Lecture 08A

Dr. P V Ramana
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Examples

1) axially loaded bar

¢
GDE: ( E A u ¢ ) = - f ( x ) for 0 £ x £ L

ì u( 0) = 0
BC : í
ïîEAu ¢( L) = P

FEM Dr PVRamana 2
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method
2) beam bending

²
GDE: ( E I w ¢¢) = p( x ) for 0 £ x £ L
ì w ( 0) = 0
ï
ï w ¢(0 ) = 0
BC : í
ïEI w ¢¢( L ) = M
ï
î EIw ¢¢¢( L) = V

FEM Dr PVRamana 3
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method 3D
• Implementation:
• Basic idea: Assume that know the spatial variation of the
displacement field, except for some unknown coefficients to be
determined with the aid of the PMPE ì n
ï u( x, y, z ) » å qi fi ( x, y, z)
ï i=1
ïï n
Let í v( x, y, z ) » å ri gi ( x, y, z )
ï i= 1
ï n
ïw( x, y, z ) » å s i hi ( x, y, z )
ïî i=1
where - qi, ri and si are called the generalized coordinates and are the unknown coefficients
- fi(x,y,z), gi(x,y,z) and hi(x,y,z) are user-chosen arbitrary admissible basis functions

What is an admissible function?

- must have a sufficient number of derivatives
- must satisfy the essential boundary conditions
 Rayleigh-Ritz Method

• Substitute the approximate displacement field into the total potential energy to
get P = P ( q1 ,..., qn , r1 ,..., rn ,s 1 ,..., sn ) ì ¶P
ï =0 ( i = 1,..., n)
ï ¶q i
ï ¶P
í =0 ( i = 1,..., n)
ï i¶r
ï ¶P
• Then apply the PMPE (or PVW) ï =0 ( i = 1,..., n)
ïî ¶si

• Thus one can end up with 3n equations for the 3n unknown coefficients
(qi,ri,si).

• This is an approximate method since (unless you are very lucky), the basis
functions are not correct, thus u, v and w will be approximate. The closer the
basis functions are to the exact spatial variation of the displacements, the
better the approximation.

FEM Dr PVRamana 5
RRM: Applications
1)
po=cst k x, u

0 E, A L

2)
z
3L/4 P
x
0 L
E, I

FEM Dr PVRamana 6
 Application 1 - Exact Solution
0.5

0.45
 = kL/EA = 0
0.4

0.35
 = 0.5
E Au( x ) 0.3

po L2 0.25 =1
0.2

0.15
= 10
 = 10,000
0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

po=cst x/L
k x, u
FEM Dr PVRamana 7
0 E, A L
 Application 1 - First attempt
0.5

0.45

0.4 Exact
=0
0.35

0.3 RRM

E Au( x ) 0.25

po L2 0.2 =1
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

po=cst k x/L x, u
FEM Dr PVRamana 8
0 E, A L
 Application 1 - Second attempt
0.5

0.45
Exact
0.4
=0
0.35

0.3 =1
E Au( x )
po L2
0.25

0.2

0.15
RRM
0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
po=cst k x/L x, u
x
FEM Dr PVRamana 9
0 E, A L
 Application 2 - First attempt
EIw(x)/(P L^3)
0.016

0.014
wexact(x)
0.012 w1(x)

0.01

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

z 0
03 L/4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
P x/L
x
0 FEML Dr PVRamana 10
E, I
 Application 2 - Second attempt
EIw(x)/(P L^3)
0.016
w2(x)
0.014

w1(x) wexact(x)
0.012

0.01

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

z 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
3L/4 x/L
P
FEM x PVRamana
Dr 11
0 L
 RRM: final notes
• Advantages
– Simplicity
– “keep old terms” when adding new ones

These deficiencies are addressed by the finite element method

• Disadvantages
– Basis functions are hard to find for
complicated geometries (especially in 2-
D and 3-D cases)
– qi have no physical significance
– Convergence isFEM Dr PVRamana
hard to quantify 12
FEA of axially loaded bar
• In this section, introduce the 6 basic steps of a FEA by solving
the following simple structural problem

Stiffness E

Cross-section A(x)=Ao(1-x/aL) with a > 1

(take a=10)
Exact solution
po (N/m)
x
0
L

FEM Dr PVRamana 13
FEA of axially loaded bar

1 L æ du ö 2 L
• Finite element solution P = U + V = ò EA ç ÷ dx -
2 0 è dx ø
ò po u( x ) dx
0

Use the PMPE. The total potential energy P for this problem is
Every FEA consists of 6 steps po (N/m)
x
Step 1 : Discretization
L
Let’s choose 3 elements of equal length with constant cross-section
(computed at element center: x=L/6, x=L/2 and x=5L/6)

59Ao 57Ao 55Ao

E, E, E,
60 60 60
FEM Dr PVRamana 14
FEA of axially loaded bar
Step 2 : Property of an individual (generic) element

Let’s look at a generic 2-node element of length l, stiffness E and constant cross-section A
po (N/m)
x

The basic idea of the FEM is to write the approximate displacement u˜ ( s) in an element as the
interpolation between the (so far unknown) nodal values Ua and Ub

For a two-node element, the interpolation is linear

æ sö s
u˜ ( s) = Ua ç 1 - ÷ + Ub = U a Na ( s ) + U b Nb ( s )
è lø l

FEM Dr PVRamana 15
 po (N/m)
FEA of axially loaded bar x

• Na(s) and Nb(s) play an important role in FEA and are called interpolation or
shape functions

Since the approximate expression of u(s) ( = u˜ (s) ) on the generic element, one can
compute the (approximate) contribution of the element to the total potential energy

e e 1l æ d˜uö 2 l
P » P˜ = ò E A ç ÷ ds - ò po u˜( s ) ds (o )
20 è ds ø 0

but u˜( s ) = Ua Na ( s ) + U b Nb (s )
du˜ ( s) dNa (s ) dN b ( s)
thus = Ua + Ub
ds ds ds

1 l
é dNa dN ù2 l
ò po [Ua N a ( s) + Ub Nb ( s )]ds
e
Substitute in ( o) P˜ = ò EAêUa + Ub b
ú ds -
20 ë ds ds û 0

FEM Dr PVRamana 16
FEA of axially loaded bar
1 l é æ dN ö 2 dN dN æ dNb ö 2 ù l
P˜ = ò EAêUa ç ÷ úds - ò p o [Ua Na ( s ) + U b Nb ( s )]ds
e 2 a a b 2
÷ + 2Ua Ub + Ub ç
2 0 êë è ds ø ds ds è ds ø úû 0

• Expand the square term :

Put in a matrix form :

é l æ dNa ö 2 l æ dN a ö æ dNb ö ù ìl ü
ê ò EAç ÷ ds ò EAçè ds ÷ø çè ds ÷ø ds úú ïò po N a ( s) ds ï
1 ê 0 è ds ø ìUa ü ï0 ï
P˜ e = U U êl
0
ú í ý - Ua Ub íl ý
2 a b ê EAæ dNa ö æ dN b ö ds
l æ dNb ö 2 ú îUb þ ï ï
ê ò ç ÷ ç ÷ ò EA ç ÷ ds ú ïò o b
p N ( s) ds ï
ë 0 è ds ø è ds ø 0
è ds ø û î0 þ

local stiffness matrix local load vector

[k] {r}
po (N/m)
In short notation :
x

ìU a ü L
˜e 1
P = U a Ub [ k ] í ý - Ua Ub {r}
2 ïîU b ïþ
FEM Dr PVRamana 17
FEA of axially loaded bar
s s
N a ( s) = 1 - and Nb ( s ) =
l l

Compute [k] and {r}. For example, • Since know that

l l æ -1ö æ 1ö
dNa dNb EA
k 12 = k 21 = ò EA ds = ò EA ç ÷ ç ÷ ds = -
0 ds ds 0
è l ø è lø l

Find

EA é 1 -1ù ì1/ 2ü
[k] = ê ú { r} = po l í ý
l ë -1 1 û î1/ 2þ

po (N/m)
x

FEM Dr PVRamana 18
FEA of axially loaded bar
Step 3 : Assemble the elements (i.e., put the pieces together)

Now that one can know the properties of a generic element, one can go back to the global level

The objective is to find the 4 nodal displacements D = U1 U 2 U 3 U4

Once these are determined, one can use the shape functions to interpolate the displacement
field inside each element
po (N/m)
x

FEM Dr PVRamana 19
FEA of axially loaded bar
• Note : the approximate displacement solution u˜ ( s) is continuous within and
between elements
– Within an element :why?
– Between elements : why?

To solve for the nodal displacement vector {D}, one need a system of 4 equations.

These equations will be obtained through the PMPE for the whole structure.
The first thing one need to do is to write the (approximate) expression of the total potential
energy of the structure by adding the contribution of all three elements (using the result of
Step 2). Recall that, for a generic 2-node element of length l :

e 1 ìU a ü po (N/m)
˜
P = U a Ub [ k ] í ý - Ua Ub {r}
2 ïîU b ïþ x
with
EA é 1 -1ù ì1/ 2ü
[k] = ê ú { r} = po l í ý L
l ë -1 1 û î1/ 2þ
Objective : write the (approximate) total potential energy as
1
P˜ TOT = å P˜ e = D [ K ] { D} - D { R}
e 2 FEM Dr PVRamana 20
FEA of axially loaded bar
• Element #1 : l=L/3 a=1 b=2 A=59Ao/60

• Let’s add the contribution of all three elements to the total potential energy

Its contribution to the total

potential energy is :

po (N/m)
x

L
FEM Dr PVRamana 21
FEA of axially loaded bar
• Element #2 : l=L/3 a=2 b=3 A=57Ao/60

Its contribution to the total

potential energy is :

po (N/m)
x

FEM Dr PVRamana 22
FEA of axially loaded bar
• Element #3 : l=L/3 a=3 b=4 A=55 Ao/60

Its contribution to the total

potential energy is :

po (N/m)
x

FEM Dr PVRamana 23
FEA of axially loaded bar
The objective :
1
P˜ TOT = D [ K ] {D} - D { R}
2
where [K] is the GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRIX po (N/m)
{R} is the GLOBAL LOAD VECTOR
x
Here L

FEM Dr PVRamana 24
FEA of axially loaded bar
At this point, one can apply the PMPE by choosing the nodal displacements which minimize
the approximate total potential energy of the structure :
¶P˜ TOT ¶P˜ TOT ¶P˜ TOT ¶P˜ TOT
= = = =0
¶U 1 ¶U 2 ¶U 3 ¶U 4
po (N/m)
x
or, in matrix form,
¶P˜ TOT L
= { 0}
¶ { D}
Since
1
P˜ TOT = D [ K ] {D} - D { R} (*)
2
The linear system

[ K ]{D} = {R} (**)

Note : in practice, one does not need to compute the total potential energy in (*): just go
directly to (**) by assembling [k] and {r} into [K] and {R}, respectively.

FEM Dr PVRamana 25
FEA of axially loaded bar
Step 4 : Apply load and displacement boundary conditions
First, impose the nodal (concentrated) loads. In this case, only have the reaction Ro at the wall (node 1)
po (N/m)
x

All the nodal loads are added to the global load vector {R}

Next, apply the displacement boundary conditions. The linear system above is singular
(i.e., det[K]=0). To remove the singularity, one can have to impose the fact that
U1 = 0
One can thus remove the first row and column from our 4*4 system and reduce it to a 3*3 system.

FEM Dr PVRamana 26
FEA of axially loaded bar
The final form of the linear system is thus :

Notes : - When the displacement b.c. are applied, the unknown reactions (here Ro) disappear
from the system
- Is our approximate solution admissible? Why/why not?

Step 5 : Solve the linear system

po (N/m)
x
Find
L

FEM Dr PVRamana 27
FEA of axially loaded bar po (N/m)
Step 6 : Post-processing x
In this step,
• plot the deformed shape of the structure L
• obtain the stresses and strains in each element
• compute the nodal reactions at the supports

1) Deformed shape

Using the nodal values and the

interpolation functions, then get :

Note: the nodal values are NOT exact!

FEM Dr PVRamana 28
FEA of axially loaded bar
po (N/m)
2) Axial stress and strain in each element
x
Let’s go back to the generic element :
L

Since one can have used a linear interpolation between Ua and Ub, the approximate axial strain
is constant in the element

du˜ ( s) dNa dNb -1 1 1

e˜ xx = = Ua + Ub = Ua + U b = (Ub - U a )
ds ds ds l l l

Similarly, the approximate stress is also constant in the element

E
s˜ xx = E e˜ xx = (U - Ua )
l b

FEM Dr PVRamana 29
 o

FEA of axially loaded bar x

L
Let’s review the elements one by one and use the nodal
displacements one can just obtained in Step 5.
• Element #1 : l=L/3 a=1 b=2
E pL
Ua = U1 = 0 Ub = U2 = 0.28249
po L2 Þ s˜ xx(1) = (U2 - U1) = 0.84746 o
EAo L /3 Ao

• Element #2 : l=L/3 a=2 b=3

E pL
Ua = U2 = 0.28249
po L2
Ub = U3 = 0.45792
po L2 Þ s˜ xx(2) = (U3 - U2 ) = 0.52632 o
EAo EAo L /3 Ao

• Element #3 : l=L/3 a=3 b=4

E pL
Ua = U3 = 0.45792
po L2
Ub = U4 = 0.51853
po L2 Þ s˜ xx(3) = (U4 - U3 ) = 0.18182 o
EAo EAo L /3 Ao

FEM Dr PVRamana 30
 po (N/m)
FEA of axially loaded bar x

FEM Dr PVRamana 31
FEA of axially loaded bar
3) Reactions at supports

Let’s reconsider the equation one can deleted from the original system in Step 4 when one can applied
the displacement boundary conditions:

Now that one can know the nodal displacements, one can use that equation to solve for the unknown
reaction Ro. one can find

1 59EAo po L2
Ro = po L + 0.28249 = po L as expected!
6 20L EA
po (N/m)
x

L
FEM Dr PVRamana 32
FEA of axially loaded bar
Conclusions :
The finite element method
• is a special form of the RRM
• is based on the interpolation (using shape functions) of nodal displacement values
• contains 6 basic steps
1) discretization : mesh, nodes, elements
2) property of a generic element : local stiffness matrix [k] and load vector {r}
3) assembling : global load matrix [K] and load vector {R}
4) apply the load and displacement boundary conditions
5) solve the linear system [K] {D} = {R}
6) post-processing : deformed shape, element stresses and support reactions
po (N/m)
x
Important notes :
1) What if use more elements? (N of them) L
The property of a generic 2-node element remains unchanged :

[ k] =
E A é 1 -1ù
l ë-1 1 û { }
{ r} = pol 1/ 2
1/ 2

But now, one can have • l=L/N

• (N+1) unknown nodal displacements : U1, U2, …, UN+1
FEM Dr PVRamana 33
FEA of axially loaded bar
po (N/m)
N = 10 x

FEM Dr PVRamana 34
FEA of axially loaded bar
po (N/m)
N = 10 x

FEM Dr PVRamana 35
FEA of axially loaded bar
2) Why do call [k] the element stiffness matrix?

To understand the physical significance of [k], let’s examine the behavior of a generic element
subjected to nodal forces

(1) Let’s fix Ua>0 and Ub=0, and compute the nodal forces Fa and Fb to achieve these displa-
cements: U - Ua U
e xx = b =- a
l l
U
s xx = E e xx = -E a (compressive)
l
one can have thus
ì Fa = E AU a / l
í
ïî Fb = -E AUa /l

FEM Dr PVRamana 36
FEA of axially loaded bar
(2) Now let’s fix Ua=0 and Ub>0, and compute the corresponding nodal forces Fa and Fb
U - Ua Ub
e xx = b =
l l
U
s xx = E e xx = E b
l
one can have thus
ì Fa = -E AUb /l
í
ïî Fb = E AU b / l

(3) In the general case, Ua and Ub≠0. one can combine (1) and (2) to get:

ì Fa ü é EA /l -EA /l ù ìUa ü ìUa ü

í ý=ê ú í ý = [k] í ý
ïî Fb ïþ ë -EA/ l EA /l û ïîUb ïþ ïîUb ïþ

Thus [k] represents the stiffness of the element

[K] represents the stiffness of the whole structure

FEM Dr PVRamana 37
FEA of axially loaded bar
3) How to incorporate a concentrated load?
Concentrated (nodal) loads must be added in Step 4.

E.g.,

 59  59 0 0  U1  1 / 6  Ro 

EAo  59 116  57 0  U 2  1 / 3  0 
   
  po L    
20 L  0  57 112  55 U 3  1 / 3  0 
 
 0 0  55 55  U 4  1 / 6  P 

FEM Dr PVRamana 38
FEA of axially loaded bar
4) Higher-order elements
Instead of increasing the number of elements, one could increase the order of the shape
functions from order 1 (linear) to order 2 (quadratic).

Then each element has 3 nodes and 3 shape functions:

u˜( s) = Ua N a ( s ) + Ub Nb ( s ) + Uc Nc ( s)

Nb(s) = ?
where
Na(s) = ?

FEM Dr PVRamana 39
 Two applications
1) Use the finite element method (direct and PMPE approaches) to solve the following problem:

Q k6 6

P
• • • • •
k1 k2 k3 k4

1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
1

5 k5
2) Define a suitable mesh and derive the 2- and 3-node finite element formulation ([k] and {r})
for the following linearly elastic beam torsion problem:
mo

J

FEM Dr PVRamana 40
 PVW approach
For the axially loaded bar problem examined earlier, the PVW is written as
L L
du ddu
dW = dWin + dWex =-òE A dx + ò p o du dx = 0 " du
0 dx dx 0

Let us introduce in dW the interpolation-based approximation

u( x ) » u˜( x ) = N ( x ) {D}

where, for a N-element & N+1-node mesh

D = U1 U 2 U 3 ... UN U N+ 1
N ( x ) = N1 ( x ) N 2 ( x ) N3 ( x ) ... N N ( x ) N N+1 ( x)

N3(x) N5(x) N7(x)

•
1
•
2
•
3
•
4
•
5
•6 •
7
FEM Dr PVRamana 41
 PVW approach
du du˜ dN( x )
Then, one can have » = { D}
dx dx dx
The PVW becomes
éL ddu dN ( x ) ù L
dW = - ê ò EA dx ú { D} + ò po du dx = 0 "du
êë 0 dx dx úû 0
At this point, let us choose du = Ni(x) (i=1, 2, 3, …., N, N+1)
é L dN ( x) dN( x ) ù L
Þ dW = - ê ò EA i
dx ú { D} + ò p o Ni ( x ) dx = 0 for i = 1,..., N + 1
êë 0 dx dx úû 0

In a matrix form :
- [ K ] {D} + {R} = {0}
where L
dNi ( x ) dN j ( x )
Kij = ò E A dx
0 dx dx
L
Ri = ò po N i ( x ) dx
0

Just like one can did before, construct the global stiffness matrix [K] and global load vector {R}
by computing [k] and {r} at the element
FEM level andDrthen assembling into [K] and {R}.
PVRamana 42
 Galerkin Weighted Residual approach
• For physical problems which do not have a functional form, from which the differential
equations and non-essential (i.e., natural) boundary conditions can be derived (e.g., when the
DEQ contains odd-order terms).
• One need a different approach which starts from the DEQ itself, or, more precisely, from an
integral formulation (or weak form) of the problem. This approach is called the weighted
residual method (WRM).
• There are many types of WRM.
Presentation of the WRM
Let us write the DEQ and natural BC as
ì Du - f = 0 in V
í Bu - g = 0 on S Ì ¶V
î
where u is the unknown function of x, D and B are differential operators and f and g are known
functions of x.
4
d
E.g., for beam bending problems: D º E I
4
f º q( x )
dx
ì d2
ïB º E I 2 g ºM
í dx
d3
ïB º EI 3 g ºV
î
FEM dx
Dr PVRamana 43
Galerkin Weighted Residual approach
Look for approximation u˜ ( x,a) satisfying essential boundary conditions and choose
the unknown coefficients ai (i = 1, n) such that u˜ ( x, a) is "close to" u( x )

But u˜ ( x, a) is not exact Þ DEQ are not satisfied.

ì RD = RD ( a, x ) = D˜u - f
Let us denote the residues by í
î RB = RB ( a, x ) = Bu˜ - g

The objective is thus to find the coefficients ai such that the residues are small.

There are many different options to compute the residues:

* Collocation method
ì RD ( a, xi ) = 0 i = 1, 2,..., j - 1
í
ïî RB ( a, xi ) = 0 i = j, j + 1,..., n

* Subdomain (collocation) method

ì R ( a, x ) dV = 0 i = 1, 2,..., j - 1
ïïVò D
íi
ï ò RB ( a, x ) dS = 0 i = j, j + 1,..., n
ïî Si
FEM Dr PVRamana 44
Galerkin Weighted Residual approach
* (Continuous) least squares method
¶I
= 0 with I = ò [ RD ( a, x )] dV + a ò [ RB ( a, x )] dS
2 2
¶ ai V S
where a is a scalar multiplier for dimensional homogeneity and to stress the relative
importance of RD vs. RB.
* Least squares collocation method
j-1
¶I m
= 0 ( k = 1,...,n ) with I = å [ RD ( a, x i )] + a å [ RB ( a, xi ) ]
2 2
¶ ak i=1 i= j

• Simple collocation if m = n.
• Overdetermined collocation if m > n.
* Galerkin method
Let vi ( x ) denote some weight functions (chosen as ¶u˜ ¶a i - see example) .
Then find the coefficients ai such that
Ri = ò v i ( x ) RD ( a, x ) dV = 0 ( i = 1, 2,...,n )
V
I.e., RD is made orthogonal to the shape functions v i ( x ).
Before solving (*), use integration by parts to balance the continuity requirements
and to introduce the natural bc (through RB).
Note: if a variational principle is available, the Galerkin and RR methods yield
identical solutions with the same
FEM approximating function u˜
Dr PVRamana 45
 WRM: application
Problem description:

p(x) = po * x/L

P
E, A, L

FEM Dr PVRamana 46
 WRM: application
Solution:
Residual methods for axially loaded bar with b/cL^2=1
u(x)/cL^3
2
exact
point collocation at x=L/3
1.8 subdomain and continuous least squares
Galerkin
1.6
b P
1.4
2
= =1
cL po L
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
FEM Dr PVRamana 47
 WRM: application
Residual methods for axially loaded bar with b/cL^2=-0.1
u(x)/cL^3
1
exact
point collocation at x=L/3
subdomain and continuous least squares
Galerkin
0.8
b P
2
= = -0.1
cL po L
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
FEM Dr PVRamana 48
 3.5.2. Galerkin finite element method

As indicated earlier, one can start from the GDE itself :

E A u ¢¢( x ) = - po (0 £ x £ L)
The basic idea of the GWRM is as follows : instead of satisfying the GDE at every point in the
domain (0 ≤ x ≤ L), one can will only satisfy it in a “weighted average sense” (weak form) :
L
ò ( E A u ¢¢( x ) = - po ) v( x ) dx
0

where v(x) is any weight function defined on the domain vanishing where essential boundary
conditions are applied on u (here, the essential BC is u(0) = 0 and thus must have v(0) = 0).
L L
ò E A u ¢¢( x ) v( x ) dx = - ò po v ( x ) dx (*)
0 0

In (*), the continuity requirements for u(x) and v(x) are “uneven”: u(x) must be at least ?? while
v(x) has to be ?? only.

FEM Dr PVRamana 49
 To balance these requirements, let us integrate the left-hand side by parts :
L L
ò E A u ¢¢ v dx = [ E A u ¢ v]
L
0
- ò E A u ¢ v ¢ dx
0 0
L
= E A u ¢( L) v( L) - E A u ¢( 0) v( 0) - ò E A u ¢ v ¢ dx
0
=0 =0
Thus (*) becomes
L L
ò E A u ¢( x ) v ¢( x ) dx = ò po v( x ) dx (**)
0 0

At this point, introduce into (**) the interpolation-based approximation for u(x) :
L
dN ( x ) L
ò E A dx v ¢( x) dx {D} = ò po v( x ) dx
0 0
and choose our weight functions to be the shape functions : v(x) = Ni(x) (i=1, …, N+1)

L
dNi ( x ) dN j ( x )
Kij = ò E A dx
0 dx dx
FEM Dr PVRamana L 50
Or, in component form : Ri = ò po N i ( x ) dx
0
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

In the Rayleigh-Ritz method

A single trial function is applied throughout the entire region

Trial functions of increasing complexity are required to model all

but the simplest problems

The FE approach

uses comparatively simple trial functions that are applied piece-

wise to parts of the region

These subsections of the region are then the finite elements

FEM Dr PVRamana 51
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Consider the problem of 1-D heat flow, the functional to be

extremised is


  d 
2


P     k    Q  x   dx  krr
W  dx  


where the integral over W corresponds to the length of the region

and Neumann boundary conditions are specified at one end, G,of
the region

FEM Dr PVRamana 52
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

The length over which the solution is required, is divided up into finite
elements

In each element the value of  is found at certain points called nodes

Two nodes will mark the extremities of the element

Other nodes may occur inside the element

FEM Dr PVRamana 53
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Let the unknown temperatures at the nodes of the element e be

 e   i  i1 ....  in 

T

 i 
 
 i 1 
 . 
 
e
 
 . 
 . 
 
i  n 
where n+1 is the number of nodes in each element.

FEM Dr PVRamana 54
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

The temperature at any other position in the element is represented

in terms of the nodal values {}e and shape functions associated with
each node

   Nb  b   N 
e

where Nb is the shape function associated with the node b and

b=i ... i+n and [N] is the corresponding row matrix.

FEM Dr PVRamana 55
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Let us write the trial function  over the entire region  in the form

   Na  a g

where the summation is over all the nodes in W.

FEM Dr PVRamana 56
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

The global shape functions Nag have been used to take into

account the contribution from a to  over the entire region W

The global shape functions over much of W will be zero

For interior nodes of an element Nag will be non-zero only

within that element

End nodes of an element will have non-zero values over the

two elements sharing the node.

FEM Dr PVRamana 57
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

For example :

g
N in is non-zero only in elements e and e+1.

g g g
N , N , .... N
i 1 i 2 i  n 1
will be non-zero only in

element e.

FEM Dr PVRamana 58
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Neglecting for the moment, consideration of the first and last

elements of the region

Write the Rayleigh-Ritz statement in which the nodal values are

the adjustable parameters.

Consider the nodes i...i+n belonging to element e

FEM Dr PVRamana 59
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

P    
     0
 i  i element e1 element e 

P    
     0: b  i  1..... i  n  1
  element e 
P    
     0
 i  n  i  n element e element e 1
where for example element e stands for

  d  
2

 k  dx   Q x  dx over the element e

FEM Dr PVRamana 60
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Since


 e1
 i element is an expression involving {e-1


e
 i element
involves {e

and there is no relationship between {e-1 and {e ,both

expressions must be equal to zero

FEM Dr PVRamana 61
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Let us

focus on the terms containing an integral over the element e

Drop the superscript g on the shape functions

Suppose that the element extends from x=xe to x=xe+h

No loss in generality is incurred if we

Shift the origin to x=xe

Take the element to extend rather from 0 to h

FEM Dr PVRamana 62
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

The function can be written as,

P     k  d k
e
2
e 
     N   Q x  N dx 
 a  a  0 2  dx   
where a = i ...i+n

Note that

 i 
     dN  e
  N    
dNi dNi 1
 dx  
 .....  .   
e
,
x x  dx dx 
 
 i n 
FEM Dr PVRamana 63
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Also, noting

            
2

   2    dN  e dNa
    2 
 a  x   x   a  x    dx  dx

  dN  e
  
Since
x  dx 

    dNa
Hence  
 a  x  dx

FEM Dr PVRamana 64
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

So, differentiating under the integral sign, one can have

   
h
 dN  e  dNa  
  k
    
 dx 
 Q x  Na dx  0
 a 0   dx  
Hence

h h

k 
dNa   dN  e
   dx   Q x Na dx
0
 dx   dx  0

FEM Dr PVRamana 65
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

This equation is one in the set of n+1 simultaneous equations

obtained by letting a run through the values i...i+n :

ki ,i ki ,i 1 . ki ,i n    i   Fi e 
.
    
 ki 1,i 1 . . ki 1,i n     
  . . .     
    
   . .    
    
     ki n ,i n   i n   Fi e n 

FEM Dr PVRamana 66
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

h
where
Fae   Q x Na dx
0

 N   N 
t
and
kab  k      dx
0
 x  a  x  b
In the end elements, where Neumann boundary conditions may
have to be considered, there is an additional term

k r r   k r Na ,r
 a
where Nar is the value of Na on the boundary G

FEM Dr PVRamana 67
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

If there are two 2-noded elements, labelled m and n, with nodes

i, i+1 and i+2, assembly of the element matrices is as before.
Then

for the first element m

 kim,i kim,i 1   i   Fi m 
 m     m 
 ki 1,i ki 1,i 1  i 1   Fi 1 
m

and similarly for element n

 kin1,i 1 kin1,i  2  i 1   Fi n1 

 nFEM    n 
 ki  2,i 1 ki  2,i  2  i  2   Fi  2 
n
Dr PVRamana 68
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

By combining these two matrix equations

 kim,i kim,i 1 0     Fm 
 m   
i

i
n 
 ki 1,i  kim1,i 1  kin1,i 1  ki 1,i  2  i 1    Fi 1  Fi 1 
n m

     F n 
 0 kin 2,i 1 ki  2,i  2   i  2  
n
i2 

The global assembly matrix is built up in this way

The boundary conditions on the extreme elements are inserted

The set of equations is solved for the unknown values of 

FEM Dr PVRamana 69
Example 0

Find an approximate solution for the rod of constant cross section

using three linear elements of equal length.

FEM Dr PVRamana 70
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

All elements will have the same stiffness matrix

The coordinate origin is to be at node 1

The shape function in element 1 for node 1 is

x
N1  1 
h
For node 2
x
N2 
h
FEM Dr PVRamana 71
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

From the trial function

dNa   dNb 
h

 k  
ka / b
   dx
0 dx  dx 
k
 for a b
h
k
 for ab
h
and h
h
Fa   Q x Na dx  Q for a  1,2
e

0 2
FEM Dr PVRamana 72
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

For element 1 and have

Qh  k N 
k 1 1  1   2 1 1,r

    
h 1 1  2   Qh

 2 
where N1,r is the value of N1 (the value is 1) at node 1
For element 2

 h 
k 1 1  2   2 
      h
h 1 1  3   
 2
FEM Dr PVRamana 73
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

For element 3

 Qh 
k 1 1  3   2 
    h 
h 1 1  4  Q  k 
 2 2


where N4,r is the value of N4 at node 4 (N is equal to 1)

FEM Dr PVRamana 74
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Assembling the matrices, one can have

 h 
  k 
 1 1 0 0  1   2 1

 1 2 1 0     Qh 
k   2    

h  0 1 2 1 3   Qh 
    
 0 0 1 1 4  Qh
 k 2 

 2 

FEM Dr PVRamana 75
FE Modification of the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Given 1 40 one can solve for 2 and 3 from rows 2 and 3
h 2
 0  2 2   3 
k
h 2
  2  2 3   0 
k

from which h2 4QL3

2  3  0   0 
k 9k

since 2L
h
3
FEM Dr PVRamana 76
 Comparison of FE
and Exact Solution

6 Elements

3 Elements

FEM Dr PVRamana 77
 Comparison of FE and Exact Solution
It can be seen that,

This is the same as the exact solution for the nodal values

The finite-element approximation deviates from the exact solution

between the nodes

As the number of elements is increased, the deviation from the exact

results at the non-nodal positions decreases

6 Elements

3 Elements

FEM Dr PVRamana 78
FEM Dr PVRamana 79