RESPIRATION

In simple animals like Amoeba, Paramecium, the body organisation is very simple, so gases can diffuse in and out from
the general surface of the body. The air diffuses  across the membrane from the side where its partial pressure is more
to the side where its partial pressure is less.  However, there are no special organs of respiration.

·         There are no special organs for respiration in Hydra as the body organisation is very simple and the cells are more
or less directly exposed to the environment.  Dissolved oxygen enters into the cells of Hydra through the general body
surface, as there is less oxygen concentration within the cells.  Carbon dioxide produced after respiration also comes
out in a similar way.  This process is termed as diffusion.

·         There are no special respiratory organs in earthworms and leeches but the exchange of gases occurs through the
skin (cutaneous respiration).  The skin is always kept moist by the secretions of mucous glands, and is richly supplied
with blood capillaries.  Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves into mucous and diffuses in.  It is then transported to
the body tissues by hemoglobin of the blood.  In them, hemoglobin is dissolved in plasma and not present in the
corpuscles unlike other animals.

·         In insects, gas exchange occurs through a tracheal system because in them the integument has become
impermeable to gases to reduce the water loss.  Trachea are fine tubes that open to the outside by spiracles.  Each
trachea branches into tracheoles that again branch extensively in the tissues and finally end into air sacs.

Inspiration and expiration occur through the spiracles.  When the abdominal muscles relax, the air is drawn into the
spiracles, trachea and tracheoles.  This then diffuses through the body fluids to reach the cells.  When the abdominal
muscles contract, the air is driven out through the tracheal system via the spiracles.  Thus in insects expiration is an
active process but inspiration is passive.

·         In the marine annelid Nereis respiration occurs by the whole body surface, but more specially by thin, flattened
lobes of parapodia, which possess extensive capillary network.  They are richly supplied with blood capillaries and are
highly permeable to respiratory gases.

·         Aquatic animals like prawns, fishes and tadpoles (of frog) respire with the help of gills. Gills are richly supplied
with blood and can readily absorb oxygen dissolved  in water.  The surface of the gills is increased by the presence of
gill plates.  Each gill plate has many flat and parallel membranes like gill lamellae.  Water moves over these gills in
single direction only.  The oxygen absorbed by the gills from the water is taken by blood and carbon dioxide is given
out into the water. 

·         In amphibians like frogs and toads, some cutaneous respiration takes place across their moist and highly vascular
skin, particularly during hibernation. However, they mainly respire through the lungs and the moist mucus membrane
of the buccal cavity.Toads have less of cutaneous respiration than frogs.

Human Respiratory System:

 
           All mammals have lungs for the purpose of respiration.  This is known as pulmonary respiration.  The mammalian
respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs.

1.      Nasal cavity: It is a large cavity lying dorsal to the mouth and is lined by mucous secreting epithelium.  The nasal
cavity opens outside through a pair of external nostrils or nares.  Bones and cartilages support the nasal cavity.  The
nasal cavity is divided into two parts by a nasal septum.  The cavity opens inside into pharynx through two internal
nostrils.  Air while passing through the nasal cavity is filtered, and only the clean air free from dust particles and foreign
substances enters the pharynx.  The air also gets warmed and moistened in this chamber. It is important to note that
air can also be inhaled through mouth directly, but this is not advisable because the air will not be filtered, warmed
and moistened.  This gradually will harm the respiratory system. 

2.      Nasopharynx:  It is a chamber situated behind the nasal cavity.  At the level of soft palate, it becomes continuous
with the mouth cavity or oral pharynx.  It also receives the openings of eustachian tubes on its lateral sides and is  thus
connected to the middle ear.

3.      Larynx:  It is a chamber situated in the region of neck.  It is supported by four cartilages :  thyroid is the largest
and in the form of a broad ring incomplete dorsally, cricoid is a complete ring lying at the base of thyroid, a pair of
arytenoids lying above the thyroid but in front of cricoid, and epiglottis situated behind the tongue that serves to cover
the entrance to the trachea so that food particles may not enter into it.  Larynx is also known as voice box since it helps
in the production of sound.

4.      Trachea:  It is a tube starting from larynx running through the neck and the thoracic cavity.  The trachea runs
through the neck in front of the oesophagus.  The trachea or windpipe is about 12 cm long and divided into two
bronchi in the thoracic region.

5.      Bronchi and bronchioles: The two bronchi enter into right and left lungs of either side.  Inside the lungs they
further branch into many smaller bronchioles with a diameter of about 1 mm. These bronchioles further divide into
terminal and then into respiratory bronchioles. Each respiratory bronchiole divides into a number of alveolar ducts
that further divide into atria, which swell up into air sacs or alveoli. 

6.      Lungs:  A pair of conical shaped lungs is situated in the double walled sacs called pleural cavities. They are spongy
and richly supplied with blood vessels and capillaries.  They have about 300-400 millions of alveoli through which
exchange of gases occur.  Lungs have various bronchioles ending into alveoli where exchange of gases occurs.  The
alveoli are thin walled pouches the walls of which have epithelial linings supported by basement membrane.

Mechanism of breathing or pulmonary respiration:

          

·         Respiration involves the following steps:

·         Breathing or pulmanory ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and Carbon dioxide air released out.
·         Diffusion of gses of oxygen and carbon dioxide across alveolar membrane.

·         Transport of gases by the blood.

·         Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues.

·         Utilisation of oxygen by the cells for catabolic reactions and release of carbon dioxide.

Mechanism of Breathing:

Inspiration:  During this process, some intercostal muscles contract thus pulling the ribs upwards and outwards. 
Lateral thoracic walls also move outwards and upwards. At the same time the diaphragm becomes flattened as it
moves down towards the abdomen.  This results in the increase in the volume of thoracic cavity thus lowering the
pressure in the lungs.  To fill up this gap, air from outside rushes in to bring about inhalation or inspiration.  Hence,
inspiration is brought about by contraction of the diaphragm and some intercostal muscles; these muscles are known
as inspiratory muscles. 

Expiration: During this process, the ribs return back to their original position, inwards and backwards, by the relaxation
of intercostal muscles and also the diaphragm becomes dome-shaped again.  Lateral thoracic walls also move inwards
and downwards.  This decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity thus increasing the pressure inside the lungs.  So the
air from the lungs rushes out through the respiratory passage bringing about expiration or exhalation.

A person breathes about 12 to 16 times per minute while at rest.  However, this breathing rate is higher at the time of
muscular exercise and in small children.

          

In forceful expiration, a different group of intercostal muscles and some abdominal muscles contract to reduce the
volume of the thorax more than that in ordinary expiration.  So more air is expelled out.  Such muscles are known as
expiratory muscles.

Pulmonary air volumes: Air flows into and out of the lungs because of the pressure gradient.  Spirometer is an
instrument used to measure the amount of air exchanged during breathing.  Some terms regarding pulmonary air
volumes are as follows:

1.      Tidal volume: It is the volume of air that is breathed in and breathed out while sitting at rest (effortless
respiration) or “quiet breathing”.  It is about 500 ml in an adult person. 

2.      Vital capacity: It is the volume of air that can be maximum expelled out after a maximum inspiratory effort. It is
about 4,500 ml in males; and 3,000 ml in females.  The higher the vital capacity, the greater will be the capacity for
increasing the ventilation of lungs for exchange of gases.  It is more in athletes and mountain dwellers.
3.      Residual volume: It is the volume of air that remains inside the lungs and respiratory passage( about 1.5 litres )
after a maximum forced exhalation.

4.      Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): It is the volume of air that can be taken in by forced inspiration over and above
the normal inspiration or tidal volume.  It is about 2,000 ml to 3,500 ml.

5.      Expiratory reserve volume  (ERV): It is the volume of air that can still be given out by forced expiration over and
above the normal inspiration or tidal volume. It is about 1,000 ml.

6.      Total lung capacity: It is the volume of air in the lungs and respiratory passage after a maximum inhalation effort. 
It is equivalent to vital capacity plus residual volume.  It is about 5,000 to 6,000 ml in adult males. 

Pulmonary exchange of gases:

In most of higher animals including man, the air from outside reaches up to the alveoli of lungs in the process of
breathing.  This inspired air contains about 21 per cent oxygen, 0.04 per cent carbon dioxide, 78.6 per cent nitrogen
and small amounts of other gases and atmospheric moisture.  In this inspired air the partial pressure of oxygen (Po2) is
158 mm Hg; and that of carbon dioxide (Pco2) is 0.3 mm Hg. The lungs and alveoli also contain some air even after
expiration.  But this air has more of carbon dioxide and less of oxygen than the inspired air.  So when this air mixes
with the inspired air the partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air now becomes 100 mm Hg and that of carbon dioxide
becomes 40 mm Hg.  However, the percentage of oxygen now becomes 13.1% and that of carbon dioxide 5.3%.

           The pulmonary artery contains deoxygenated blood and this has Po2 much less (40 mm Hg) than that of alveolar
Po2.  So oxygen from the alveolar air diffuses into the blood capillaries (oxygenation).  This oxygenated blood is
collected from alveoli of lungs by the pulmonary veins.  It has a Po2 of about 95 mm Hg and at this partial pressure, the
oxygenated blood has 19.8 per cent oxygen.  Further, the deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary artery has a Pco2 of
46 mm Hg and Pco2 of alveolar air is 40 mm Hg.  So the blood while passing through the alveoli of lungs also unloads
carbon dioxide.  The pulmonary vein carrying oxygenated blood, thus, has carbon dioxide at the partial pressure of 40
mm Hg.  At these partial pressures the carbon dioxide contents of the blood decreases from 52.7 per cent to 49 per
cent.

Gas transport in blood:

Oxygen transport : 

The hemoglobin pigment of blood mainly transports oxygen. From alveoli of lungs, oxygen can readily diffuse into
erythrocytes and combines loosely with hemoglobin (Hb) to form a reversible compound oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).
Combining of oxygen with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin is a physical process.   There is no change in the valency
of iron atom; it is ferrous in oxyhemoglobin and also in hemoglobin.  This reaction, therefore, is an “oxygenation”
process and not oxidation.  When fully oxygenated, hemoglobin has about 97 per cent of oxygen.  Hemoglobin is dark
red in colour; whereas oxyhemoglobin is bright red in colour.

           

Inside the tissues, as the partial pressure of oxygen is less, oxyhemoglobin gets dissociated into oxygen and
hemoglobin.  Further, as Po2 is much lower and Pco2 is much higher in active tissues than in passive tissues, so much
of oxygen is released from oxyhemoglobin in active tissues.  High tension of oxygen favours the formation of
oxyhemoglobin while low tension of oxygen favours its dissociation.  However, very little of oxygen is found in the
blood plasma.  Each decilitre of blood releases up to 4.6 ml, of oxygen in the tissues, 4.4 ml from oxyhemoglobin and
0.17 ml from the dissolved oxygen in the plasma. 

Carbon dioxide transport :

Carbon dioxide is produced in the tissues as an end product of tissue respiration.  For its elimination, it gets dissolved
in tissue fluid and passes into the blood.  In the tissues, 100 ml of blood receives about 3.7 ml of carbon dioxide.  It is
transported both by the plasma and hemoglobin of blood.  From the tissues, carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood
plasma and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3-) in the presence of an enzyme carbonic anhydrase.  Inside the erythrocytes,
some of the carbonic acid forms bicarbonates and is thus transported.  As carbonic acid, carbon dioxide is transported
by blood plasma.

                                             Carbonic anhydrase

CO2 + H2O  \================\     H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

                      

H2CO3             \================\      H+  +  HCO3- (bicarbonate)

            If all the carbon dioxide produced by the tissues is carried by blood plasma in this way, then pH of the blood will
be lowered to about 4.5.  This would immediately cause death.  So only about 10% of the CO2 produced by the tissue
is actually transported as carbonic acid. 

            About 20% of the total CO2 produced is transported by the hemoglobin of blood as carbaminohemoglobin. 

                       

                        CO2 + Hb.NH2  ---------------------à Hb.NH.COOH

           
About 70 % of the total CO2 produced is transported as bicarbonate ions of the blood.  Bicarbonates are formed both
in the erythrocytes and in the plasma of blood.

In erythrocytes.  CO2 from the plasma enters the erythrocytes and combines with water to form carbonic acid in the
presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.  Carbonic acid soon dissociates to form H+ and HCO3- ions. 

CO2 + H2O  ------------à H2CO3  \==============\   H+  +  HCO3-

Hence, carbon dioxide is carried in the blood in three major forms; bicarbonates in plasma and erythrocytes,
carbaminohemoglobin in erythrocytes, and small amounts of dissolved carbon dioxide in plasma.

On reaching the lungs, blood is oxygenated.  Oxyhemoglobin is a stronger acid than deoxyhemoglobin.  So it donates
H+ ion, which joins bicarbonate (HCO3-) to form carbonic acid and this carbonic acid is cleaved into water and carbon
dioxide by an enzyme carbonic anhydrase.  Oxygenation of hemoglobin releases carbon dioxide from
carbaminohemoglobin.  By this way, every decilitre of blood releases about 3.7 ml of carbon dioxide in the lungs.  Then
this carbon dioxide is removed from the lungs by exhalation. 

Gas exchange in tissues:

            In the tissues, gases are exchanged by diffusion (as in the lungs).  In tissues, as the partial pressure of oxygen is
very low (about 40 mm Hg), so the oxygen gets unloaded here.  When the blood leaves the tissues it has Po2 of 40 mm
Hg.  However, for carbon dioxide it is just the reverse.  The blood entering into tissues has Pco2 of 40 mm Hg; while
Pco2 of tissues is 46 mm Hg.  So some of carbon dioxide from tissues gets loaded into the blood. 

Disorders of Respiratory Systerm:

1.      Asthma: difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammationof bronchi and bronchioles.

2.      Emphysema: alveolar walls are damaged diue to which respiratiory surface is decreased, causes of this is
cigarette smoking.

3.      Occupational Respiratory Disorders: long exposure to the dust of industries like stone breaking, etc cause an
inflammation on lung tissues and leads to lung damage.

Distinguish between:

1.      Inspiratory muscles and expiratory muscles  : 

Inspiratory muscles are a group of intercostal muscles, the contraction and relaxation of which bring about inspiration
and expiration respectively.  Expiratory muscles are a group of different intercostal muscles and some abdominal
muscles which contract to reduce the thoracic cavity more than that in ordinary expiration as in forceful respiration.

2.          Tracheoles and bronchioles  :

Tracheoles are the finer branches of tracheal tubes present in insects that ramify into the tissues.  Bronchioles are the
finer branches of bronchus that branch further to open into alveoli of lungs in mammals.

3.      Carbaminohemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin  :

Carbaminohemoglobin is a reversible compound formed when hemoglobin combines with carbon dioxide;
oxyhemoglobin is a reversible compound formed when hemoglobin combines with oxygen. 

In carbon monoxide poisoning, Hb combines irreversibly with CO to form carboxyhemoglobin.

4.      Inspired air and alveolar air  :

Inspired air is the air taken inside the lungs during inspiration.  It contains about 21% oxygen and 0.03% carbon
dioxide.  This air now mixes up with the air already present inside the lungs, which has more of carbon dioxide and less
of oxygen.  This mixed air is now called as alveolar air and it has 13.1% oxygen and 5.3% carbon dioxide.

Explain why the following things happen:

1.          Far more oxygen is released from oxyhemoglobin in a more active tissue than in a less active one.

The dissociation of oxyhemoglobin to oxygen and deoxyhemoglobin depends upon the partial pressures of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the tissues.  In a more active tissue, the Po2 is lower and Pco2 is higher as compared to that of a less
active tissue.  So far more oxygen is released from oxyhemoglobin in a more active tissue than in a less active one.

2.          Oxygenation of blood promotes the release of carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs.

The oxygenation of blood in the lungs depends on the partial pressures of oxygen in the pulmonary artery and in the
alveolar air.  Further, the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is enhanced with the fall in partial pressures of carbon dioxide
that results from the elimination of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs.  In the lung alveoli, hemoglobin is
exposed to high Po2 and less Pco2.

3.          Oxygen leaves the blood from tissue capillaries, but carbon dioxide enters the blood in tissue capillaries.

Inside the tissue capillaries, there is more of Pco2 and less of Po2. The blood coming to tissues has more of Po2 and
less of Pco2.  So oxygen is unloaded from the blood and carbon dioxide is loaded to the blood in the tissue capillaries. 
4.          Erythrocytes can carry out anaerobic metabolism only.

Erythrocytes can carry out anaerobic metabolism only because they lack mitochondria.

5.          Gaseous exchanges continue in the lungs without interruption during expiration. 

Gaseous exchanges continue in the lungs uninterrupted because some air is always present inside the lung alveoli even
during expiration. 

6.          Contraction of inspiratory muscles causes inspiration while relaxation causes expiration.

Contraction of inspiratory muscles increases the volume of pleural cavities; while expiration is brought about passively
by the relaxation of those muscles.  As the muscles relax, the diaphragm moves up towards the thorax and the
intercostal muscles move the lateral thoracic walls inwards and downwards.  This decreases the volume of pleural
cavities and the air rushes out.

7.          Oxygen enters the blood from the alveolar air but carbon dioxide leaves the blood to enter the alveolar air.

Inside the alveoli of lungs, there is more of Po2 and less of Pco2 .The blood coming to lung alveoli has more of Pco2
and less of Po2.  So oxygen is loaded to the blood and carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood in the alveoli of lungs.
III. RESPIRATION (HUMAN)

Organs of respiration:

Respiration is the process by which foodstuffs are oxidized in cells to release their bond energy for utilization in the body.
Respiration is of two types, viz., (i) anaerobic respiration in which there is no uptake of molecular oxygen , the degradation of
substrate is incomplete and the energy yielded is less than produced by aerobic respiration. E.g. In anaerobic bacteria, yeast,
Ascaris, skeletal muscles when oxygen is deficient during physical work. (ii) aerobic respiration involves uptake of molecular
oxygen, the substrate oxidation is complete and energy yielded is more than produced in anaerobic respiration. E.g. most
multicellular organisms including man, trees, large animals, birds, etc.

Organs of respiration in man has two components: (i) respiratory organs- the lungs, and (ii) respiratory tract through which air
reaches to the lungs.

Respiratory tract consists of following parts:

(i) Nostrils (External nares). These are a pair of slits at the lower end of the nose just above the mouth. They are the openings of
nasal cavities.

(ii) Nasal cavity. Nasal cavities are a pair of chambers present above the palate and they are separated from each other by a
median partition called nasal septum. Further nasal cavity is divided into three regions:

(a) Vestibular region, which is the smaller anterior part of cavity that lies just within the nostrils and is lined by skin which is in
continuation to the skin on the exterior of the nose. It contains hairs and sebaceous glands and hairs prevent entry of dust particles
into the nose.

(b) Respiratory region, which is the middle part of the cavity that is lined by a glandular respiratory epithelium that is composed of
mucous cells secreting mucus and serous cells secreting a watery fluid. Respiratory epithelium is highly vascular and appears pink
or reddish. Respiratory region acts as air conditioner making inhaled air moist and warm.
(c) Olfactory region is the upper posterior part of nasal chamber lined by highly sensory olfactory epithelium which helps in
detecting the odour of the inspired air, thus it helps in selecting the air for inspiration. Nasal chambers open behind into
nasopharynx by internal nostrils or internal nares.

(iii) Nasopharynx. It is situated at the base of the skull just behind the nasal cavities and it continuous with the oral pharynx at the
level of the soft palate. It bears the openings of Eustachian tubes in its lateral walls by which it is connected to middle ears. The
oral pharynx is the lower part of pharynx that leads into trachea (wind pipe) at the front and the oesophagus(food pipe) at the
back.

(iv) Larynx (Voice box or Adam’s apple). It is a small, semi-rigid expanded chamber at the top of the trachea at the level of the
fourth to sixth cervical vertebrae. It is supported by a framework of four cartilages, thyroid, cricoid, paired arytenoids, and
epiglottis. Thyroid cartilage is the largest and supports larynx ventrally and laterally, while cricoid cartilage is immediately behind
thyroid cartilage and it is broad at the dorsal side and narrow ventrally. The paired arytenoids cartilages are present on the dorsal
side of the larynx while epiglottis is a leaf-like cartilage that covers glottis, the slit-like opening of larynx when food is swallowed.

Larynx is lined with mucous membrane covered with stratified columnar ciliated epithelium; the cilia beat outward and eject the
unwanted particles, while goblet cells and sub epithelial mucous glands provide mucous covering to the epithelium. If any irritating
substance enters it the laryngeal spasm, in the form of cough results and thus larynx allows only air to pass into trachea.

Larynx also serves as voice box or the organ of sound production. A pair of membranous folds called vocal cords, stretch across
the laryngeal cavity and remain apart from each other in normal condition. Voice is produced when vocal cords come close
together and the force of air rushing through the narrowed glottis vibrates the cords. The pitch and quality of sound is produced by
change in the tension of vocal cords brought about by the action of intrinsic laryngeal muscles. The speech in human is made by
the combined action of vocal cords, tongue, pharynx, mouth, and lips.

(v) Trachea (Wind pipe). It is a long tube that extends downward from larynx and runs down the neck below oesophagus till it
bifurcates into two primary bronchi in thoracic cavity, at the level of the fourth or fifth thoracic vertebrae. Trachea an the two
primary bronchi are supported by 16-20 C-shaped cartilages which are articulated by ligaments and these rings provide flexibility
and keep the passages open for free movement of air to and fro. The trachea is lined by pseudostratified ciliated mucous
epithelium where mucus keeps the surface moist, slimy and holds bacteria and dust particles that are swept towards the pharynx
by cilia.

(vi) Bronchi and bronchioles. Primary bronchi, after entering into the respective right and left lungs, divide repeatedly into smaller
secondary and tertiary bronchi, which further divide into still smaller bronchioles, terminal bronchioles or respiratory bronchioles.
Primary bronchi, primary and tertiary bronchi, and bronchioles are lined with pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
containing goblet cells and ciliated cells, while terminal or respiratory bronchioles are lined with simple ciliated columnar
epithelium without mucous cells.

(vii) Alveolar sacs and alveoli. Respiratory bronchiole branches further into still finer alveolar ducts that have thin, non-ciliated
epithelium. Alveolar duct ends in a passage called atrium, which leads into number of rounded alveolar sacs. Each alveolar sac is
studded with number of air sacs or alveoli. Alveoli are blind sacs with extremely thin walls, made of elastic connective tissue fibres
surrounded by a fine network of capillaries from pulmonary vein and artery.

Respiratory organs are a pair of lungs which lie in the thoracic cavity on the sides of the heart, and they are enclosed in double-
walled sacs called pleura. The inner pleural membrane is called visceral pleura and the outer one the parietal pleura and the fluid
present in between them is called pleural fluid. The lungs are dark red coloured spongy bag like structures with smooth shining
surface marked out into numerous polyhedral areas. The left lung is smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch to
accommodate the heart on the anterior-median side. The left lung is divided externally into two lobes, viz., superior and inferior
lobes, while right lung into three lobes, viz., superior, middle, and inferior lobes. The lungs have three surfaces, viz., costal,
diaphragmatic, and mediastinal. On the mediastinal surface a groove is present through which bronchi, pulmonary arteries and
veins and lymph vessels enter.
Alveoli are the real respiratory part of the lung and there are as many as 300 to 400 million alveoli in a lung of an adult man. The
total alveolar surface through which gaseous exchange takes place far exceeds the general body surface and is estimated to be
about 140square metres. The total capillary surface area available for gaseous exchange is about 125 square metres.

Breathing mechanism (inspiration and expiration):(Breathing process should be explained showing the action of diaphragm and
intercostal muscles)

1. Describe the events involved in the process of breathing. [4,00] Or describe the various steps involved in the breathing process.
[4,05]

Ans. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation involves inspiration/inhalation and expiration/exhalation.

(i) Inspiration: It is the process of breathing in fresh air. During inspiration the radial muscles of diaphragm and the external
intercostal muscles contract. The former lower diaphragm towards abdomen and later move the ribs of the thoracic walls outward
and upward, thereby increasing volume of the thoracic cavity and reducing the pressure inside it. This in turn expands the lungs,
thus lowering intrapulmonary pressure below the atmospheric air pressure. Hence air from outside rushes into the lungs through
nostrils and windpipes.

(ii) Expiration: It is the process of breathing out air. It is ordinarily a passive phenomenon, where relaxation of external intercostal
muscles makes ribs move inward and downward, while relaxation of radial muscle of diaphragm makes it move upward and
assume its relaxed dome shape. This reduces the volume of thoracic cavity resulting in the increase of air pressure in it that makes
lungs to contract. This results in the increase in intrapulmonary air pressure beyond atmospheric air pressure which forces the air
out of lungs.

During forceful expiration internal intercostal muscles and some abdominal muscles contract simultaneously reducing the volume
of thoracic cavity more than in ordinary expiration pushing out larger volume of air from lungs.

Pulmonary gas exchange (Mechanism of pulmonary gas exchange):The mechanism of pulmonary gas exchange is given below:

2. With the help of a diagram, describe the exchange of gases in lungs. [4,06]

Ans. The exchange of gases in the lungs takes place between gases in alveolar capillaries and the air in the alveolus. The gaseous
exchange occurs along partial pressure and concentration gradients. As shown in the diagram the partial pressure of oxygen in
alveolar air is 100 mm Hg, while in alveolar capillary is only 40 mm Hg. This makes O 2 to diffuse into capillaries.

On the other hand partial pressure of CO 2 in alveolar air is 40 mm Hg, while in alveolar capillaries is 46 mm Hg, and hence CO 2
diffuses into alveolus.
Transport of respiratory gases:

Transport of gases in blood: Blood plays a very significant role in transport of oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbondioxide from
tissues to the lungs.

Transport of oxygen (Transport of oxygen in the blood as dissolved oxygen and as oxyhaemoglobin):

Oxygen is transported from lungs to the tissues in the blood as dissolved oxygen or as oxyhaemoglobin. In mammals about 15-20
ml (19ml) of oxygen is carried per 100 ml of blood. Out of this only 2% (0.3 ml) is carried as dissolved oxygen (physical solution) in
blood plasma and the rest (18.7 ml) in combination with haemoglobin (Hb).

When O2 diffuses into blood in external respiration (pulmonary gas exchange) most of it enters erythrocytes (RBC) and unites with
respiratory pigment, haemoglobin, to form an unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a complex protein
compound made up of four globular units each containing a Fe ++ that can combine with O2 molecule each, therefore each
haemoglobin can carry 1-4 O2 molecules depending upon its degree of saturation with oxygen.

Hb + O2 → HbO2

The proportion of oxyhaemoglobin to haemoglobin depends on partial pressure or tension of oxygen in the blood and can be
represented by the dissociation curve of oxyhaemoglobin. This enables more haemoglobin to become oxyhaemoglobin the
alveolar capillaries and oxyhaemoglobin becomes fully saturated at about 70 mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen. In this combined
form oxygen is carried to different organs and tissues.

Transport of CO2 (as carbonic acid and as bicarbonates and chloride shift):

The CO2 produced in tissues as a result of oxidation of foodstuffs (eg. Glucose) diffuses out of the cell into the tissue fluid and
thence into the blood of capillaries. Then it is transported in three conditions by plasma and erythrocytes to the lungs.

(i) As carbonic acid. On average 3.7 ml of CO2 is received by 100 ml of blood and a part (5-10%) or about 2.7 c.c. of it dissolves in
100 c.c. of water of venous blood to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid dissolves in plasma and is transported as simple solution
to the lungs.

(ii) As bicarbonates. The remainder of CO2 diffuses into RBC and formation of carbonic acid is enhanced in the RBCs by carbonic
anhydrase. The carbonic acid thus formed ionizes into H+ and HCO3- and the bicarbonate immediately combines with potassium
salts of haemoglobin thereby freeing Hb. The potassium bicarbonate thus formed ionizes immediately into K + and HCO3-. The
bicarbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma where they combine with sodium, formed of dissociation of sodium chloride, to form
sodium bicarbonates. The 85% of CO2 is transported by this means. The chloride ions move into the RBCs in exchange for
bicarbonates and this exchange of bicarbonates and chloride ions between RBCs and plasma is called chloride shift or Hamburger
phenomenon.

H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-

HCO3- + KHb → KHCO3 + Hb

HCO3- + Na+ → NaHCO3

3. Mention how do RBCs maintain electrostatic neutrality? [2,97]

Ans. zccvbnm

(iii) As carbamino compounds. About 30% of CO2 entering RBCs combines with globin of haemoglobin to form carbamino-
haemoglobin. Carbamino compounds are formed readily when haemoglobin is reduced and this helps to take up more CO 2 by the
peripheral capillary blood. About 10% of the total CO 2 is carried by this way.
 Hb-NH2 + CO2 → Hb-NHCOO- + H+

haemoglobin carbamino- hydrogen

haemoglobin ion

Pulmonary air volumes and lung capacities:

Followings are the pulmonary air volumes and lung capacities:

4. Define tidal volume [1,04]

Ans. Tidal volume is the volume of air breathed in(inspired) or breathed out (expired) during effortless (normal) breathing in each
respiratory cycle.

5. Define inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) [1,00&05]

Ans. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inhaled by forcible inspiration after completion of a normal
inspiration (2000-3000ml).

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): It is the additional volume of air that can be expelled out with forceful expiration after normal
expiration (1000 ml).

6. Define Vital capacity [1,02]

Ans. Vital capacity is the volume of air that can be forcibly expelled from the lungs after the deepest inspiration (4.5 litres= tidal
volume + Inspiratory reserve volume + Expiratory Reserve volume).

7. Define R.Q [1,98&½,99]

Ans. Respiratory quotient is the ratio of CO2 released to O2 consumed in unit time. E.g. For glucose 1, fats 0.71 and proteins 0.85.

8. Give the RQ value of fats, carbohydrates and organic acids. Why do RQ value of fats and carbohydrates differ?[1½+½,99]

Ans. RQ (Respiratory quotient) is the ratio of the number of moles of CO 2 released by a tissue over a period of time to the moles of
oxygen consumed. RQ value of fats and carbohydrates differ since fats follow β–oxidation while carbohydrates follow glycolysis
pathways to enter ultimately Krebs cycle during respiration and the two processes require different amount of O 2.

RQ value for fats is 0.7; for carbohydrates is 1 and organic acids(amino acids/proteins) is 0.85.

9. Define hypoxia [1,01,02&03]:

Ans. Hypoxia is the condition where there is insufficient oxygen supply to the tissues

10. Give scientific term: A substance that can function as acid as well as base. [½,97]

Ans. Amphoteric

11. Man can live without food for a few days but cannot live without oxygen for even a few minutes. Why? [½,97]

Ans. Man can live without food for a few days because his body uses reserve food during fasting while cannot live even for a few
minutes without oxygen since brain cells will die as it cannot get energy which is got by aerobic respiration.

12. Mention the significance of pentose phosphate pathway. [2,98]

Ans. Pentose phosphate pathway also called phosphogluconate pathway is secondary pathway for glucose catabolism. Its
significances are:
(i) It produces NADPH which is required in tissues actively carrying out the biosynthesis of fatty acids and steroids as in
mammary glands, adipose or fat tissue, adrenal cortex, and liver.
(ii) It produces ribose 5-phosphate which is required for nucleotide synthesis.