Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Positive and negative effects of polyphenol incorporation in baked foods T

a,b a,b b,⁎ b,⁎
Juanying Ou , Mingfu Wang , Jie Zheng , Shiyi Ou
a
Food and Nutritional Science Program, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
b
Department of Food Science and Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, Guangdong, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Polyphenols are hot research topics worldwide owing to their physiological and pharmaceutical activities.
Bakery foods Polyphenols and polyphenol-enriched by-products have been widely used in bakery foods because of their
Polyphenols neutraceutical properties. This review summarizes the classification, biosynthesis, main source and analysis of
Quinone polyphenols and intensively discusses the effects of their incorporation in baked foods. The positive effects of
Antioxidant activity
polyphenol incorporation include elevation of antioxidant activity of baked foods, scavenging of food-borne
Food-borne toxins
toxins produced during thermal processing and decreasing postprandial serum glucose level. Meanwhile,
Adduct
Serum glucose polyphenol incorporation negatively influences colour, texture and flavour of baked foods and bioavailability of
the added polyphenols. Most polyphenols are thermally sensitive and reactive. Thus far, few studies have in-
vestigated on neoformed compounds from the reaction of polyphenols or their oxidised products (quinones) with
other food components. Before launching polyphenol-incorporated bakery foods in the market, future work
should focus on full toxicological evaluation of newly derived compounds from polyphenols.

1. Introduction
Polyphenols are characterised by the presence of one or more hy-
droxyl groups linked to a benzene ring and comprise a broad group of
plant secondary metabolites that contribute to plant growth, pigmen-
tation, pollination and resistance against pathogens, predators and
environmental stresses (Serra, Almeida, & Dinis, 2018). More than 8000
polyphenols have been identified (Knaze et al., 2018). Although poly-
phenols are regarded as non-nutrient xenobiotics (Crozier, Jaganath, &
Clifford, 2009), they exert various biological activities, including anti-
oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, prevention of neurological,
cardiovascular and chronic intestinal diseases, diabetes and Alzheimer’s
disease and improvement of memory and cognitive function (Grosso
et al., 2017; Santhakumar, Battino, & Alvarez-Suarez, 2018; Serra et al.,
2018; Syarifah-Noratiqah, Naina-Mohamed, Zulfarina, & Qodriyah,
2018; Williamson, 2017). The multiple functions of polyphenols has led
to a sharp increase in their consumption and production. The amount of
industrially extracted polyphenols reached 16,380 tons in 2015 and is
anticipated to increase to 33,880 tons by the end of 2024. The industrial
utilisation of polyphenols is dominated by functional beverages (44%)
and food (33%) (Adebooye, Alashi, & Aluko, 2018). In recent years,
polyphenols or polyphenol-enriched food by-products have been widely
incorporated in dough to prepare various baked food products, such as
breads, cakes, muffins and cookies to improve their functional
properties and reduce the content of food-borne toxins (Gómez &
Martinez, 2018; Martins, Pinho, & Ferreira, 2017; Sabally, Sleno,
Jauffrit, Iskandar, & Kubow, 2016; Yeh, Hsia, Lee, & Wu, 2017; Zamora
& Hidalgo, 2018). Given that polyphenols are quite reactive and sen-
sitive to thermal processing of food (Table 1), they may interact with
the components of raw materials and the compounds formed during
baking. The consequence of neoformed compounds during thermal
processing of food should not be underestimated. Here, we review re-
search progress on the beneficial and adverse effects of polyphenol
incorporation in baked foods and provide perspectives for future stu-
dies.
2. Classification, biosynthesis, source and analysis of polyphenols
Based on the chemical structures of polyphenols, they can be clas-
sified as flavonoids and non-flavonoids (Serra et al., 2018). Flavonoids
are polyphenolic compounds with C6–C3–C6 structure and are com-
posed of 15 carbons with two aromatic rings connected by a three
carbon bridge. Flavonoids can be further subdivided into 13 groups,
such as flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, isoflavones, flavanones and
anthocyanidins (Crozier et al., 2009; Cutrim & Cortez, 2018; Grosso
et al., 2017). Non-flavonoids include structurally different compounds,
such as phenolic acids (derivatives of benzoic acid with a C6-C1 struc-
ture and derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acid with a C6-C3 structure),

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zhengjie@jnu.edu.cn (J. Zheng), tosy@jnu.edu.cn (S. Ou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.01.096
Received 27 September 2018; Received in revised form 12 December 2018; Accepted 14 January 2019
Available online 23 January 2019
0308-8146/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Ou et al. Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99

Table 1 (Adebooye et al., 2018; Rothwell et al., 2013). This finding indicates
Average recovery (%) of polyphenols in muffins enriched with fruit pomaces that polyphenols show low thermal stability.
(from strawberry, black currant, and raspberry).
140 °C 180 °C 220 °C 3.1. Phenolic acids

Enriched with strawberry Total ellagic acid 110 109 110 Ferulic and coumaric acids are the main phenolics in cereals. Baking
pomace Pelargonidin-3-O- 24 37 39
increases the amount of free phenolic acids in bread, cookies and
glucoside
Quercetin-3-O- 98 99 101 muffins but decreases the amount of bound phenolic acids (Abdel-Aal &
glucuronide Rabalski, 2013), suggesting that baking can transform phenolic acids
Enriched with black Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside 93 43 54 from bound to free ones. During thermal treatment, ferulic acid can be
currant pomace Delphinidin-3-O- 92 51 60 degraded to guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol and 4-vi-
rutinoside nylguaiacol (Ezekiel, Singh, Sharma, & Kaur, 2013). 4-Vinylguaiacol
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside 44 54 57 can participate in the Maillard reaction to form two adducts: adduct
Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside 53 63 64
Myricetin-3-O-glucoside 83 84 86
1,6-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-5-(hydroxymethyl)-8-oxabicyclo
Myricetin-3-O-rutinoside 85 85 85 [3,2,1] oct-3-en-2-one); and adduct 2,2-(6-(furan-2-yl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxyphenyl)-1-methyl-3-oxo-2, 5-diazabicyclo [2,2,2] oct-5-en-2-
Enriched with raspberry Cyanidin-3-O-sophoroside 26 46 53
pomace Cyanidin-3-O- 32 53 55 yl) -acetic acid (Jiang, Chiaro, Maddali, Prabhu, & Peterson, 2009).
glucosylrutinoside Chlorogenic acid is the main phenolic acid in potato and coffee
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside 29 49 53 beans. Chlorogenic acid accounts for more than 90% of phenolics in
Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside 35 57 61
potato (1000–4000 mg/kg) and up to 10% in green coffee (Ezekiel
Quercetin-3-O- 91 93 100
arabinoside
et al., 2013; Świeca, Gawlik-Dziki, Sęczyk, Dziki, & Sikora, 2018). The
Quercetin-3-O- 90 97 99 degradation of chlorogenic acid depends on processing conditions.
glucuronide Navarre, Shakya, Holden, and Kumar (2010) found that chlorogenic
Total ellagic acid 101 101 102 acid is not degraded by microwaving, steaming and boiling but is
completely destroyed during baking of potatoes at 212 °C for 46 min
(Dao & Friedman, 1992). Coffee roasting significantly decreases the
lignans (C6-C3-C3-C6) and stilbenes (C6-C2-C6) (Landete, 2012; Serra
amount of chlorogenic acid; 8%–10% of its amount is lost for every 1%
et al., 2018). In plants, polyphenols commonly exist in the form of
loss of dry matter (Nunes & Coimbra, 2010). During coffee roasting,
glycosides; in which, the moiety of polyphenol is referred to as aglycone
chlorogenic acid undergoes rapid decarboxylation and produces simple
(Serra et al., 2018).
phenols, including catechol, 4-methylcatechol, 4-ethylcatechol and 4-
Non-flavonoids are formed through shikimic and phenylpropanoid
vinylcatechol (Moon & Shibamoto, 2010; Nunes & Coimbra, 2010).
pathways, while flavonoids are formed from the combination of two
Chlorogenic acid and its hydrolysed product, namely, caffeic acid, also
separate biosynthesis pathways. In the biosynthesis of flavonoids, the
participate in the Maillard reaction to form melanoidin (Nunes &
ring B and C in flavonoids are synthesised from p-coumaroyl-CoA, and
Coimbra, 2010).
ring A is synthesised through the malonic acid pathway. Detailed in-
formation on their biosynthesis can be referred to in the review by
3.2. Anthocyanins
Crozier et al. (Crozier et al., 2009).
Flavonoids are mainly distributed in dicotyledons, such as fruits,
Among polyphenols, anthocyanins are the most sensitive to thermal
vegetables and tea (Crozier et al., 2009). In cereals, the main compo-
treatment. Cyanidin-3-glucoside is the predominant anthocyanin in
nents of phenolic compounds are hydroxycinnamates, such as ferulic
black soybeans. Slavin, Lu, Kaplan, and Yu (2013) incorporated 24%
and coumaric acids; most of them are bound to lignocellulose and exist
whole fresh soybean flour in dough, which was then baked at 177 °C for
in insoluble forms (Ou & Kwok, 2004; Pei, Ou, Huang, & Ou, 2016).
10 min and at 149 °C for 16 min to prepare crackers; the baking pro-
Staple cereal food, such as wheat flour and rice, contain very low
cesses resulted in a 74% and 68% reduction in the amount of cyanidin-
amounts of soluble phenolic compounds.
3-glucoside, respectively. Berries contain various polyphenols. Górnaś
Polyphenols can be determined by spectrophotometric and chro-
et al. (2016) incorporated fruit pomaces from strawberry, black currant
matographic methods. Spectrophotometric methods are usually used to
and raspberry in muffins and determined the average recovery of dif-
determine the total content of polyphenols. Folin–Ciocalteu assay is the
ferent polyphenols. The results in Table 1 showed that anthocyanins are
most widely used method for quantification of polyphenols (Cutrim &
very sensitive to baking, and most of them are lost by up to 50%
Cortez, 2018). However, spectrophotometric methods cannot de-
(Gornas, Juhnevica–Radenkova, Radenkovs et al., 2016). The same
termine each polyphenol that often co-exists with other polyphenols in
phenomenon occurred in wild blueberry-incorporated bread. The an-
plants unless the sample is highly purified. Chromatographic methods
thocyanin content in the wild blueberry decreased extensively after
can efficiently identify or quantify a single polyphenol in plants. Among
cooking and baking, whereas the levels of quercetin, ferulic and caffeic
chromatographic methods, HPLC is the most widely used analytical tool
acid remained unchanged (Rodriguez-Mateos, Cifuentes-Gomez,
for identification and quantification of polyphenols. Other analytical
George, & Spencer, 2014).
technologies, such as hyphenated methods and multi-dimensional se-
The typical thermal degradation pathway of anthocyanins is illu-
paration techniques, including LC-MS/MS, UHPLC-MS/MS, Orbitrap
strated in Fig. 1 (left). Under thermal treatment, anthocyanins are
and Q-TOF, NMR, have also been used to identify new polyphenols and
transformed into chalcone glycosides and then hydrolysed to release
their derivatives (Cutrim & Cortez, 2018; Tzima, Brunton, & Rai, 2018;
chalcones, which undergo cleavage to form various products, including
Yang, Gan, Ge, Zhang, & Corke, 2018).
aldehydes and acids (Patras, Brunton, O'Donnell, & Tiwari, 2010;
Sadilova, Carle, & Stintzing, 2007; Sadilova, Stintzing, & Carle, 2006).
3. Effect of baking on polyphenols Sinela et al. (2017) identified various degradation products after
thermal treatment of pigments from black carrot concentrates; such
The retention factors (loss or gain of a compound during food products included phenolic acids attached to anthocyanins (Table 2).
processing) of epicatechin and catechin are 0.55 and 0.4, respectively, Moreover, metal ions (iron, copper and manganese) in food materials
in baked products of plum, common bean, apple, apricot, almond and can catalyse anthocyanins to form quinones, which can react with
pear; the retention factor of anthocyanins is 0.3 after eggplant grilling proteins and other polyphenols to form condensation products and

91
J. Ou et al.
Fig. 1. Thermal degradation pathway of anthocyanin (left) and quercetin (right).
Table 2
Anthocyanins and their degradation products identified from the pigments from
black carrot concentrates heated at pH 3.5, 95 °C for 6 h.
Anthocyanins before heating Degradation products
Cyd-3-gal-xyl-glc Protocatechuic acid
Cyd-3-gal-xyl-glc-sin p-Coumaric acid derivative
Cyd-3-gal-xyl-glc-fer Ferulic acid derivative
Cyd-3-gal-xyl-glc-coum Phloroglucinaldehyde
Sinapic acid derivative
Cyd-3-gal-glc-fer
Cyd-3-gal-glc-coum
Ferulic acid
Cyd: cyanidin, Pel: pelargonidin, gal: galactoside, glc: glucoside, xyl: xyloside,
coum: coumaric acid, fer: ferulic acid, sin: sinapic acid.
contribute to food browning (Sinela et al., 2017).
3.3. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are more stable than anthocyanins during baking.
Chassy et al. (2015) found that sauteeing and baking onion decreased
the quercetin content by 12.6% and 1.3%, respectively. Vogrinčič,
Timoracka, Melichacova, Vollmannova, and Kreft (2010) used tartary
buckwheat flour to prepare bread; the dough was initially baked at
200 °C for 10 min and then at 180 °C for another 30 min. The rutin
content in the crust decreased by 53.5% after baking, and 94.2% of the
quercetin remained (Vogrinčič et al., 2010). The transformation of rutin
into quercetin may counteract the decrease in the quercetin content.
The hydrolysis of rutin may occur through thermal treatment (Buchner,
Krumbein, Rohn, & Kroh, 2006; Chassy et al., 2015) or with the aid of
rutin-degrading enzymes in tartary buckwheat (Kalinová, Vrchotová, &
Tříska, 2018). These enzymes are quite stable during heat treatment
and remain active at 140 °C; they can catalyse the deglycosylation of
kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside and piceid.
Quercetin is also stable in model reaction systems. Buchner et al.
(2006) heated quercetin at 100 °C in an aqueous solution and found that
it did not decrease at 120 min and pH 5.0 and 75% of it was left after
heating for 300 min. At pH 8, quercetin was depleted to approximately
20% within 240 min (Buchner, Krumbein, Rohn et al., 2006). These
scholars detected the degradation products by using HPLC–MS/MS and
proposed the degradation pathway shown in Fig. 1 (right).
Under violent heating condition, quercetin forms numerous thermal
92
Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99
degradation products. Ravber et al. (2016) heated rutin at 220 °C and
400 bar; the degradation of rutin produced several compounds, such as
3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, catechol, 2-hydroxy-1-(2,4,6-trihydrox-
yphenyl) ethanone and 4,6-dihydroxy-3-benzofuranone (Fig. 1, right).
4. Effect of polyphenols on flavour
The incorporation of polyphenol-enriched by-products adversely
influences the aroma of baked foods. The addition of fruit pomace
(20%) from blackcurrant fruit, rowan, rosehip and elderberry decreased
the aroma score of shortbread cookies (Tańska et al., 2016). Bread
added with 10% grape pomace powder showed low acceptability
(Hayta, Özuğur, Etgü, & Şeker, 2014). Adding 5% ground green coffee
bean powder significantly decreased the bread aroma (Zain, Baba, &
Shori, 2018).
Intensive work by Peterson’s group and other scholars indicated that
polyphenols contribute to the inhibition of baked aroma. They initially
aimed to control unwanted flavour in milk after ultrahigh-temperature
processing (UHT). Early in this century, Perkins and Deeth (2001)
conducted a survey on UHT milk consumption and found that it only
accounted for 9% of the drinking milk market in Australia and 5%–13%
in UK. UHT milk products have a stronger flavour than traditionally
pasteurised milk. The low consumption rate could be due to the un-
desirable flavour produced in UHT milk and their variations with
ageing. Methional, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline and 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline are
off-flavour Maillard-type reaction products in UHT milk (Kokkinidou &
Peterson, 2014). A 32-fold reduction in flavour dilution values for
methional was observed in UHT milk after the addition of 0.1% epi-
catechin (Colahan-Sederstrom & Peterson, 2005). In 2014, Kokkinido,
& Peterson found that catechin and genistein effectively suppressed the
generation of off-flavour markers, namely, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, me-
thional and 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline, during processing and storage; ca-
techin and genistein reduced the methional content by 80% and 75%,
respectively, during storage.
In the reaction models, polyphenols, such as epicatechin, effectively
inhibit flavour formation. In the glucose–glycine model, equimolar
addition of epicatechin significantly inhibited Maillard-type volatiles
(2,3-butanedione, pyrazine, methylpyrazine, acetol, 2,5-methylpyr-
azine, cyclotene and 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine); the content of acetol and
2,5-dimethylpyrazine decreased by 8.5- and 113.4-fold, respectively
(Totlani & Peterson, 2005). In the fructose–glycine reaction model, the
addition of epicatechin significantly reduced the formation of many
J. Ou et al.
Table 3
Effect of polyphenol incorporation in bakery foods on starch digestion.
Foods Polyphenol source Level (%) Test methods
Bread Black rice extract 1 In vitro
2 14.1
4 20.5
Cookies Pomegranate peels 7.5 In vitro
White bread Green tea extract 0.4 In vitro
Grape seed extract 0.2
Resveratrol 0.22
Baobab fruit extract 1.88
Muffin Mango by-product 50
Biscuits Pigeon pea 50 Health man
75
Cake Apple peel 3 In vitro
6 47
flavour compounds, such as 5-methylfurfural, acetol, 2,3,5-tri-
methylpyrazine, furfural, 2-acetylfuran, 2 (5H)-furanone, 2-acet-
ylpyrrole and furfuryl alcohol; 16.9- and 12-fold reductions were ob-
served in 5-methylfurfural and acetol, respectively (Totlani & Peterson,
2007).
Similar to epicatachin, other polyphenols, such as ferulic acid,
chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, tannic acid, protocatechuic
acid, coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid, TBHQ, BHA, epigallocatechin-3-
gallate, catechin, genistein, daidzein, phloroglucinol, pyrogallol and
cyanidins inhibited flavour formation (Favreau-Farhadi, Pecukonis, &
Barrett, 2015; Jiang et al., 2009; Moskowitz, Bin, Elias, & Peterson,
2012; Pasqualone et al., 2014; Porter et al., 2006; Zhao, Yao, & Ou,
2017; Zheng, Chung, & Kim, 2015). However, polyphenols were re-
ported to contribute to the formation of flavour compounds, such as
phenylacetaldehyde, during co-heating with phenylalanine (Delgado,
Zamora, & Hidalgo, 2015).
Three possible mechanisms have been proposed for the inhibition
effects of polyphenols against flavour formation. The compounds
mainly involved in the aroma formation during thermal processing of
food are mainly generated from the Maillard reaction and lipid oxida-
tion in high amounts and from yeast fermentation in small amounts
(Moskowitz et al., 2012). In the bread crust, the major aroma com-
pounds produced by the Maillard reaction are 6-acetyltetrahydropyr-
idine, 3-methylbutanal, methional, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, 5-
ethyl-3-hydroxy-4-methyl-2(5H)-furanone, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, 4-hy-
droxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone and 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-
2(5H)-furanone, and those from lipid oxidation are (E)-2-nonenal and
(E,E)-2,4-decadienal (Jiang et al., 2009). Wang and Ho (2012) found
that di-carbonyl compounds, especially methylglyoxal and glyoxal, are
involved in the formation of flavour compounds, such as pyrazines,
pyridines, pyrrolines, pyrazinones, furanones, 3-methylbutanal, phe-
nylacetaldehyde, thiazoles and thiazolines. Many polyphenols are po-
tential trappers of di-carbonyl compounds. Hence, the first mechanism
for the inhibition of flavour formation by polyphenols involves their
trapping capacity for di-carbonyl compounds from sugar fragmentation.
Second, polyphenols or their degradation products can react with the
flavour compounds; for example, the reaction of pyrazinone with the
degradation product of ferulic acid (2-methoxy-4-vinyl-phenol) (Jiang
et al., 2009). Lastly, free radicals are involved in the formation of
Maillard-type flavours (Rizzi, 2003) and lipid oxidation. Acting as free
radical scavengers, polyphenols may inhibit flavour formation during
Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation.
5. Effect of polyphenols on the colour and texture of baked foods
The incorporation of different types and levels of polyphenols in
dough exerts different effects on the colour and texture of baked foods.
Li et al. (2012) used three polyphenols (antioxidants of bamboo leaves,
tea polyphenols and tert-butyl hydroquinone) at 0.1–0.2 g/kg to inhibit
93
Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99
Digestion inhibited (%) References
12.8 Sui, Zhang, and Zhou (2016)
9.4 Colantuono, Ferracane, and Vitaglione (2016)
35.6 Coe and Ryan (2016)
19.1
37.5
41.6
53 Ramírez-Maganda et al. (2015)
13.5 Gbenga-Fabusiwa et al. (2018)
16.6
20 Jun, Bae, Lee, and Lee (2014)
acrylamide formation in cookies. Tea polyphenols and tert-butyl hy-
droquinone affected the colour of the cookies but did not influence the
texture; meanwhile, the antioxidants of bamboo leaves influenced the
texture but not the colour. Epicatechin, rosmarinic acid and resveratrol
were added at 0.2% and 0.02% into cookies to alter the colour; the
effects were evaluated based on phenolic type, level of addition and
baking temperature. Compared with the control, cookies fortified with
0.02% rosmarinic acid and resveratrol showed no difference in chro-
matic value; meanwhile, adding 0.2% of these compounds significantly
increased the chromatic value of the cookies. Polyphenols did not in-
fluence the hardness or fracturability of the cookies under the given
conditions (Ou, Teng, El-Nezami, & Wang, 2018). With increasing
amount of polyphenol added, their effect on the colour and texture of
the product was more pronounced. Zhang, Chen, and Wang (2014)
added 0.25% (w/w) epicatechin, quercetin, naringenin, chlorogenic
acid and rosmarinic acid into cookies; the results showed that all the
tested polyphenols significantly increased the chromatic value and
hardness of the cookies compared with the control (Zhang et al., 2014).
Quercetin also significantly influenced the colour and texture of bread.
In comparison with the control, the addition of 0.2% quercetin de-
creased the specific volume of the bread by 9.7% but increased the
hardness and chewiness by 23.8% and 30.5%, respectively (Lin & Zhou,
2018). The addition of maize bran feruloylated oligosaccharides
(1.25–40 mg/g) increased the browning and hardness of biscuits in a
dose-dependent manner (Huang et al., 2018).
In comparison with polyphenols alone, food by-products (such as
bran and fruit pomace) enriched with polyphenols and dietary fibres
are used more prevalently in baked foods as a source of antioxidant and
functional ingredients. According to a review by Dziki et al., these plant
materials could enhance the antioxidant activity of wheat bread;
however, most of them adversely influenced the sensory properties
(Dziki, Różyło, Gawlik-Dziki, & Świeca, 2014). Moreover, polyphenols
affected the colour and texture of cookies, biscuits, muffins, cakes and
steam bread (Almaski, Coe, Lightowler, & Thondre, 2017; Gbenga-
Fabusiwa, Oladele, Oboh, Adefegha, & Oshodi, 2018; Jayalaxmi,
Vijayalakshmi, & Maruthesha, 2018; Pasukamonset et al., 2018;
Rumiyati, James, & Jayasena, 2015; Tańska et al., 2016; Walker, Tseng,
Cavender, Ross, & Zhao, 2014; Wang & Zhu, 2018; Zain et al., 2018;
Zhu, Sakulnak, & Wang, 2016).
The underlying mechanism for the effect of polyphenols on texture
remains unclear. The interaction of polyphenols with wheat proteins
and starch may affect the texture of baked foods (Amoako & Awika,
2016; Gammoh et al., 2018).
The oxidation of polyphenols and the reaction of their oxidised
products with amino acids may affect colour formation. Polyphenol
oxidase, metals, heat or high pH allows the oxidation of polyphenols
into quiones. Quinones react with amino acids and proteins through the
Maillard reaction, Michael addition or Sterecker reaction, resulting in
the formation of brown polymeric pigments (Bittner, 2006). For
J. Ou et al. Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99

Fig. 2. Adducts formed between polyphenols and the toxic aldehydes (blue). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)

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J. Ou et al.
Table 4
Methylglyoxal trapping capacity of hydroxytyrosol, hydro-
xytyrosol acetate, gallic acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid,
chlorogenic acid, sinapinic acid, ferulic acid, gentisic acid and p-
coumaric acid.
Compounds IC50 (μmol/mL)
Hydroxytyrosol 0.195
Hydroxytyrosol acetate 0.204
Gallic acid 0.176
Caffeic acid 0.222
Chlorogenic acid 0.367
Protocatechuic acid 0.389
Sinapinic acid 0.892
Ferulic acid 1.648
Gentisic acid 3.179
p-Coumaric acid 2.985
Pyridoxamine 0.059
example, chlorogenic and caffeic acids contribute to the red-brownish
colour of tobacco; catechin and epigallocatechin quinones affect the
colour of black tea; the reaction of the quinone of caffeic acid with
glycine contributes to the green colour of coffee; and the polymerisation
of quinones produced from chlorogenic acid or their reaction with
proteins contributes to the formation of green pigment in the baked
products of sunflower seeds (Liang & Were, 2018; Wildermuth, Young,
& Were, 2016).
6. Effect of polyphenols on the antioxidant activity of baked foods
Bakery products essentially provide energy and human nutrients.
Natural polyphenols have been used to increase the antioxidant capa-
city of bakery foods worldwide (Dziki et al., 2014). Various polyphenol-
rich products, including rice bran, wheat bran, buckwheat, grape seed
extract, chamomile flowers, fennel leaves, barley and flaxseed hull,
powder of fruit pomace, fennel seed, green tea, ginger and turmeric, are
usually used in bakery foods. The incorporation of these products in
dough considerably increases the content and antioxidant capacity of
breads (Dziki et al., 2014) and biscuits (Caleja, Barros, Antonio,
Oliveira, & Ferreira, 2017; Verardo et al., 2011).
However, some researchers suspected that the application of poly-
phenols or polyphenol-rich products in bakery foods would increase
their antioxidant capacity. We incorporated 0.02% resveratrol, epica-
techin and rosmarinic acid in cookies and determined the antioxidant
activity of the cookie aqueous extracts by using the DPPH radical
method. Compared with the control, fortification with the three poly-
phenols increased the antioxidant activity. When the same amount of
polyphenols was added to the extracts of the control cookies, the an-
tioxidant capacity was significantly higher than that in the polyphenol-
fortified cookies (Ou et al., 2018). Zhang et al. (2014) added 0.25% (w/
w) quercetin, epicatechin, naringenin, chlorogenic acid and rosmarinic
acid individually to dough to prepare cookies and determined the an-
tioxidant capacity of the cookie extract by using the Trolox equivalent
antioxidant capacity assay. The total antioxidant activity was lower
than the quantity of polyphenol that was originally added to the cookie
recipe, especially for epicatechin, which is thermally sensitive (Zhang
et al., 2014). Verardo et al. (2011) replaced 60% (w/w) of the refined
wheat flour with barley coarse fraction that is rich in flavan-3-ol to
prepare biscuits. Although the flavan-3-ol content in biscuits was in-
creased by more than sevenfold, the peroxide value and the content of
oxidised fatty acids in the enriched biscuits were higher than those in
the control biscuits after storage for 10–12 months (Verardo et al.,
2011). These findings suggest that baking would not increase the an-
tioxidant capacity of polyphenols or increase the stability of lipids in
baked foods.
Some researchers found that polyphenol-fortified bakery foods ex-
hibit increased release of polyphenols during gastrointestinal digestion.
95
Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99
The total phenolic content increased after in vitro gastrointestinal di-
gestion of white breads enriched with buckwheat. The polyphenol
content increased by 8- and 11-folds in breads added with 50% each of
white buckwheat flour and roasted buckwheat groats, respectively
(Szawara-Nowak, Bączek, & Zieliński, 2016). Similar results were ob-
tained by Hidalgo et al. (2018), who carried out an in vitro digestion of
biscuits prepared from einkorn flour mixed with different proportions
of amaranth, quinoa and buckwheat (Hidalgo et al., 2018). However,
the underlying mechanism remains unknown.
7. Effect on serum glucose upon intake of polyphenol-enriched
baked foods
Polyphenols affect starch digestion through the interaction with α-
amylase and amylose. α-Amylase is present in the saliva and the small
intestine and catalyses the digestion of starch into glucose. Polyphenols
interact with α-amylase mainly through the hydrogen bonding between
the hydroxyl groups and the active site of the enzyme and through the
hydrophobic interactions between the aromatic moieties of polyphenols
and the enzyme (Xiao, Kai, Ni, Yang, & Chen, 2011). The binding of
flavonoids to amylase follows a static mechanism; flavonoids bind near
the enzyme active site or behind the catalytic triad (Martinez-Gonzalez,
Díaz-Sánchez, de la Rosa, Bustos-Jaimes, & Alvarez-Parrilla, 2019).
Polyphenols can interact with amylose through hydrogen bonding and
hydrophobic interactions to form non-digestible complexes (Amoako &
Awika, 2016). Starch seems to favour interaction with high-molecular-
weight polyphenols, such as tannins. Sorghum tannins (with 129 mg/g
proanthocyanidins) significantly increased the content of resistant
starch containing amylose. The addition of 25.8 mg/g tannin sorghum
phenolic extracts into maize starch increased the amount of resistant
starch by 66.5% after pasting (Barros, Awika, & Rooney, 2012). The
interaction of polyphenols with α-amylase and amylose retarded starch
digestion and decreased the postprandial serum glucose, suggesting its
potential as alternative medicine for controlling and treating type II
diabetes (Sun, Gidley, & Warren, 2017, 2018).
By-products rich in polyphenols and dietary fibres have been
usually incorporated in dough to prepare baked foods with functional
properties. Various polyphenol-enriched products reduce the starch
digestion of different food products (Table 3). Moreover, the in-
corporation of polyphenol-enriched products can decrease starch di-
gestibility in vitro. However, the in vivo study of Coe and Ryan (2016)
presented a different conclusion. They prepared white bread fortified
with green tea extract (0.4%) and baobab fruit extract (1.88%), which
were consumed by volunteers (50 g of available carbohydrate) with
250 mL of still water within 15 min. Blood samples were collected at 15,
30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 min postprandial. The glycemic re-
sponse did not differ between the control and extract-enriched bread.
However, the bread fortified with baobab fruit extract significantly
reduced the total (0–180 min) and segmental insulin, as represented by
the area under the curve at 0–90, 0–120 and 0–150 min. Hence, the
addition of baobab fruit extract can reduce the amount of insulin
needed for a given blood glucose response.
Compared with the incorporation of single polyphenols in baked
foods, the addition of polyphenol-enriched by-products involves the
contribution of dietary fibres to decrease the postprandial serum glu-
cose level. However, soluble polysaccharides in the by-products could
antagonise the inhibitory activity of polyphenols against porcine pan-
creatic α-amylase (Sun, Warren, & Gidley, 2018).
The use of natural polyphenols in treating diabetes must be further
studied. Polyphenols did not show higher inhibitory capacity (based on
IC 50 value) than acarbose, an anti-diabetic drug used to treat type 2
diabetes mellitus (Nyambe-Silavwe et al., 2015; Ombra et al., 2018;
Zhang et al., 2017). However, some polyphenols, such as luteolin,
showed higher binding capacity for α-amylase than for acarbose
(Martinez-Gonzalez et al., 2019).
J. Ou et al.
8. Scavenging capacity of polyphenols for toxic aldehydes
produced in baked foods
Toxic aldehydes, such as glyoxal, methylglyoxal, 3-deoxyglucosone,
hydroxymethylfurfural, malondialdehyde, 4-oxononenal, 4-hydro-
xynonenal and 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals, are produced during sugar de-
gradation and lipid oxidation (Amoroso, Maga, & Daglia, 2013; Wang
et al., 2017).
Polyphenols scavenge toxic aldehydes through adduct formation
(Bourden et al., 2008; Cui et al., 2018; Es-Safi, Cheynier, & Moutounet,
2000, 2002; Hou et al., 2018; Kokkinidou & Peterson, 2014; Ou, Huang,
Wang, & Ou, 2017; Shen, Xu, & Sheng, 2017; Szwergold, 2017; Totlani
& Peterson, 2006; Wang, Chen, & Sang, 2016; Wang et al., 2015;
Zamora, Aguilar, Granvogl, & Hidalgo, 2016; Zamora & Hidalgo, 2018;
Zhu et al., 2012). Many adducts have been identified (Fig. 2). Zamora
and Hidalgo (2018) summarised the adducts formed between poly-
phenols and carbonyl compounds produced from lipid-derived reactive
carbonyls.
Trapping of toxic aldehydes, such as glyoxal and methylglyoxal, is
an important mechanism for polyphenols to inhibit the formation of
AGEs (Yeh et al., 2017), which widely occur in vivo and in food. These
polyphenols include plant extracts (rosemary, cinnamon, garlic, Ilex
paraguariensis, tea, tomato and herbs) and their active ingredients, such
as flavonoids, phenolic acids and tannins (Peng et al., 2012; Sefi et al.,
2010; Tsuji-Naito et al., 2009; Wu, Huang, Lin, & Yen, 2011). The in-
corporation of polyphenols reduces the content of some toxic aldehydes
in baked foods. The content of total phenolic compounds remained
exhibits a highly negative correlation with some toxic aldehydes in
cookies at −0.85, −0.77 and −0.77 for glyoxal, methylglyoxal and
diacetyl, respectively, after baking at 200 °C for 7 min (Kocadagli, Žilic,
Tas et al., 2016). The addition of 0.2% each of resveratrol, epicatechin
and rosmarinic acid reduced the content of methylglyoxal by 52.6%,
42.4% and 23.8%, respectively (Ou et al., 2018).
The trapping capacity of polyphenols for toxic aldehydes and their
capacity to inhibit AGEs should not be exaggerated based on the fol-
lowing reasons: Firstly, polyphenols decrease the contents of glyoxal
and methylglyoxal but greatly increase the content of 3-deox-
yglucosone. 3-Deoxyglucosone formation was increased three-fold after
adding 50 mM chlorogenic acid into the fructose-aspartic reaction
model (Zhang et al., 2016), and a highly positive correlation was found
between total phenolic compounds and 3-deoxyglucosone in cookies
(R2 = 0.93) and honey (R2 = 0.843) (Arena, Ballistreri, Tomaselli, &
Fallico, 2011; Kocadağlı et al., 2016). 3-Deoxyglucosone also acts as a
precursor of AGEs, such as 3-deoxyglucosone imidazolones (Ashraf
et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2011), which decreases the secretion of glu-
cagon-like peptide-1 and insulin (Zhang et al., 2016). Thus, the addition
of polyphenols in baked foods may decrease the formation of some
AGEs but may increase the formation of other AGEs. Secondly, although
Wang et al. detected adducts in the urine of mice after the intake of
genistein with methylglyoxal (Wang et al., 2016), the toxicological
evaluation of adducts formed between the polyphenols and toxic al-
dehydes has not been reported. Whether the adducts can decrease the
toxicity of toxic aldehydes and how they metabolize in vivo remain
unknown. Thirdly, the scavenging capacity is not higher compared with
drugs. Navarro and Morales (2016) incubated methylglyoxal
(5.551 μmol/mL) with different phenolic compounds under physiolo-
gical conditions for 168 h; all of the tested compounds showed trapping
capacity for methylglyoxal (Table 4). However, their IC50 values are
lower than that of pyridoxamine, a drug for slowing the progression of
diabetic neuropathy. The modification of polyphenols may provide a
pathway to elevate their scavenging capacity. For example, the ester-
ification of gallate significantly increased its trapping capacity for
glyoxal. The incubation of 0.5 mM glyoxal with 0.5 mM propyl gallate
at pH 7.0 for 30 min increased the trapping capacity of gallic acid from
13.8% to 67.6% (Hou, Xie, Cui et al., 2018). Fourthly, the incorporation
of polyphenols in baked foods decreases their capacity for trapping
96
Food Chemistry 284 (2019) 90–99
toxic aldehydes due to the thermal degradation of polyphenols. For
example, compared with the lower temperature model system (125 °C),
the scavenging capacity of epicatechin for methylglyoxal decreases by
nearly 50% in baked cookies (Noda & Peterson, 2007; Ou et al., 2018).
9. Toxicological consideration of polyphenol incorporation in
bakery foods
Polyphenols can be eliminated efficiently through metabolism in the
body and often show low toxicity. According to animal (rats) tests,
oligonol (a product containing catechin-type monomers and lower oli-
gomers of proanthocyanidin) and apple polyphenol extract exhibited no
toxicity when administered at a dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight (Fujii,
Sun, Nishioka, Hirose, & Aruoma, 2007; Shoji, Akazome, Kanda, &
Ikeda, 2004). However, the excessive consumption of polyphenols is
associated with hepatic and renal toxicities, but the doses that cause
acute symptoms are generally very high. For epicatechin gallate, the
LD50 in mice is 2170 mg/kg bw (Sarker, Sultana, Pietroni, & Dover,
2015). Given the large diversity of polyphenols, conducting a tox-
icological investigation of each polyphenol is difficult. Moreover, dif-
ferent polyphenols show different toxicity levels. Boncler et al. used a
high content screening analysis to evaluate the toxicity of 22 poly-
phenols in 5 cell lines (HepG2, Caco-2, A549, HMEC-1 and 3 T3), and
found that their toxicity levels greatly varied among the tested poly-
phenols (Boncler et al., 2018). For example, the AUOC (areas under and
over the curves) score for the lowest toxic compound (naringin) were
−2.63, −1.94, −2.43, −2.9 and −2.56, respectively, and reached
1.48, 2.96, 2.27, 2.05 and 2.2 for the highest toxic compound
(kaempferol).
However, polyphenols should be cautiously incorporated in baked
foods based on the following reasons. Firstly, baked products are staple
foods and are consumed daily by humans. Hence, the accumulation and
chronic effects of polyphenols should be considered. Secondly, given
the reactivity of polyphenols, their interaction with food components
would occur inevitably. Several reports indicated that the interaction of
polyphenols with proteins, lipids and carbohydrates showed deleterious
effects (Limwachiranon, Huang, Shi, Li, & Luo, 2018). Thirdly, although
polyphenols were reported to be easily metabolised in body, the me-
tabolism and toxicity of their adducts, especially those formed with
food toxins mentioned in Section 8, remain unknown. Fourthly, the
excess transformation of polyphenol into quinones, which can occur in
vivo (Bolton & Dunlap, 2017), during the thermal treatment (baking) or
in the presence of some metals, may produce potential hazardous ef-
fects on humans. Quinones produced from natural polyphenols, such as
epicatechin gallate, quercetin, hydroxychavicol, luteolin and procya-
nidin, show some biological activities, including chemoprevention,
antibacterial and antileukemia effects (Bolton & Dunlap, 2017). How-
ever, quinones are active Michael acceptors, which can also damage the
cells through reactions with crucial cellular proteins and DNA, resulting
in various hazardous effects, such as acute cytotoxicity, im-
munotoxicity, neurotoxicity and carcinogenesis (Bolton & Dunlap,
2017; Bolton, Trush, Penning, Dryhurst, & Monks, 2000; Kato & Suga,
2018). For example, catechol, a thermal degradation product of quer-
cetin, caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid (Moon & Shibamoto, 2010;
Ravber et al., 2016), can form benzoquinone, which induces the for-
mation of granular stomach tumours in rodents and leukaemia in ani-
mals and humans (Oikawa, Hirosawa, Hirakawa, & Kawanishi, 2001).
For these reasons, the consequence of polyphenol incorporation in
baked foods should be fully evaluated.
10. Conclusion and future perspectives
For neutraceutical purposes, polyphenols and polyphenol-enriched
by-products have been widely used in baked foods. The incorporation
of polyphenols can increase the antioxidant activity, scavenge food-
borne toxins and decrease the postprandial serum glucose level after
J. Ou et al.
intake of baked foods. Polyphenols influence the colour, texture and
flavour of baked foods as well as the bioavailability of polyphenols.
Moreover, most polyphenols are thermally sensitive. Before the launch
of polyphenol-incorporated bakery foods on the market, future studies
must investigate the chemical reactions of polyphenols and their oxi-
dised products (quinones) with other food components and compre-
hensively evaluate the toxicology of the derived compounds.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Guangdong Science and Technology
Department (No. 2018B050502008) and National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Nos. 31701607 and 31871902).
Conflicts of interest
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
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