C H A P T E R

14

Connecting Rod

Learn about use and construction of a connecting rod for an engine

Outcomes

Forces coming on connecting rod

Design of small end, body, and big end of connecting rod
Calculating size of cap bolts and strap thickness

14.1 Introduction
Connecting rod shown in Plate 14.1 is used to join
piston with a pin joint at its one end and on crank
shaft at the other end. The end fixed on piston
with the gudgeon pin is called small end and the
end mounted on the crank pin is called big end.
Plate 14.1 A connecting rod
Function of the connecting rod is to transmit gas
force from reciprocating motion of piston to the crank shaft for converting to rotary motion.
The length of rod is the distance between center of gudgeon pin to center of crank pin.
Small rod length increases the angularity of connecting rod, which increases side thrust of
piston and hence more wear. On the other hand, larger length increases its weight, which
increases inertia force; hence, ratio of its length to radius of crank shaft (l / r) is kept between
4 and 5.
Connecting rod is supposed to have high strength, hence made by drop forging or die
forging to provide strength and stiffness. It is made of following materials:
0.4 per cent carbon steel, with ultimate strength of 650 MPa.
0.5 per cent heat-treated carbon steel, with ultimate strength of 750 MPa.
Nickel–chromium alloy steel, having ultimate strength of 1,050 MPa.

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 540 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

14.2 Construction
Small end of the rod is made circular to accommodate a bush made of phosphorous bronze
as shown in Figure 14.1.
Cross section of the rod can be circular or rectangular for small speed engines, but high-
speed engines use I section to make it light to reduce inertia forces. If t is the thickness of web
of I section, width of the connecting rod is kept 4 t. Its width remains constant from small end
to big end, while height increases from H1 at small end to H2 at big end. Height in middle H
is kept 5t (Figure 14.1). Thickness t is calculated on the basis of gas force coming on the rod
causing compression and buckling.
Small end height H1 = 0.75 H to 0.95 H
Big end height H2 = 1.1 H to 1.25 H.

I section rod Big end Studs here

Small end
Cap
Oil hole
Strap

Scoop
Bush Snug
H = 5t
H1

t
H2
t

4t
4t
4t

Figure 14.1 Construction of connecting rod

The big end is split into two halves; one half is integral with the rod and is flared to increase
height. The other half is called cap, which is fixed to the big end of the rod using two studs and
nuts (Figure 14.1). This end is provided with a bearing shell made of steel, brass, or bronze
with a lining of soft metal like tin or babbitt.
The shells are provided with a snug at one edge, which fits into the cavity of the rod and
cap. It is provided so that the shell does not rotate in the hole due to friction between pin and
shell. While boring the big end, the two parts are assembled with a thin copper shim of about
0.05 mm thickness. When the bore wears it becomes oblong, the shim is removed between
the two parts and again assembled.

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 Connecting Rod 541

14.3 Forces on Connecting Rod

Forces coming on a connecting rod are given below and described in sub-sections:
a. Axial force due to gas pressure and inertia of parts
b. Bending due to inertia of reciprocating parts
c. Bending due to inertia of connecting rod
d. Frictional forces due to friction between piston rings and cylinder
e. Frictional forces due to friction between gudgeon pin and crank pin

14.3.1 Axial force due to gas pressure

The gas force coming on the rod is:
π 2
F=
D pmax (14.1)
4
Where, D = Piston diameter (mm)
pmax = Maximum pressure in cylinder (MPa)

14.3.2 Axial force due to inertia of reciprocating parts

Mass of the reciprocating parts comprises of mass of piston and gudgeon pin. The connecting
rod does not reciprocate but oscillates, where as its small end reciprocates. Hence one-third of
mass of connecting rod mC is added to the reciprocating mass of piston mP. Thus reciprocating
mass mR is given as:
1
mR = mP + mC (14.2)
3
Where, mR = Mass of reciprocating parts
mP = Mass of piston
mC = Mass of connecting rod
Acceleration of parts is given as:
 cos 2θ 
f = ω 2 r  cos θ +
 n 
Where, w = Angular speed of crank shaft (rad/s)
q = Angle made by crank arm from the line joining piston pin and center of crank shaft at
top dead center (TDC) position.
n = Ratio of length of connecting rod l to crank radius r, that is, (l / r)
Inertia force Fi opposes the piston force, when it moves from top to bottom for vertical
engines (inner dead center to outer dead center for horizontal engines) helps when moving
from bottom to top, that is, it varies from + Fi to – Fi .

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 542 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

 cos 2θ 
Inertia force Fi = Mass × Acceleration = mR × ω 2 r  cos θ + (14.3)
 n 
Hence, the axial force at piston is given as: Fp = F ± Fi
Where, F = Gas force given by Equation (14.1)
Fi = Inertia forces given by equation (14.3)

FC Crank
Piston r

Θ
F Φ

FN FC
Φ FN
F

Figure 14.2 Forces at small end of the connecting rod though gudgeon pin

This force is maximum when the crank arm and connecting rod are at right angles (Figure 14.2).
At this position, gas force reduces and hence can be neglected.

14.3.3 Bending force due to inertia of reciprocating parts

Inertia forces act at right angle to the connecting rod (Figure 14.3). Its value is zero at piston
pin P and varies linearly from piston to maximum at crank pin C. Thus the loading is triangular
from zero to maximum.
m w2r

C
r
l/3
Crank
l
length
Piston 2l/3
cting rod of
P Conne

Figure 14.3 Acceleration forces on connecting rod

Inertia force at P = 0
Inertia force at C = mR w2 r
Where, mR = Mass of connecting rod
Hence average inertia force Fi = 0.5mR w2 r
This force acts at a distance 2l / 3 from piston pin.

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 Connecting Rod 543

It is assumed that one-third mass of connecting rod acts at piston pin and two-thirds at
crank pin. Therefore:
F 2F
Force at piston pin FP = i and force at crank pin FC = i
3 3
Maximum bending moment Mmax for triangular loading acts at l / 3 from piston pin. ( )
Maximum bending moment at this location is:
Fi l (14.4)
M max =
9 3
M
Maximum stress σ max = max
Z
This is also called as whipping stress.
It may be noted that inertia force increases with square of speed (w2) and maximum
bending stress occurs when crank angle q is between 65° and 70° from TDC.
Bending of the connecting rod can be in the direction of depth [Figure 14.4(a)] or in width
[Figure 14.4(b)].

(a) Bending along depth

(b) Bending along width

Figure 14.4 Bending of connecting rod

14.3.4 Frictional forces due to friction between piston rings and cylinder
Frictional force Ff due to piston rings rubbing on cylinder wall is given by Equation (14.5):
Ff = p D tA n pr m (14.5)
Where, D = Cylinder bore
tA = Axial thickness of rings
n = Number of piston rings
pr = Radial pressure of rings (varies from 0.025 MPa to 0.4 MPa)
m = Coefficient of friction (~ 0.1)
This force is much less than the other forces and hence can be neglected.

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 544 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

14.3.5 Frictional forces due to friction between gudgeon pin and crank pin
The frictional force at the gudgeon pin and small end of connecting rod tries to bend the
connecting rod. This can also be neglected.

14.4 Design of Connecting Rod

The design of connecting rod involves, calculation of dimensions for the following:
• Hole size at small end
• Cross section of connecting rod at small end, middle, and big end
• Thickness of big end cap
• Size of cap bolts.

14.4.1 Small end of the rod

Gudgeon pin diameter is calculated on the basis of gas forces as described in Chapter 13. A
bush made of phosphorous, about 2 mm to 3 mm thick is put over it to reduce friction.
π
Maximum gas force F = D 2 pmax
4
Where, D = Cylinder bore
pmax = Maximum gas pressure
This force is taken by the projected area of the gudgeon pin. Hence:
F = dp lp pbp (14.6)
Where, dp = Diameter of gudgeon pin
lp = Length of gudgeon pin in the small end (varies from 1.5 dp to 2 dp)
pbp = Bearing pressure (varies from 10 MPa to 15 MPa)
Using a bush of 3 mm thickness, hole diameter Dp of small end is:
Dp = dp + 6 mm (14.7)
The thickness of small end can be found by considering tearing at eye end. If Ds is the diameter at
small end, it has to resist the gas force given by Equation (14.8)

(
F = Ds − D p l p σ t) (14.8)

Where, Ds = Outside diameter of small end

Dp = Outside diameter of bush
lp = Length of gudgeon pin in the small end
st = Safe tensile stress of rod material

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 Connecting Rod 545

Example 14.1
Design of small end of a connecting rod
A diesel engine has cylinder diameter of 120 mm and maximum gas pressure 4.2 MPa.
Length to diameter ratio for the gudgeon pin is 1.6 and safe bearing pressure is 15 MPa.
Determine the size of the pin and outside diameter of small end, if safe tensile strength
of rod is 80 MPa.
Solution
Given D = 120 mm pmax = 4.2MPa lp / dp = 1.6 pbp = 15 MPa st = 80 MPa
π 2
Force due to gas pressure F = D pmax = 0.785 × 1202 × 4.2 = 48,400 N
4
From Equation (14.6)

( )
F = d p l p pbp = d p × 1.6 d p × 15 = 24d 2p

Using the value of F, 48,400 = 24d 2p

Hence, diameter of gudgeon pin dp = 44.9 say 45 mm
Using a bush of thickness 3 mm,
Hole diameter of the small end Dp= 45 + (2 × 3)= 51 mm
Length of pin in connecting rod lp = 1.6 × dp= 1.6 × 42 = 67 mm
Using Equation (14.8): F = (Ds − Dp) lp st
48,400 = (Ds − 51) × 67 × 80 Or, Ds = 60 mm

14.4.2 Cross section of connecting rod

The compressive force on the rod tries to buckle the
rod, and hence Rankine formula is used to design.
The cross section is generally taken I section for
t

H = 5t

t
high-speed engines and circular for slow-speed
engines. For I section, the proportions taken are
t

given in Figure 14.5. A damaged connecting rod due 4t

to buckling is shown in Plate 14.2.
Buckling load about X axis (at right angle to the Figure 14.5 I Plate 14.2
cross section of A damaged bent rod
axis of the gudgeon pin) is:
connecting rod
σC A
Fx = 2
 l 
1+ a  
 kxx 

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 546 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

1 1
Where, a = Constant = for mild steel and a = for cast iron
7,500 1,600
Since the ends are constrained in Y direction, effective length is half the length of rod; hence
the buckling load about Y axis is:
σC A
Fy = 2
 l 
1+ a 
 2k yy
 
For equal buckling strengths in X and Y directions
2 2
 l   l 
 or ( kxx ) = 4 ( k yy )
2 2
  = 
 kxx   2k yy 
Since I = Ak2, hence Ixx= 4Iyy
Area of cross section A for the I section (Refer Figure 11.5) in terms of thickness t is:
A = (4t × t) + (3t × t )+(4t × t) = 11 t2
1 419 t 4
I xx =  4t × ( 5t )3  − 3t × ( 3t )3  = (14.9)
12     12

1 131 t 4
And, I yy = 2t × ( 4t )3  + 3t × t 3  = (14.10)
12   12
In actual practice, Ixx is kept between 3. to 3.5 times Iyy. These dimensions are at the middle of
the connecting rod. The width is kept constant, while the height is tapered such that:
Height at small end H1 = 0.75H to 0.9H (14.11)
Height at big end H2 = 1.1H to 1.25H (14.12)

Example 14.2
Design of cross section of rod
An internal combustion engine has cylinder diameter 80 mm and stroke 100 mm. The
length of rod / crank radius ratio (l / r) is 4. Maximum pressure is 3.5 MPa. Assuming
compressive strength of the rod 350 MPa, determine the cross section of I section of rod
1
with factor of safety 5. Value of ‘a’ in Rankine’s formula can be taken .
7,500
Solution
Given D = 80 mm L = 100 mm l/r=4 pmax = 3.5 MPa

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 Connecting Rod 547

1
s c = 350 MPa FOS = 5 a=
7,500
π 2
Force due to gas pressure F = D pmax = 0.785 × 80 2 × 4 = 17,584 N
4
Assuming width of I section of rod as 4t and height as 5t at the middle of the rod
(Figure 14.5).
Area of the rod A = (4t × t) + (3t × t) + (4t × t) = 11 t2
419t 4 131t 4
From Equation(14.9); I xx = and from Equation (14.10): I yy =
12 12
I xx 419
= = 3.2; It is less than 4, hence safe.
I yy 131
With FOS for rod, design gas force = F × FOS = 17,584 × 5 = 87,920 N

I 419 t 4 1
K xx = xx = × = 1.78 t
A 12 11t 2

Radius of crank r = 0.5 × stroke = 0.5 × 100 = 50 mm

Hence the length of connecting rod L = 4 × 50 = 200 mm (as l / r = 4 is given)
σC A
Using Rankine’s Equation Fx = 2
 l 
1+ a  
 kxx 
Substituting the values:
350 × 11t 2 t2
87,920 = Or, 22.83 =
2
1.68
1  200  1+ 2
1+
7,500  1.78 t 
t

Or, t4 – 22.83t2 – 38.43 = 0

Solving this quadratic equation: t2 = 21; Hence t = 4.6 say 5 mm
Width of I section at middle of rod B = 4 t = 4 × 5 = 20 mm
Height of I section at middle of rod H = 4 t = 5 × 5 =25 mm
Width of rod remains constant as 20 mm while height varies from small end to big end.
Height at small end H1 = 0.85 H = 0.85 × 25 = 21.2 mm
Height at big end H2 = 1.2 H = 1.2 × 25 = 30 mm

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 548 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

14.4.3 Big end of the rod

The big end of the connecting rod is in two parts
(Plate 14.3). Part one is integral with the rod and
has a semicircular hole of diameter to suit the
crank pin. The other half of semicircular shape
is called strap or bearing cap, which is bolted the
Plate 14.3 Big end of rod and its cap
rod using two bolts / studs.
The big end is also designed such that the bearing pressure at the projected area of the
bearing is supposed to take the gas force F.
F = dc lc pbc (14.13)
Where, lc = Length of crank pin (1.25dc to 1.5dc)
pbc = Bearing pressure at the crank pin (7 MPa to 12 MPa)
Removable bearing shells made of about 3 mm thickness are put in the semicircular cavity.
Thus the hole diameter is: Dc = dc + 6 mm.

Example 14.3
Design of big end of a connecting rod
For the example given in 14.1, if the length to diameter ratio for crank pin is 1.4 and safe
bearing pressure is 9 MPa. Calculate the size of big end.
Solution
Given D = 120 mm pmax = 4.2 MPa lc / dc = 1.4 pbc = 9 MPa
π
Force due to gas pressure F = D 2 pmax = 0.785 × 120 2 × 4.2 = 47,477 N
4
From Equation (14.13): F = dc lc pbc
Substituting the values:
47,477 = dc × (1.4 dc) × 9 = 12.6 dc2 Or, dc = 61.4 say 62 mm
With shells of 3 mm, hole diameter Dc = 62 + (2 × 3) = 68 mm
Length of pin in connecting rod lc = 1.4 × dc = 1.4 × 62 = 86.7 say 87 mm

14.4.4 Cap bolts

The big end of the connecting rod is in two parts. Part one is integral
with the rod and the other is strap. Both are joined with bolts called cap
bolts. Bolts used are of uniform strength to reduce stress concentration.
See Plate 14.4 that the diameter of threaded portion is more than the
shank of the bolt.
Plate 14.4 Cap bolt

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 Connecting Rod 549

π
Since 2 bolts are used to fix cap, hence Fi = 2 dc2 σ tb (14.14)
4
Where, Fi = Inertia force coming on the bolt
dc = Core diameter of bolts
stb = Safe tensile strength of bolts

14.4.5 Strap thickness

Center distance between bolts x = Core diameter of cap bolts, dc + (2 × Bush thickness) +
Crank pin diameter, d + 3 mm
1 l
Moment of inertia I = bt s3 = c t s3 (As width b = lc and ts is thickness of strap)
12 12
Distance of extreme fiber, y = 0.5ts
Fi x
Maximum bending moment M = (14.15)
6
My Fi x ( 0.5t s ) 6 Fi x
σ bc = = = (14.16)
I 1 3 lc t s2
lc t s
12

Example 14.4
Strap thickness and bolts for a connecting rod
A connecting rod of an internal combustion (I.C.) engine has the following data:
Speed of rotation = 2,000 rpm
Diameter of crank pin = 60 mm
Length of crank pin = 75 mm
Bush thickness = 3 mm
Stroke length = 150 mm
Length of connecting rod = 300 mm
Mass of reciprocating parts = 2 kg
Tensile strength of bolt material = 65 MPa
Safe bending strength of the strap material = 80 MPa
Calculate bolt diameter and strap thickness.
Solution
Given N = 2,000 rpm dc = 60 mm lc = 75 mm Bush thickness = 3 mm
2r = 150 mm l = 300 mm mR = 2 kg stb = 65 MPa
sbc = 80 MPa l / r = 300 / 75 = 4
2π N 2 × 3.14 × 2,000
Rotational speed ω = = = 209.3 rad/s
60 60

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 550 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

 r
From Equation (14.3): Inertia force for q = 0, Fi = mR × ω 2 r  1+ 
 l
 75 
Substituting the values: Fi = 2 × ( 209.3 ) ( 0.075 )  1+
2
 = 8,216 N
 300 
π
Bolt diameter: From Equation (14.14): Fi = 2 dc2σ tb
4
Substituting the values: 8,216 = 2 × 0.785 × dc × 65
2
Or, dc2 = 80.5
Hence, core diameter of bolt dc = 8.97 mm
dc 8.97
Nominal diameter of bolt d = = =10.7 mm
0.84 0.84
Choosing a standard bolt diameter d = 12 mm
Strap thickness:
Center distance between bolts x = dc + (2 × Bush thickness) + d + 3 mm
Or, x = 60 + (2 × 3) + 12 + 3 = 81 mm
Fi x 8,216 × 81
From Equation (14.15): Bending moment M = = = 110,916 Nmm
6 6
My Fi x ( 0.5 t s ) 6 Fi x
From Equation (14.16) σ bc = = =
I 1 3 lc t s2
lc t s
12
My 110,916 × 0.5 t s
σ bc = Putting values: 80 = or t s2 = 111
I (
75/12 t s3 )
Hence, thickness of strap ts = 10.5 say 11 mm.

Example 14.5
Whipping stress in a connecting rod
A connecting rod of length 320 mm of I section has height in middle 5t, width 4t and
web thickness t = 6 mm. The engine rotates at 1,500 rpm with a stroke of 160 mm.
Calculate whipping stress, if density of the rod material is 7,800 kg/m3.
Solution
Given N = 1,500 rpm t = 6 mm 2r = 160 mm L = 320 mm
r = 7,800 kg/m3 H = 5t W = 4t
2π N 2 × 3.14 × 1,500
Rotational speed ω = = = 157 rad/s
60 60

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 Connecting Rod 551

Area of the rod (Refer Figure 14.5): A = (4t × t) + (3t × t) + (4t × t) = 11 t2

Mass per unit length mi = A × r = 11(0.006)2 × 7,800 = 3.09 kg/m

L2 ( 0.32 ) 2

= 3.09 × (157 ) × 0.08 ×

2
Maximum bending moment M max = mi ω r 2

9 3 9 3
Or, Mmax = 40 Nm = 40,000 Nmm
419 t 4 419 × 6 4
From Equation (14.9) Moment of inertia I = = = 45,252 mm 4
12 12
y = 2.5 t = 2.5 × 6 = 15 mm
My 40,000 × 15
Whipping bending stress, σ b = = = 13.25 MPa
I 45,252

Example 14.6
Design of connecting rod
An internal combustion engine runs at 1,500 rpm and develops maximum pressure
of 4 MPa. Design its connecting rod of I section with FOS = 5 and the following data:
Piston diameter = 110 mm
Stroke length of piston = 200 mm
Length of rod / crank radius ratio (l / r) = 4
Mass of reciprocating parts = 2.5 kg
Compressive strength = 300 MPa
Density of rod material = 8,000 kg/m3
Allowable bearing pressure for small end = 15 MPa
Allowable bearing pressure for big end = 10 MPa
Length to pin diameter ratio for small end = 1.5
Length to pin diameter ratio for big end = 1.3
Safe bending stress for the rod material = 75 MPa
Safe bending stress for the bolts = 58 MPa
1
Constant for Rankine’s formula a =
7,500
Solution
Given N = 1,500 rpm pmax = 4 MPa D = 110 mm 2r = 200 mm
l/r = 4 mR = 2.5 kg sc = 300 MPa r = 8,000 kg/m3
pbp = 15 MPa pbc = 10 MPa lp / dp = 1.5 lc / dc = 1.3
sbb = 58 MPa sbc = 75 MPa FOS = 5 a = 1 / 7,500

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 552 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

a. Small end
π 2
Force due to gas pressure F = D pmax = 0.785 × 110 2 × 4 = 48,400 N
4

(
From Equation (14.6): F = d pl p pbp = d p × 1.5d p × 15 = 22.5d 2p )
Using the value of F, 48,400 = 22.5d p
2

Hence, diameter of gudgeon pin, dp = 46.5 mm

Using a bush of thickness 3 mm,
Hole diameter of the small end Dp = 46.5 + (2 × 3) = 52.5 mm
Length of pin in connecting rod lp = 1.5 × dp = 1.5 × 46.5 = 70 mm
b. Cross section of the rod
Assuming width of I section of rod as 4t and height as 5t at the middle of the rod.
Area of the rod A = [(4t × t ) + (3t × t ) + (4t × t )] = 11t 2

419t 4 131t 4
From Equation(14.9); I xx = and from Equation (14.10): I yy =
12 12
I xx 419
= = 3.2; It is less than 4 hence safe.
I yy 131

I xx 419t 4 1
K xx = = × 2 = 1.78t
A 12 11t
Radius of crank r = 0.5 × stroke = 0.5 × 200 = 100 mm
Hence length of connecting rod l = 4 × 100 = 400 mm (As l/r = 4 is given)
σcA
Using Rankine Equation: F = 2
 l 
1+ a 
 kxx 
Design force is: F × FOS = 48,400 × 5 = 242,000 N
Substituting the values:
300 × 11t 2
242,000 = t2
1  400 
2 Or, 73.3 =
1+ 6.73
1+ 2
7,500  1.78t  t

Or, t4 – 73.3 t2 – 493.5 = 0 Or, t2 = 73; Hence t = 8.5 mm

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 Connecting Rod 553

Width of I section at middle of rod B = 4 t = 4 × 8.5 = 34 mm

Height of I section at middle of rod H = 5 t = 5 × 8.5 = 42 mm
The width of rod remains constant as 34 mm while height varies from small end to
big end.
Height at small end H1 = 0.85 H = 0.85 × 42 = 36 mm
Height at big end H2 = 1.2 H = 1.2 × 42 = 50.4 say 51 mm
c. Big end
From Equation (14.13): F = dc lc pbc
Substituting the values:
48,400 = dc × (1.3dc ) × 10 = 13dc2 Or, dc = 61 mm

Length of pin in connecting rod, lc = 1.3 × dc = 1.3 × 61 = 79.3 say 80 mm

With shells of 3 mm, hole diameter Dc = 61 + (2 × 3) = 67 mm
d. Bolt diameter
2π N 2 × 3.14 × 1,500
Rotational speed in radians per second ω = = = 157rad/s
60 60
 cos2θ 
From Equation (14.3): Inertia force Fi = mR × ω 2 r  cosθ + 
 n 
1
Substituting the values for θ = 0: Fi = 2.5 × 157 2 × 0.1 1 +  = 7,703 N
 4
π
From Equation (14.14): Inertia force Fi = 2 dc2σ tb
4
Substituting the values: 7,703 = 2 × 0.785 × dc2 × 65 Or, dc2 = 75.5
Hence, core diameter of bolt dc= 8.7 mm (Note here dc is core diameter of bolt and
not crank pin diameter)
d 8.7
Nominal diameter of bolt d = c = = 10.4 mm
0.84 0.84
Choosing a standard bolt diameter d = 12 mm
e. Strap
Center distance between bolts x = dc + (2 × Bush thickness) + d + 3

= 61 + (2 × 3) + 12 + 3 = 82 mm
1 2 lc 2 80 2
Moment of section, Z = bt s = t s = t s = 13.33t s2 mm 3
6 6 6

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 554 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

Fi x 7,703 × 82
Maximum bending moment, M = = = 105,274 Nmm
6 6
M 105,274
σ bc = or 75 =
Z 13.33t s2
Or, t s2 = 105; Hence, thickness of strap ts = 10.3 say 11 mm.

Summary
Connecting rod is used to join piston with a pin joint at its one end on crank shaft pin at the other
end. The end on piston side is called small end and the end mounted on the crank pin is called big
end. The function of the connecting rod is to transmit gas force from reciprocating motion of piston
to the crank shaft, for converting to rotary motion. The length of rod is the distance between centers
of gudgeon pin and center of crank pin. Ratio of its length to radius of crank (l /r) is kept between 4
and 5. Connecting rod is supposed to have high strength, hence made by drop forging or die forging to
provide strength and stiffness. It is made of following materials:
0.4% carbon steel, 0.5% heat treated carbon steel, and nickel–chromium alloy steel.
Construction
Small end is made circular to accommodate a bush made of phosphorous bronze.
Body Cross section of the rod can be circular or rectangular for small speed engines but high-speed
engines use I section to make it light to reduce inertia forces. If t is the thickness of web of I section,
width of the connecting rod is kept 4t and height 5t in middle. Its width remains constant, while height
increases from H1 at small end to H2 at big end.
H1 = 0.75 H to 0.95 H and H2 = 1.1 H to 1.25 H.
Big end is split into two halves; one half is integral with the rod. The other half is called cap or strap,
which is fixed to the big end using two studs and nuts. This end is provided with a bearing shell made
of steel, brass, or bronze with a lining of soft metal like tin or babbitt.
The shells are provided with a snug at one edge, which fits into the cavity of the rod and cap so that
the shell does not rotate in the hole, due to friction between pin and shell.
Forces on connecting rod Following forces act on a connecting rod:
π 2
a. Axial force due to gas pressure pmax over a cylinder of diameter D is: F = D pmax
4
b. Axial force due to inertia of reciprocating parts Mass of the reciprocating parts mR is mass
of piston mP and gudgeon pin. The connecting rod of mass mC is taken one-third of mass of
1
connecting rod mC . Thus: mR = mP + mC
3
 cos2θ 
Acceleration of parts is given as: f = ω 2r  cos θ +  Where, n = l / r ratio
 n 
 cos2θ 
Inertia force Fi = mR × ω 2r  cos θ + 
 n 

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 Connecting Rod 555

Axial force at piston is FP = F ± Fi

c. Bending force due to inertia of reciprocating parts Inertia forces act at right angle to the
connecting rod. Its value is zero at piston pin and varies linearly from piston to maximum at
crank pin. Thus the loading is triangular from zero to maximum mR w2r Hence average inertia
force Fi = 0.5mR w2r. It acts at a distance 2l / 3 from piston pin.
Maximum bending moment Mmax for triangular loading acts at (l / 3) from piston pin.
Fi l
Mmax = ; Maximum stress σ max = Mmax . This is called whipping stress.
9 3 Z
d. Frictional forces due to friction between piston rings and cylinder Frictional force due to
piston rings rubbing on cylinder wall is: Ff = p D tAn pr μ
tA = Axial thickness of rings
n = Number of piston rings
pr = Radial pressure rings (from 0.025 MPa to 0.4 MPa) and
m = Coefficient of friction
e. Frictional forces due to friction between gudgeon pin and crank pin: This force at the gudgeon
pin and small end of connecting rod tries to bend the connecting rod.
Design of connecting rod
Small end of the rod Gudgeon pin diameter dp is calculated on the basis of gas pressure pmax resisted
by projected area of the gudgeon pin.
π 2
Maximum gas force F = D pmax = d p lp pbp
4
Where, dp = Diameter of gudgeon pin
lp = Length of gudgeon pin
pbp = Bearing pressure (varies from 10 MPa to 15 MPa).
Using a bush of 3 mm thickness hole diameter Dp of small end is: Dp = dp + 6 mm
Thickness of small end can be found by considering tearing at eye end. If Ds is the diameter at small
end, it has to resist the gas force F = (Ds – Dp) lp st
Where, Ds = Outside diameter of small end
Dp = Outside diameter of bush
Cross section of connecting rod Buckling load about X axis (at right angle to the axis of the gudgeon
pin) is:
σc A
Fx = 2
 l 
1+ a  
 k xx 
1
Where, Constant a = for mild steel
7,500

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 556 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

2 2
 l   l 
For equal buckling strengths in X and Y directions:
 k  =  2k 
xx  yy 
(k xx ) = 4(kyy )
2 2
Since I = AK2
, Ixx
= 4Iyy

Area of cross section for I section for width 4t and height 5t in terms of thickness t is: A = 11t2
Ixx = 419t4 /12 and Iyy = 131t4 /12
In actual practice, Ixx is kept between 3 to 3.5 times Iyy. Height at small end H1 = 0.75H to 0.9H and
height at big end H2 = 1.1H to 1.25H.
Big end of the connecting rod The big end is designed such that the bearing pressure at the
projected area of the bearing is supposed to take the gas force:
F = dc lc pbc
Where, lc = Length of crank pin
pbc = Bearing pressure at the crank pin
Removable bearing shells made of about 3 mm thickness is put in the semicircular cavity. Thus the hole
diameter is: Dc = dc+ 6 mm.
Cap bolts Both parts of the big end are joined with two bolts called cap bolts.
π
Inertia force Fi = 2 dc2 σ tb ,
4
dc = Core diameter of bolts
stb = Safe tensile strength.
Strap thickness Center distance between bolts, x = dc (2 × Bush thickness) + d + 3 mm
1 l
Moment of inertia, I = bt 3 = c t 3 (As width b = lc)
12 12
y = 0.5 t
Fx
Maximum bending moment M = i
6
My 6Fi x
Or, σ bc = = 2
I lct

Theory Questions
1. What is the function of connecting rod? Mention the materials used for it.
2. Describe its construction with the help of a neat sketch.
3. Discuss the various forces coming in it.
4. What are the inertia forces? How are these accounted in design?
5. Describe the procedure to calculate the cross section of the rod.
6. Describe the design procedure to design small and big ends of the rod.
7. How do you calculate the bolt diameter for the strap of connecting rod?

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 Connecting Rod 557

8. Explain the method to calculate strap thickness of connecting rod.

9. What is meant by whipping stress? Drive an equation to calculate it.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Cross section of connecting rod of a high-speed I.C. engine is generally:
(a) Circular (b) Rectangular
(c) I section (d) T section
2. In design of connecting rod for bending, ends are considered as:
(a) Both fixed (b) One fixed and other hinged
(c) One fixed and other free (d) Both hinged
3. Inertia force of connecting rod:
(a) Has no effect
(b) Opposes the piston force while moving from inner to outer dead center
(c) Helps the piston force, while moving from inner to outer dead center
(d) Always opposes the piston force
4. Maximum bending stress in a connecting rod occurs when crank angle is:
(a) Between 65° and 70° from TDC (b) Between 50° and 60° from TDC
(c) Between 35° and 50° from TDC (d) 45°
5. While calculating mass of reciprocating parts, mass of connecting rod mc is added to mass of piston as:
(a) 0.45 mc (b) 0.40 mc
(c) 0.37 mc (d) 0.33 mc
6. Bearing pressure at small end is taken as:
(a) 4 MPa to 6MPa (b) 7 MPa to 9 MPa
(c) 10 MPa to 15 MPa (d) 16 MPa to 20 MPa
Mmax
7. If Mmax is maximum bending moment and Z modulus of section of a connecting rod is called as:
Z
(a) Bending stress (b) Whipping stress
(c) Inertial stress (d) Residual stress
8. Strap of a connecting rod is:
(a) Fitted on the forked big end to cover the big end bearing
(b) An additional strap put on small end for increasing strength
(c) An extra plate attached to rod for balancing purpose
(d) None of the above

Answers to multiple choice questions

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a)

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 558 Fundamentals of Machine Design, Volume II

Design Examples
1. An I.C. engine having cylinder diameter 100 mm develops maximum gas pressure 3.8 MPa. Length
to diameter ratio for the gudgeon pin is 1.7 and safe bearing pressure is 14 MPa. Determine the
size of the pin.
[dp = 35 mm, lp= 60 mm]
2. An internal combustion engine has length of rod / crank radius ratio l/r = 4. Crank radius is 45
mm and length of stroke is 25 per cent more than the cylinder diameter. Maximum pressure is
4.0 MPa. Assuming compressive strength of the rod 330 MPa, determine the cross section of l
1
section of rod with FOS = 6. Value of ‘a’ in Rankine’s formula can be taken: .
7,500
[t = 5.2 mm, B = 21 mm, H1 = 22 mm, H2 = 31 mm]
3. An engine with cylinder diameter 85 mm shows maximum load on connecting rod as 40 kN. If
length to diameter ratio of the pin is 1.4 and safe bearing pressure is 9 MPa, calculate the size of
crank pin.
[dc = 57 mm, lc = 80 mm]
4. An I.C. engine of stroke length 130 mm rotates at 2,400 rpm. Its diameter is 100 mm and l/r ratio
for connecting rod is 3.8. Diameter of crank pin is 60 mm and length is 25 per cent more than its
diameter. Mass of reciprocating parts is 1.8 kg. Take bush thickness 3 mm, tensile strength of bolt
and strap material 70 MPa. Calculate bolt diameter and strap thickness.
[d = 12 mm, ts = 12 mm]
5. An engine rotates at 2,000 rpm with a stroke of 140 mm and length of rod 280 mm. Its connecting
rod has flange and web thickness of I section 5 mm. Calculate whipping stress, if density of the rod
material is 8,000 kg/m3.
[sb = 19.43 MPa]
6. A connecting rod of length 280 mm has I section of thickness 5 mm, width 20 mm, and depth
25 mm in the middle. If the safe compressive strength of the material is 300 MPa, calculate the
maximum buckling load, which it can take.
[F = 72.88 kN]
7. A four-stroke I.C. engine develops 3.5 MPa maximum pressure in a cylinder of length 100 mm and
diameter 75 mm. Design I section connecting rod with the following data:
Mass of reciprocating parts = 1.5 kg
Density of rod material = 8,000 kg/m3
l / r ratio = 4
l / d ratio for small end 1.8 with safe bearing pressure = 14 MPa
l / d ratio for big end 1.4 with safe bearing pressure = 10 MPa
Safe stress for bolt material = 65 MPa and for strap = 80 MPa

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 Connecting Rod 559

Compressive yield stress = 300 MPa

FOS in buckling = 4
[t = 6 mm, B = 24 mm, H = 30 mm, H1 = 42 mm, H2 = 28 mm, dp = 25 mm,
lp = 45 mm, dc = 35 mm, lc = 45 mm, db = 6 mm, ts = 6 mm]

Previous Competition Examination Questions

IES
1. In the design of connecting rod small end bearing, the value of permissible bearing pressure to be
used is:
(a) Less than used for big end bearing (b) More than used for big end bearing
(c) Equal to that used for big end bearing (d) None of the above
[Answer (b)] [IES 2013]



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