 = 1 2 y
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy−x
= e 2 y v) y = aex + be−x d 2 y dy
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dyx −x = y 2 y
Consider L.H.S. = e 2 y)
= e (e x dx 2 dx
dx 2 dx
= e0 = 1 = R.H.S. vi) ax2 + by2 = 5 d 2 y dy dy 2 dy
xy
2 + x
2 y = y.
Therefore, the given function is a general dx dx dx dx
solution of the given differential equation.
8.1.5 Formation of a differential equation:
EXERCISE 8.1 By eliminating arbitary constants
1. Determine the order and degree of the If the order of a differential equation is n,
following differential equations. differentiate the equation n times to eliminate
arbitrary constants.
d 2 x dx
2
i) 8 0
dt 2 dt SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 2
d 2 y dy 1. Form the differential equation of the line
ii) 2 a
x
dx dx
having x-intercept 'a' and y-intercept 'b'.
3 Solution: The equation of a line is given by,
d 4 y dy
2
iii) 1 x y
dx 4 dx 1 ............... I
a b
y ''' 2 y '' 6 y ' 7 y 0
2 2
iv) Differeentiating equation I with r. t. x we
get,
dy
3/ 2
1
v) 1
dy dx 1 1 dy 1 dy
2
1
0,
dx a b dx b dx a
dy d2y dy b
vi) =7 2 ................. II
dx dx dx a
d3y
1/ 6 Differentiating equation II with r. t. x we
vii) 3 9 d 2 y dy
dx get, 2 = 0 is 2the
y required differential
dx dx
2. In each of the following examples, verify equation.
that the given function is a solution of the
2. Obtain the differential equation from the
corresponding differential equation.
relation Ax2 + By2 = 1, where A and B are
Solution D.E. constant.
i) xy = log y + y' (1 − xy) = y2 Solution: The given equation is
k
Ax2 + By2 = 1 .................... I
ii) y = xn
d 2 y dy xdy
x2 − n × 2 y + n y = 0 Differentiating equation I twice with
dx 2 dx dx respect to x, we get,
162
dy dy
2Ax + 2 By =0 that is 2x3 - y3 + 3xy2 = 0.
dx dx
dy is the required differential equation.
Ax + By = 0 .................... II and
dx
We have learnt:
d 2 y dy 2
A + B y 2 = 0 ............... III To form a differential equation by
ax dx eliminating arbitrary constants, if 'n' arbitrary
since the equations I, II & III are consistent constants are present in the given equation
in A and B, then differentiate the given equation 'n' times.
x2 y2 1
dy EXERCISE 8.2
x y 0 0
dx
1. Obtain the differential equation by
d 2 y dy
2
d 2 y dy 2 i) y = Ae3x + B.e−3x
dy
c
x y 2 1 y.
0 ii) y = c2 + 1
dx dx dx
x
2 iii) y = (c1 + c2x) ex
d2y dy dy
xy 2 x y 0 iv) y = c1e3x + c2e2x
dx dx dx
is the required differential equation. v) y2 = (x + c)3
3. Form the differential equation whose 2. Find the differential equation by eliminating
general solution is x3 +y3 = 4ax arbitrary constants from the relation
Solution: Given equation is x2 + y2 = 2ax
163
This is said to be Variable Separable dy
form, whose solution is obtained by integrating Solution: Given equation is y x 0.
dx
equation I and is given by
∫f(x)dx + ∫g(y) dy = c, where c is the constant Separating the variables we get, Integrating
of integration. dx dy
= both sides we get,
Now, we solve some examples using x y
variable separable method.
dx dy
x
c
y
SOLVED EXAMPLES
logx = logy + log c
dy 1 y log x - log y = log c
1. Solve the differential equation
dx 1 x x
log(x/y) = log c ∴ =c
Solution : Separating the variables,the given y
equation can be written as, Note - When variables are not separated
we use the method of substitution
dy dx
1 y 1 x
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Integrating both sides we get,
dy dx 1. Solve
1 y 1 x +c
(2x − 2y + 3) dx − (x − y + 1) dy = 0, hence
log (1 + y) = log (1 + x) + log c find the particular solution if x = 0, y = 1.
Solution : The given equation is
1 y
log log c (2x − 2y + 3) dx − (x − y + 1) dy = 0
1 x
1 y (x − y + 1) dy = (2x − 2y +3) dx
∴ c
1 x dy 2 x 2 y 3 2( x y ) 3
= x y 1
dx x y 1
2. Solve the differential equation
This equation cannot be written in variable
3exdx + (1 + ex) dy = 0
separable form.
Solution : Given equation is
Use the method of substitution.
3exdx + (1 + ex) dy = 0
Put x − y = t
This equation can be written as
dt dy dy dt
∴ 1 1
3e x dx dx dx dx
dx + dy = 0.
1 + ex Using these in given equation we get,
Integrating both sides we get,
dt 2t 3
x 1 -
3e dx t 1
1 e x
dx + ∫1dy = 0
2t 3 dt
1 -
∴ 3 log (1 + e ) + y = c x
t 1 dx
dy
3. Solve y x 0
dx
164
dt t 1 2t 3 t 2 2. For each of the following differential
equations find the particular solution.
dx t 1 t 1
t 1 i) (x − y2x)dx − (y + x2y) dy = 0,
.dt dx
t2 when x = 2, y = 0
t 1 dy
Integrating we get, dt = − ∫1dx + c ii) (x + 1) − 1 = 2e−5,
t2 dx
t 2 1 dt when y = 0, x = 1
= 1.dx c
t2 iii) y (1 + logx) dx/dy - x log x = 0,
1 when x = e, y = e2.
= 1 dt 1.dx c
t2 dy
iv) = (4x + y + 1), when y = 1, x = 0
t − log (t + 2) = −x + c, dx
8.3.1 Homogeneous Differential Equation:
Resubstituting the value of t, we get,
Definition : A differential equation
x − y − log (x−y+2) = −x + c
f(x, y) dx + g(x, y) dy = 0 is said to be
2x - y − log (x − y + 2) = c ......................I Homogeneous Differential Equation
which is the required general solution. if f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous
To determine the particular solution functions of the same degree.
165
Then equation II is converted into variable Integrating both sides, we get
separable form and hence it can be solved.
1 1 / t dt
1
2e t
dx
Let's note : After solving equation II,
1 2te t
1 x
y
resubstitution t = will give the required log [1 + 2t (e1/t)] + log x = log c
x
solution of the given equation. log [1 + 2t e1/t] x = log c
SOLVED EXAMPLES x(1 + 2t e1/t) = c
y
Resubstitute the value of t = We get
x
x x
x
x
1. Solve : 1 2e dx 2e y 1 dy 0
y
y x 1 2 y e y c,
x
Solution: The given equation can be written as
+ 2yex/y = c
x
x
which is the required general solution.
dy 1 2e y
x
dx x 2. Solve : (x2 + y2) dx − 2xy dy = 0
2e 1
y
dy x y ................... I
To solve it, substitute y = t x 2 2
differentiating with respect to x we get, dx 2 xy
dy dt
tx To solve it, substitute y = t x.
dx dx
1
1/ t
dx 2t 2t
1 2e (t 1)2e
t
= 2t dx
1 ∴ dt
1 t x
1
2e 1
t 2
t
which is variable separable form.
=
1 2te 1
t
Integrating both sides, we get,
1 1
2e t 1 2t dx
t 1 t 2
dt
x
1 1
2e t 1 −log (1 − t2) = log x + logc,
t dt dx
∴ log x + log (1 − t2) = log c
1
1 2te t x
166
log x (1 − t2) = log c, y. (I.F.) = ∫Q. (I.F) dx + c
y
x(1 − t2) = c. Resubstitute the value of t = , where I.F. (Integrating factor) = e∫pdx
x
we get
Let's Note: If given equation is linear in x,
y 2
x( x y )
2 2
x 1 2 c , c dx
x x2 that is + P.x = Q, where P and Q are functions
dy
(x2 − y2) = cx
of y only then its solution is given by
which is the required general solution.
x.(I.F.) = ∫ Q. (I.F.) dy + c,
We have learnt : where I.F. = e∫pdy
To solve a homogeneous differential Working rule to solve first order Linear
equation, separate the variables using Differential Equation.
y
substitution = t and integrate it. i. Write the equation in the form
x dy
+ P y = Q.
dx
EXERCISE 8.4 ii. Find I.F = e∫pdx
Solve the following differential equations. iii. The solution of the given differential
equation is y. (I.F.) = ∫Q. (I.F.) dx + c
1. xdx + 2y dx = 0
2. y2dx + (xy + x2) dy = 0 SOLVED EXAMPLES
3. x2y dx − (x3 + y3) dy = 0
dy
1. Solve x y
dy x 2 y dx
4. 0
dx 2 x y
Solution : Given equation can be written
5. (x − y ) dx + 2xy dy = 0
2 2 dy
as yx
6. xy dy/dx = x2 + 2y2 dx
Here P = −1 and Q = x
7. x2 dy/dx = x2 + xy − y2
I.F. = e pdx e 1dx e x
8.4.1 Linear Differential Equation : Hence the solution of the given equation is
General Form given by
The general form of a linear differential y.e x x.e x dx c
equation of first degree is
xe x e x
1 1
x
dy y.e dx c
+ P y = Q ...................I,
dx
y.e x e x ( x 1) c
where P and Q are functions of x only or
constants. x + y + 1 = cex
To solve first order Linear Differential which gives the population at any time t.
Equation
dy SOLVED EXAMPLES
i. wirte the equation in the form +Py=
dx
Q. 1. Bacteria increase at the rate proportional
ii. Find I.F. = e ∫pdx to the number of bacteria present. If the
original number N doubles in 3 hours, find
iii) The solution of the given differential in how many hours the number of bacteria
equation is y.(I.F.) = ∫Q.(I.F.) dx + c will be 4N.
Solution: Let x be the number of bacteria at
EXERCISE 8.5 time t. Since the rate of increase of x is
proportinal to x, the differential equation
Solve the following differential equations dx
can be written as ∝x
dy dt
i. y e x dx
dx = kx, where k is constant of
dy dt
ii. y3 proportionality. Integrating we get,
dx
dy dx
iii. x 2 y x 2 log x x
k 1.dt c
dx
dy Solving this differential equation we get,
iv. ( x y) 1
dx logx = kt + c,
v. ydx ( x y )dy 0
2
x = a ekt, where a = ec .................I
dy given that when t = 0, x = N.
vi 2 xy x
dx From equation I we get N = a.1,
dy
vii. ( x a ) y (a ) a = N , x = N ekt ............. II
dx
Also when t = 3, x = 2N,
viii. dr (2r )d 8d
From equation II, we have 2N = N e3k
168
e3k = 2 i.e. eK = 21/3 III We have learnt :
Now we have to find out t when x = 4N For growth
From equation II, we get 4N = N e kt
If the population (P) increases at time t
4 = ekt, 22 = 2t/3, t/3 = 2, t = 6. then the rate of change in P is proportional to
Hence number of bacteria will be 4N in 6 dp
the population present at that time ∝ p.
hours. dp dt
∝= pkP, where k is the constant of
2. The population of a country doubles in dt
dp
proportionality. Integrating
p
60 years, in how many years will it be triple kdt ,
when the rate of increase is proportional to
the number of inhabitants we get log P = kt + c, P = ekt+c = a.ekt
(where ec = a)
(given log2 3 = 1.5894)
Solution: Radio Active Decay:
Let P be the population at time t. We know that the radio active substances
like radium, uranium etc. disintegrate with time.
Since the rate of increase of P is proportional
It means the mass of the substance decreases
to P itself, the differential equation can be
with time.
dp
written as ∝p The rate of disintegration of such elements
dt is proportional to the amount present at that time.
dp
= kp
∝ p If x is the amount of radioactive material
dt
present at time t then
where k is the constant of proportionality
dx
∝= x− kx, where k is the constant of
dp dt
Integrating kdt ,
p proportionality and k ≠ 0. The negative sign
appears because x decreases as t increases.
∴ log P = kt + c .............(1)
Integrating we get,
i) t = 0, P = N from I
dx
we get log N = 0 + c, c = log N ∫ x = − ∫k dt + c
ii) when t = 60, P = 2N, log x = − kt + c, x = e−kt + c = e−kt.ec
log 2N = 60 k + log N x = a.e−kt, (where a = ec) ...............I
log 2N − log N = 60 k If xo is the initial amount of radio active
substance at time t = 0, then from equation I
log 2
log 2N/N = 60k, k = xo = a.1, a = xo,
60
iii) Now P = 3N, t = ? x = xo.e−kt .............. II
log 2
from (I) log P = t + log N SOLVED EXAMPLES
60
log 2 1. The rate of disintegration of a radio active
log 3N − log N = t
60 element at time t is proportional to its mass
log 3 at that time. The original mass of 800 gm
× 60 = t, will disintegrate into its mass of 400 gm
log 2
after 5 days. Find the mass remaining after
∴ t = 1.5894 × 60= 95.36 years. 30 days.
169
Solution:
EXERCISE 8.6
If x is the amount of material present at
time t then 1. In a certain culture of bacteria, the rate
dx of increase is proportional to the number
∝=x −kt, where k is constant of present. If it is found that the number
dt
proportionality doubles in 4 hours, find the number of times
the bacteria are increased in 12 hours.
dx
x kdt c 2. If the population of a town increases at a
rate proportional to the population at that
log x = − kt + c
time. If the population increases from
x = e−kt + c = e−kt .ec 40 thousands to 60 thousands in 40 years,
x = a.e−kt, where a = ec. .................... I what will be the population in another
20 years?
Given when t = 0 , x = 800
3
From I we get, 800 = a.1 = a (Given : = 1.2247)
2
x = 800 e−kt ........................II
3. The rate of growth of bacteria is
when t = 5, x = 400 from II proportional to the number present. If
400 = 800 e−5k initially, there were 1000 bacteria and the
1 number doubles in 1 hour, find the number
e−5k = of bacteria after 5/2 hours.
2
Now we have to find x, when t = 30 (Given : 2 = 1.414)
From II we have 4. Find the population of a city at any time t
x = 800 e−30k = 800 (e−5k)6 given that the rate of increase of population
1
6
800 is proportional to the population at that
= 800 = = 12.5 instant and that in a period of 40 years the
2 64
population increased from 30000 to 40000.
The mass remaining after 30 days will be
12.5 mg. dv
5. The rate of depreciation of a machine
dt
We have learnt : is inversely proportional to the square of
For decay t + 1, where V is the value of the machine
If x is the amount of any dacaying material t years after it was purchased. The initial
present at time t then value of the machine was Rs. 8,00,000 and
dx its value decreased Rs. 1,00,000 in the first
∝ =x −kx, where k is constant of year.
dt
proportionality and k ≠ 0. The negative sign Find its value after 6 years.
appears because x decreases as t increases,
Interating we get
dx Let's Remember
x k dt that is log x = −kt + c
1. An equation which involves polynomials
∴ log x = −kt + c, x = e−kt + c = e−kt.ec of differentials of dependent variables with
∴ x = a.e−kt, where a = ec. respect to the independent variable is called
a differential equation.
170
2. A differential equation in which the MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 8
dependent variable, say y, depends only on
one independent variable, say x, is called I) Choose the correct alternative.
an ordinary differential equation. 3 3
dy d y
3. Order of a differential equation : It is the 1. The order and degree of 3 ye x
are respectively. dx dx
order of highest-order derivative occuring
in the differential equation. a) 3,1 b) 1,3
4. Degree of a differential equation : It is the c) 3,3 d) 1,1
power of the highest-order derivative when
2) The order and degree of
all the derivatives are made free from
2
negative and / or fractional indices, if any. dy 3 d3y
3
dx
then its solution is dy
dy
e dx
c is not defined.
a) ye = x + c
−x
b) ye = x + c
x dx
c) yex = 2x + c d) ye−x = 2x + c IV. Solve the following.
II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Find the order and degree of the following
1) The order of highest derivative occurring in differential equations:
the differential equation is called .............. d3y
3/ 2
d2y
of the differential equation. i) dx 3 x
dx 2
2) The power of the highest ordered derivative
dy dy
2
when all the derivatives are made free from ii) x 1
negative and / or fractional indices if any is dx dx
called ............ of the differential equation.
2. Verify y = logx + c is a solution of the
3) A solution of differential equation which
d 2 y dy
can be obtained from the general solution differential equation x 2 0.
by giving particular values to the arbitrary dx dx
constants is called ............. solution. 3) Solve the differential equations
4) Order and degree of a differential equation dy
i) 1 x y xy
are always ................. integers. dx
5) The integrating factor of the differential ii) edy/dx = x
dy iii) dr = a r dθ − θ dr
equation − yy = xx is .............
dx iv) Find the differential equation of family
6) The differential equation by eliminating of curves y = ex (ax + bx2)
arbitrary constants from bx + ay = ab is
where A and B are arbitrary constant.
.................
172
dy x y 1
4) Solve
dx x y 1
2 1
when x = and y = Where P = and, Q =
3 3
5) Solve ydx − xdy = − log x dx ∴ I.F. = e∫dx =
dx ∴ the solution of the linear differential
6) Solve ylogy x logy 0
dy equation is
7) Solve ( x y )dy a 2 dx y = ∫ 2x (I.F.) dx + c.
dy 2
8) Solve y x2 ∴ ye−x = ∫2x dx + c
dx x
9) The rate of growth of population is ye−x = 2 ∫x dx
proporational to the number present. d
= 2{x∫e−x dx − ∫ dx dx} + c
If the population doubled in the last 25 years −x −x
dx
and the present population is 1 lac, when e e
= 2 {x −∫ .1 dx
will the city have population 4,000,000?
−x
10) The resale value of a machine decreases
over a 10 year period at a rate that depends ∴ e y = −2xe−x + 2 ∫ dx + c1
on the age of the machine. When the e−xy = −2xe−x + 2 + c2
machine is x years old, the rate at which
its value is changing is ` 2200 (x − 10) per y + + = cex is the
year. Express the value of the machine as a required general solution of the given
function of its age and initial value. If the differential equation.
machine was originally worth ` 1,20,000
how much will it be worth when it is 10
b
years old? 2) Verify y = a +
is a solution of
x
11) y dx ( xy x )dy 0
2 2
d2y dy
x 2 2 0
12) x 2 ydx ( x 3 y 3 )dy 0 dx dx
b
y = a +
dy x
13) yx x2 2 y 2 dy
dx =
dx
dy
14) ( x 2 y 3 )y d2y
dx =
15) ydx xdy log xdx 0 dx 2
d2y dy
dy Consider x 2 + 2
16) = logx dx dx
dx
=
x +2
dy
17) ylogy log y x =
dx
b
Hence y = a + is a solution of
Activities x
1) Complete the following activity.
dy
The equation y 2 x is of the form
dx
v v v
173
Answers
174
v) ∃ y ∈ N, such that 3y − 2 ≤ 9 3) i) Converse : If they do not drive the car
It is true statement, since y =1, 2, 3, then it snows.
....... ∈ N satisfy it. Inverse : If it does not snow then they
drive the car.
2) Truth value are
Contrapositive : If they drive the car
i) F ii) T iii) F then it does not snow.
iv) F v) F ii) Converse : If he will go to college then
he studies.
Exercise : 1.6
Inverse : If he does not study, then he
will not go to college.
1) i) TFTT ii) FFTT
Contrapositive : If he will not go to
iii) TTTTTTTT iv) TTFTFTFT
college then he does not study.
2) i) tatology ii) contradiction
4) i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ r)
iii) contigency iv) tautology
ii) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∧ r
Exercise : 1.7 iii) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ ∼ r
2) i) (p ∧ ∼ r) ∨ ∼ q D F
ii) (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ˄ ∼ r
iii) (p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ r) D∩F=φ
175
iii) U : The set of all human beigns. Where
T : The set of all teachers. U : The set of all human beings.
S : The set of all scholars. W : The set of all wicket keepers.
B : The set of all bowlers.
3) i)
.............
N-R≠φ
iv) U : The set of all quadrilaterals.
Where
P : The set of all parallelograms.
U : The set of all human beings.
R : The set of all rhombus.
N : The set of all non resident Indians.
R : The set of all rich people.
ii)
R⊂P
C∩R=φ
2) Venn diagrams
i) Where
U : The set of all geometrical polygons.
C : The set of all circles.
R : The set of all rectangles.
S∩C ≠ φ
iiii)
Where
U : The set of all human beings.
S : The set of all share brokers.
C : The set of all chartered accountants.
ii) P⊂O
Where
U : The set of all real numbers.
P : The set of all prime numbers and
n ≠ 2.
W∩B = φ
O : The set of all odd numbers.
176
ii) If Sachin wins the match then he is
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 1
happy.
I. 1) d 2) a 3) d 4) b iii) Sachin does not win the match or
5) c 6) c 7) b 8) d he is the member of Rajya Sabha.
9) c 10) a 11) b 12) d iv) If sachin wins the match, then he is
13) b 14) c 15) c the member of Rajyasabha or he is
happy.
II. i) Converse ii) p ∧ q iii) F v) Sachin wins the match if and only
iv) No men are animals v) F if he is happy.
177
ii) i) FTTF ii) FFFT 19) Statement (i) and (iii) are identical
iii) TTTTTTTT iv) FTTTFTTT Statement (ii) and iv) are identical
v) TFTFTTFF 20) i) U : The set of all human being
13) i) tautology ii) contradiction A : The set of all men
iii) contradiction iv) contigency B : The set of all mortal
v) contradiction
178
3) i) Singular Matrix
ii) Singular Matrix
iii) Non Singular Matrix
iv) Non singular Matrix
C∩A=φ
−6
21) i) T ii) F iii) T 4) i) k = ii) k = 6
7
iv) F
49
ii) k=
22) i) 7 is not prime number orTajmahal is 8
not in Agra
ii) 10 < 5 or 3 > 8
Exercise : 2.2
iii) I will have not tea and cofee.
iv)
∃ n ∈ N, such that n + 3 ≤ 9
5 4
v)
∀ x ∈ A, x +5 ≥ 11. 2) A 2B 6I
3 23
2. Matrices 10 1 1
3) C 7 9 3
Exercise : 2.1 4 6 2
2
1 1 5
0 4
2 5 6 19
4) X
1) i) A = 1 0 ii) A = 1 4 5 5
3
0 3 19 26
2 1 5 5
2
5) (AT)T = A 6) (AT)T = A
8 27
A = 27 64
1
iii) 7) a = -4, b =
3
, c = −7
5
5
64 125
−3
8) x= , y = 5i, z = 2
2) i) Upper Triangular Matrix 2
179
0 1 2 2)
2 1 1 4 7 6
10) A 1 0 1
AB 13 2 14 and BA 1 3 5
2 1 0
6 3 1 4 4 2
∴ A is a skew symmetric matrix.
∴ AB ≠ BA
3 1 1 1
8 9 6 4
4
(A + I) (A I) 15 32 2
11) X 4 8
, Y 7)
3 1 1 1
8 2 8 2 35 7 29
9) k = −7 11) a = 2, b = −1
14 8 12) k = 1 13) x = 19, y = 12
3
12) A 3 3 ,
14) x = −3, y = 1, z = −1
2 1 3
15) Jay Rs. 104 and Ram Rs. 150
10 16
0
B 3 3
0 0 5 Exercise : 2.4
1 9
13) x , y
4 2
1 4
2 9 1) i) A T
0, c
14) a = 1, b = = = , d
5 5 3 5
6 12 9 1 5
1) i) 4 8 6 ii) [8] 4 2
0
2
11) i)
1 5 0
2 4 3 5
2 2
180
6 1 5 0 5 3 1
ii) 1 4 4 5 0 6
1 1
2 2 4 4 2 3
1
5 4 4 3 6 0 9) 11 8 5 10) 7
6
10 10 2 3
2
Exercise : 2.5
2 2 4 2 Exercise : 2.6
1) i) ii) 5 1
3 4
1) i) x = 0, y = 1 ii) x = 4, y = −3
3 1 1 3 11 1
iii) 3 9 3 and 1 1 1 iii)
x = 1, y = 2, z = 1
1 1 3 1 5 3
1 1 2 iv)
x=
5
,y=
−1
, z = −1
1 2 2
2) 0 1
3
1 1 1
2) i) x = ,y= ii) x = 1, y = 2
0 0 3 2 2
iii)
x = 3, y = 2, z =1
3 1 5
8 5 ii) iv)
x = −2, y = 0, z = 3
3) i) 2 1 1 19 21
22 12 2 3) Cost price T.V. Rs. 3000 and cost price
of V.C. Rs. 13000. Selling price of T.V.
3 1 11 Rs. 4000 and Selling price of V.C.R.
4) i)
5 3
ii) 12 3 9 Rs. 13500.
3 2 6 2 1 4) Cost of one Economics book is Rs. 300,
Cost of one Co-operation book is Rs. 60
1 1 1 5 2 and Cost of one Account book is Rs. 60.
5) i) ii)
2 3 18 4 2
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 2
10 10 2
1
iii) 0 5 4 I. 1) c 2) b 3) d 4) c
10 5) a 6) a 7) b 8) d
0 0 2
9) c 10) a 11) b 12) b
3 1 1 13) d 14) c 15) b
1 1 2
6) i) ii) 15 6 5
5 2 1 II. 1) Column 2) 2 × 3 3) 2
5 2 2
4) −1 5) 3 6) −2
4 2 2 7) |A| 8) A 9) − 1
13 2 7
1
3 0 3 8) 3 1 2
1 a1 b1 x c1
7)
6 6 a b y c
10)
3 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 2
181
III. 1) True 2) False 3) True 3 1 1
4) False 5) False 6) False 15 6 5
iv)
7) False 8) False 9) False 5 2 2
10) True
19 5 27
1
IV. 1) k =
15
2) x = 3, y = 5, z = 5 17) A 1
2 10 14
40
7 3 5 19
5 23
4) A - 4B + 7I = 26 30
15 14 18) i) x = ,y=
7 7
2 2 ii) x = 3, y = 1, z = 2
9) a , b
7 7 iii)
x = 2, y = −1, z = 1
9 22
10)
A3 19) i) x = 4, y = −3
11 13
−5 6
ii)
x= , y= ,z=2
11)
x = −9, y = −3, z = 0 7 7
1 1 5
14) i) Shantaram Kantaram x = , y = − , z =− 6
iii)
6 3
Rs.33000 Rs.39000 Rice
Wheat 20) Three number x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
Rs.28000 Rs.31500
Rs.2e000 Rs.24000 Groundnut
3. Differentiation
ii) Shantaram Kantaram
Rs.3000 Rs.3000 Rice
Exercise : 3.1
Rs.2000 Rs.1500 Wheat
Rs.0 Rs.8000 Groundnut
1
1 12 1
15) i) Invertible ii) Not Invertible I. 1) x 1 2
2 x x
iii) Invertible iv) Not Invertible
2
2x
2) a 2 x 2 3
3 1 3
5 5 4 1
16) i) ii) 3) 9(5 x 3 − 4 x 2 − 8 x)8 (15 x 2 − 8 x − 8)
2 1 7 2
5 5
1
II. 1)
2 3 x.logx
5 0
5 (40 x3 15 x 2 6 x)
1 2) 4
0
1
iii) (10 x 5 x 3 3 x 2 2)
5 5
2ax + b
2 1 2
3) 2
5 5 5 ax + bx + c
182
III. 1) (10 x 2).e5 x 2 x4
2
1 2logx
III. 1) (logx) x log(logx) xlogx
1 logx x
2) a (1+logx )loga.
x 2) x x (1+ logx) + a x loga
1
3) 5( x logx ) log 5. 1 3) 10 x .x x .log10(1 + logx) + 10 x
x 10
x
x
(10.x9 )log10 + 1010 .10 x (log10) 2
Exercise : 3.2
1 Exercise : 3.4
I. 1)
10 + 50 x
x−4 y 3 x 2 (1 + 4 y )
2) I. 1) − 2)
−
18 x − 71 x 3 y 2 + 4 x3
1 + x2 3 x 2 + 2 xy + y 2
3) 2 3)
− 2
25 x + 2 x + 25 x + 2 xy + 3 y 2
ex e y ye x logx
II. 1) II. 1) x 2)
1− x e xe y (1 + logx) 2
y
( x 2 1) 2 3) −
2) x
1 4 x x2
−(2 x − 10) 2 y y2
3) III. 1) 2) −
68 x x2
3) −e y − x
Exercise : 3.3
Exercise : 3.5
2x 1
I. 1) x x x 2 x logx 2(1 logx)
x.logx 1 4 t +5
I. 1) 2) t 2 3) e
x 1 t 3
2) x e e x logx
x ylog2 2
II. 1) 2)
2 x 1+ u2
e x x x 1 logx
x
3)
3) x.5 x (log 5)
x
1 1 1
II. 1) 1 log 1 x 1 x Exercise : 3.6
x
2x
2) (2 x 5) x log(2 x 5) 1 −3
2 x 5 I. 1) − x 2 2) 20 x3 3) 56 x −9
4
1 (3 x 1) 3 2 2
3) II. 1) e x 2) 4.e( 2 x+1) 3) 0
3 (2 x 3)(5 x) 3 x 1 2 x 3 5 x
2
3
183
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 3 2x e( 4 x +5)
15) 16)
a x .loga.(1 + x 2 ) 104 x.log10
I. −1 −1
17) 18)
1) a 2) c 3) a 4) b 5) c x 2
2at 3
6) b 7) b 8) a 9) d 10)
c 19) e x ( x 2 + 4 x + 2)
II.
1 4. Applications of Derivatives
1) − 1 2) y 3) x 4) y 5)
x
−1 y 2
Exercise : 4.1
6) 2 7) 2 8) axy
x y −1
1) i) 5x − y − 2 = 0; x +5y − 16 = 0
9) y 10) my
ii) 2x +3y − 5 ; 3x − 2y − 1
III. iii)
x+y=2; x−y=0
184
2) first part = 10, second part = 10 III.
3) Length = breath = 9 cm 1) True 2) False 3) True
4) 30 4) True
5
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 4 x 1
v) log c
x
x3
I. vi) f(x) = x + 5 and f(0) = −1 f(x)=
2 + 5x + c
3
1) a 2) a 3) c 4) b 5) a 6) c If x = 0, then f(0) = c ⇔ c = −1 Hence
II. x3
f ( x) 5x 1 .
1) gradient 2) 6(x − 1) 3
185
Exercise : 5.2 1 x 1
ii) log c
6 x5
3
i) 1 2x 5 2 2
(1 + x 2 ) 2 + c 1
log c
3 iii)
8 2 2x 5 2 2
ii) 1
(1 + x 4 ) + c
2 1 4 x 2 1 13
iv) log 2 c
x x 3 4 x 1 13
iii) (e e ) c
4 13
3
1 4x4 5
iv) log xe + 1 + c
x v) log 4 c
16 4x 5
xi) log x 4 x 4 62 c
2
Exercise : 5.3
7 xi) log ( x 4) x 2 8 x 20 c
i) − t log 4 e 2t 5 c
8
ii) 5 x log 3 e x 4 c
Exercise : 5.5
1
iii) x 2log 2 e x 8 c
2 x2 x2
i) logx c
x
iv) 5 x 8log 2 e 1 c 2 4
e4 x 2 x 1
ii) x 2 8 c
4
Exercise : 5.4
1 2 3x 2 3x 2 3x
iii) x e xe e c
3 9 27
1 2x 1
i) log c
4 2x 1
iv)
2
1 2
( x 1)e x c
2
186
1 5 3
v) ex +c II. 1) x x 5 x c
5
x 3
x 1 2) x 4 log( x 1) c
vi) e +c
x +1 x2
3) f ( x) log x c
1 2
vii) e x +c
( x + 1) 2 4) 1 log x t
viii) e x (logx) 2 + c 1
5) p=
x 3
ix) +c
logx
III. 1) True 2) False 3) True
x
x) +c 4) True 5) False
1+ logx
5 x 2 3 x 21
IV. 1) i) log 2 x 3 c
Exercise : 5.6 4 4 8
9
ii) 5 x 1 c
13/ 9
1 5
i) log x 1 log x 2 c 65
3 3
log 2 x + 3
1 3 iii) +c
ii) log x log x 1 log x 4 c 2
4 4 2
iv) x 4 10 x 4 c
3/ 2
v) 2 x 3/ 2 4
2 x 1 1 +
iv) log c 3 3
9 x 2 3( x 1)
x2
vi) c
11 x +1 5 2
v) log + +c
4 x + 3 2( x + 1)
2) i) log e x 1 c
1 x5 1
c
vi) log 5 +c ii) x
5 x +1 2(ae be x )
187
1 3x 5 6. Definite Integrals
iii) log
30 3x 5
Exercise : 6.1
iv) log e x + 2 + e 2 x + 4e x + 13 + c
Exercise : 6.2
4) i) x(log x) 2 x log x 2 x c
2
16 9 / 2
ex 1) 0 2) a 3) 1
ii) + c 315
2+ x
3 1 5
(2 x − 1) 2 x 4) 5) 6)
iii) e 2 2 2
4
1
7) 0 8) 2
iv) x log( x 2 x) 2 x log x 1 c 4
v) 2 x 1 e x
c MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 6
x +1 2
vi) x + 2 x + 5 + 2 log ( x + 1) + x 2 + 2 x + 5 + c I.
2
1) a 2) b 3) c 4) c
( x 4) 2 9
vii) x 8 x 7 log ( x 4) x 2 8 x 7 c 5) a 6) d 7) d 8) c
2 2
9) c 10) b
log 2 x 1
5) i) 2 log x 1 5 c
3 3 2 II.
188
III. v) 5 sq. units vi) 12 sq. units
10
1) True 2) True 3) False vii) sq. units
3
4) False 5) True 6) True 2) 8 3 sq. units
7) False 8) True 3) 25π sq. units
4) 10π sq. units
IV.
log6 26 I. 1) a 2) c 3) c 4) b 5) c
2) 3) 9log 3 −
2 9
3124
1 e e
4 2 II. 1) sq. units
4) 5) − 5
2 4 2
2) 49 π sq. units
8
6) 2 7) log 56
3 3) sq. units
3
1 8 32
8) log 9)
2 3 5 4) 70 sq. units
3
10)
1
9
28 3 3 7 7 11) log 2 28
5) sq. units
3
7
12) 13) −log 4 III. 1) True 2) False
3
3) True 4) False
53 3
14)
4
3
2 1 15) log
5) True
1 3
1 17 1 IV. 1) c2log2 sq. units
16) log 17) − log 3 49
2 5 2 2) sq. units
3
1
18) 5 5log 3 85log 2 45log 2
2
3)
3
10
4 3/ 2 40 10
3
sq. units
log 2
19) 1 + log 2 20) 6 − 4log2 4) 12 π sq. units
1 10
log
6 7
5) 21 sq. units
7. Applications of Definite
4 Integral
4
y 1 3 sq. units
2 3/ 2 4 70
A x dy 25 y dy 5 6)
3
Exercise : 7.1
1 1
5 5
7) A 2 y dx 2 5 x dx
3124 56 0 0
1) i) sq. units ii) sq. units
5 3 100 5
= sq. units
iii) 4π sq. units iv) 96 sq. units 3
189
Exercise : 8.3
8. Differential Equations and Applictions
x3
1. i) log y xc
Exercise : 8.1 3
ii) 0 e kt c
1.
1 1
order Degree iii)
logx logy c
x y
i 2 1
iv)
2 y 2 log 1 x 1 2 y 2 c
ii 2 2
iii 4 1 2. i) 1 x 2 1 y 2 5
iv 3 2
ii) 3 x 2e y 1 0
v 1 5
exlogx = y
iii)
vi 2 1
4x y 5
vii 3 1 iv)
log xc
6
Exercise : 8.2
Exercise : 8.4
dy 2
1) i) = 9y 1) x2 2 y 2 c
dx 2
dy 2 dy 1 2 y 2 xy 3 2y
ii) 2 2 x
x 2
0 2) logx log log c
dx dx 4 x 2
4 x 2y
dy 2 dy x3
iii) 2 2 y 0 3) = log yc
3 y3
dx dx
x y 1
d2y dy 4) log log x 2 y 2 2 log x log c
iv) 2 5 6 y 0 x y 2
dx dx
5) x 2 y 2 xc
dy 3
v) = 3 y
dx 2 6) x 2 y 2 cx 4
x y
7) cx 2
dy x y
2) 2 xy y 2 x2
dx
d2y
3) =0 Exercise : 8.5
dx 2
dy
4) 2 x3 y 3 3 xy 2 0
dx 1) ye x x c
dy
5) x 4y 0 2) ye x 3e x c
dx
190
x4 x4 IV.
3) yx 2 logx. c
4 16 1) i) Order : 3 , Degree : 3
4) x y 1 c.e y ii) Order : 1 , Degree : 3
5) 3 xy y 3 c d 2 y dy
2) x 0
1 2 dx 2 dx
ye x e x c
2
6)
2 x2
3) i) log 1 y x c
7) y ( x a ) ax c 2
8) ye 2 x 4e 2 x c ii) y = x(logx −1) + c
iii)
log r = a log |1 + θ| + c
I. 1) a 2) c 3) b 4) a 5) d 6) c 7) d 8) b 8) 5x2y = x5 +c
9) c 10) a
9) 50 years
II. 10) Rs. 10,000
1) Order of the differential equation 11) xy2 = c2(x + 2y)
2) Degree of the differential equation x3
12) logy − =c
3) Particular solution 3 y3
4) Positive 13) x2 + y2 = c2x4
d y2
5) e−x 6) =0
dx 2 14) x = y (c +y2)
v v v
191
Notes
192