Oilfield Review

Autumn 2012

Pressure and Sampling in Extreme Conditions

Thermal Properties of Reservoir Rocks
Plate Tectonics in Exploration
12-OR-0004
Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration: The Importance of Tectonic Models
Advances in understanding the dynamics of modern tectonic
processes have transformed scientists’ interpretations of
ancient tectonic environments and regional deformation
regimes and have led to radical conceptual changes about
the tectonic evolution of basins in continental, marginal and
oceanic environments. These new concepts are making a
significant impact on operators’ exploration strategies and
on the discovery of hydrocarbon plays in regions that were
previously unknown, poorly explored, difficult to access or
quickly dismissed. Tectonic insights suggest that there may
be significantly more hydrocarbon resources to be found in
places that were once deemed valueless (see “Basin to Basin:
Plate Tectonics in Exploration,” page 38).
For example, high orogenic plateaus, while typically set in
the heart of mountainous regions, are now understood as
mosaics of internally drained basins rather than as coales-
cent mountain ranges. Dynamic surface processes consisting
of erosion, sediment transport and deposition by large rivers
interacted with tectonically rising mountain rims to shape
the high, flat and smooth morphology of these plateaus. This
creates “cold” basins of a novel type, best represented
within and to the north of the Tibet plateau. The basins
filled rapidly with great thicknesses of Tertiary clastic sedi-
ments from internal drainage. The sediments likely host
potential reservoirs and seals on top of source rocks in
Mesozoic marine and Tertiary lacustrine limestones or shales,
adding to new leads in the high plains south of the long-pro-
ducing basins in western China.
On the Lebanese stretch of the Levant basin margin, recent
seismic and bathymetric offshore surveys, coupled with
onshore tectonic studies, have also brought new insight. They
show that this passive margin has experienced inverted fold-
ing since about 13 Ma. To the west of Mount Lebanon, which
rises 4,800 m [15,700 ft] above the Levant basin floor, is a 150-
km [93-mi] active thrust fault and an underwater fold-and-
thrust belt that deforms Tortonian carbonates, Messinian
evaporites and Pliocene-Quaternary turbidites. This subma-
rine, thin-skinned, foreland-migrating thrust wedge is worthy
of modern exploration. Many structures are sealed by the
Messinian salt, which may trap large reservoirs, as it might do
elsewhere in the Mediterranean region. Since 2009, discover-
ies of large gas accumulations in subsalt Miocene strata off-
shore Israel and Cyprus have demonstrated the importance of
the Levant basin for significant natural gas resources.
In the early opening stages of both the Cretaceous South
Atlantic and the Miocene Red Sea, thick salt deposition was
controlled by a peculiar tectonic framework in which the
marine environment was restricted between fissural “flood-
gates” formed through volcanism and transform faulting.
Much of the evaporitic deposition likely resulted from
precipitation in deep sags above oceanic crust during sea-
floor spreading, a characteristic once attributed to hyperex-
tended continental crust. The existence of the Red Sea
central trough, Angola escarpment and São Paulo plateau
are most easily accounted for by incorporating seafloor
spreading in the early evolution of the margins. The flood-
gate models may preclude simple extrapolation of onshore
or shallow near-shore stratigraphy far beneath the deep salt.
However, the existence of deep offshore hydrocarbon plays
in a still largely unexplored environment was proved in 2007
by the discovery of the presalt Lula—formerly Tupi—oil
field in the Santos basin offshore Brazil and by the discover-
ies in 2012 of the presalt Azul and Cameia oil accumulations
in the Kwanza basin offshore Angola.
The odds are that vast oil reserves exist on top of the
deep basaltic seafloor. Thick salt forming in a restricted
anoxic environment resulting from tectonic activity is the
key; the presence of prerift or synrift source rocks might
not be required. The North American and West African
margins of the central Atlantic also may harbor such plays,
sealed deep beneath thick salt. Scientists will gain a better
understanding of these phenomena by developing tectonic
models with overlapping spreading centers that isolate
continental slivers rather than models that rely merely on
crustal hyperextension.
In understanding the tectonic evolution of basins, geo-
scientists may change classic perspectives and develop
new paradigms for oil and gas exploration. The most
important lessons from tectonic studies are that no envi-
ronment should be considered beyond the bounds of explo-
ration and that current models should be revisited. It
seems certain that coherent, dynamic tectonic models,
based on the well-constrained kinematics of active analogs,
will be essential to the future of hydrocarbon exploration.
Paul Tapponnier
Professor and Group Leader, Tectonics and Earthquakes Group
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
Paul Tapponnier is Professor and Group Leader of the Tectonics and
Earthquakes Group at the Earth Observatory of Singapore at the Nanyang
Technological University in Singapore, where he has worked since 2009.
Previously, he worked at the Tectonique, Mécanique de la Lithosphère group
at the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris. His contributions to geology,
tectonics and geophysics span more than 40 years and his research inter-
ests include continental dynamics and tectonics, particularly in Asia and the
Mediterranean region; active faulting and seismotectonics; earthquake hazard
assessment; quantitative geomorphology; rates of active deformation processes;
and rock mechanics and rock deformation physics. He is a member of both the
French and US National Academy of Sciences and a Fellow of the American
Geophysical Union, Geological Society of America and Geological Society
of London. Paul holds an ingénieur des mines degree from Ecole Nationale
Supérieure des Mines de Paris and a doctorat d’etat degree from Université
Montpellier 2 Sciences et Techniques, France.
1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration: The Importance of Tectonic Models

Lisa Stewart
Editorial contributed by Paul Tapponnier, Professor and Group Leader,
Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug Tectonics and Earthquakes Group, Nanyang Technological University
Rick von Flatern

Editors
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Tony Smithson
4 Testing the Limits in Extreme Well Conditions
Contributing Editors
Ginger Oppenheimer High-temperature wells pose challenges for design engineers
Michael Oristaglio
Rana Rottenberg who develop pressure and sampling tools. In addition to
pressure and sampling tools, downhole pressure gauges used
Design/Production
Herring Design
in long duration tests must be designed to operate for
Mike Messinger extended periods with few options to protect sensitive elec-
tronics from heat. High-pressure wells present a different
Illustration 
Chris Lockwood but equally daunting set of challenges. Case studies from
Tom McNeff the North Sea, Thailand and India demonstrate how recent
Mike Messinger innovations are overcoming these challenges.
George Stewart

Printing
RR Donnelley—Wetmore Plant
Curtis Weeks

20 When Rocks Get Hot: Thermal Properties of

Reservoir Rocks
More than half of the oil produced worldwide by enhanced
recovery methods is a result of thermal stimulation.
Decisions on project economics may hinge on long-term
forecasts of the amount of additional oil that can be liberated
from the reservoir by injected heat. Although accurate fore-
casts usually require accurate knowledge of the thermal
properties of the reservoir fluids and rocks, these properties
of reservoir rocks are rarely measured. This article reviews
rock thermal property measurements and describes an effi-
cient new optical technique for obtaining them.

On the cover:

Seismic data, shown in the background, Oilfie

are crucial inputs to exploration work-
flows. Seismic techniques help identify
subsurface structures that may trap and
accumulate hydrocarbons. In this case,
interpretation of seismic data from off-
shore Angola reveals the presence of
walls of Aptian salt (purple and white),
minibasins for sediment deposition and
overhangs that may serve as traps. The
Aptian salt is a regional seal for presalt
reservoirs. (Background data courtesy of
TGS and WesternGeco. Image courtesy
of Sonangol EP and WesternGeco.)
About Oilfield Review
Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal,
communicates technical advances in
finding and producing hydrocarbons
to employees, clients and other oilfield
professionals. Contributors to articles
include industry professionals and experts
from around the world; those listed with
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.
Oilfield Review is published quarterly and
printed in the USA.
Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
electronic copies of articles in English,
Spanish, Chinese and Russian.
AUTU
HPHT
ORAU
© 2012 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
Reproductions without permission are
strictly prohibited.
For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.

2
 Fig3_1 Autumn 2012
Volume 24
Number 3
ISSN 0923-1730

38 Basin to Basin: Plate Tectonics in Exploration Advisory Panel

Gretchen M. Gillis
Exploration companies have recently made several large Aramco Services Company
discoveries in rifted and transform margin systems. The Houston, Texas, USA
plays they proved on one continent have been applied Roland Hamp
across the Atlantic Ocean—from South America to Africa— Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
and back. This article explains how geoscientists are using
plate tectonics to uncover plays in rifted and transform Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
margin systems. Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
Alexander Zazovsky
58 Contributors Fig3_2 Chevron
Houston, Texas
60 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review

63 Defining Porosity:
How Porosity Is Measured
This is the seventh in a series of introductory articles describing basic concepts of the E&P industry.

Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries

Oilfield Review Client subscriptions can be obtained Tony Smithson
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review
Houston, Texas 77056 USA Paid subscriptions are available from 12149 Lakeview Manor Dr.
(1) 713-513-1194 Oilfield Review Services Northport, Alabama 35475 USA
Fax: (1) 713-513-2057 Pear Tree Cottage, Kelsall Road (1) 832-886-5217
E-mail: editorOilfieldReview@slb.com Ashton Hayes, Chester CH3 8BH UK Fax: (1) 281-285-0065
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E-mail: subscriptions@oilfieldreview.com

3
Chris Avant
Saifon Daungkaew Testing the Limits in Extreme
Bangkok, Thailand
Well Conditions
Bijaya K. Behera
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
High borehole temperatures and pressures pose design challenges for engineers
Supamittra Danpanich developing formation evaluation tools. Pressure and sampling tools that use motors
Waranon Laprabang
PTT Exploration and Production and pumps require high power to operate and often generate considerably more heat
Public Company Limited
Bangkok, Thailand than tools used for basic petrophysical measurements. Traditional solutions to
combat temperature and pressure are insufficient for these types of tools. Recent
Ilaria De Santo
Aberdeen, Scotland innovations make it possible to obtain downhole pressure measurements and

Greg Heath
samples and to perform extended well tests in extreme conditions.
Kamal Osman
Chevron Thailand Exploration and
Production Ltd
Many E&P companies are drilling wells in envi- that they remain downhole for hours, even days,
Bangkok, Thailand
ronments that push the limits of equipment and constantly exposed to extreme conditions. Many
Zuber A. Khan services as they search for new sources of oil and methods traditionally employed to withstand
Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation Ltd gas. Operators are looking in places where few high wellbore temperatures are ineffective in
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India have ventured or that not so long ago were con- these instances.
sidered impractical. The depths they are now This article reviews two pressure and sam-
Jay Russell probing tend to be hotter and higher pressured pling tools that require high power to operate
Houston, Texas, USA than ever before and often exhibit extreme well and were engineered to withstand high-pressure,
conditions that test the limits of downhole tools high-temperature (HPHT) operating environ-
Paul Sims and equipment. ments. In addition, a recently introduced down-
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Service companies continue developing solu- hole pressure gauge has been proved to operate
tions to contend with extreme well conditions; for many hours at high temperature. Case studies
Miroslav Slapal
Moscow, Russia however, certain situations present particular from the North Sea, Thailand and India demon-
problems for downhole tool developers.1 For strate the application of these advances.
Chris Tevis instance, applications such as acquiring forma-
Sugar Land, Texas tion pressures and fluid samples and performing A Niche Market That Matters
extended downhole pressure tests require tools Hostile environments are typically character-
Oilfield Review Autumn 2012: 24, no. 3.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.
that are designed to overcome more than heat ized as having HPHT conditions. HPHT wells
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Renato and pressure, which is a difficult feat. These tools will generally cross thresholds of either tem-
Barbedo, Ravenna, Italy; Larry Bernard, Jean-Marc Follini, must also deal with time as it relates to internally perature or pressure, but few wells cross both.
David Harrison and Steve Young, Houston; Libby Covington,
Simmons & Company International, Houston; Alan Dick, generated heat and the challenges of long expo- However, the term HPHT is applied to any well
Simmons & Company International, Aberdeen; Eduardo sure to potentially destructive conditions. that is considered hot or high pressured. Various
Granados, Richmond, California, USA; Khedher Mellah,
Chevron, Houston; and Sophie Salvadori Velu, Clamart, Pressure and sampling tools utilize motors criteria are used within the oil and gas industry
France. that require high power; these motors generate to define “high,” although there is no widely
InSitu Density, MDT, MDT Forte, MDT Forte-HT,
PressureXpress, PressureXpress-HT, Quicksilver Probe,
heat that is trapped inside the tool. To acquire accepted industry standard. Whichever criteria
Signature, SRFT and Xtreme are marks of Schlumberger. pressure measurements and formation fluid sam- are used, the majority of wells drilled today are
INCONEL is a registered trademark of Special Metals ples, these tools may have to remain stationary for not extreme, being neither high pressure nor
Corporation.
Quartzdyne is a registered trademark of Dover Corporation.
long periods of exposure to heat and pressure. high temperature.
These tools have pressure gauges and sensors that Approximately 107,000 oil and gas wells
must remain stable at high operating tempera- will be drilled worldwide in 2012.2 A study
tures while retaining their measurement preci- conducted by engineers at Schlumberger esti-
sion. Other uses for pressure gauges may require mates approximately 1,600 of these wells will be

4 Oilfield Review
1. For solutions available in extreme operating conditions:
DeBruijn G, Skeates C, Greenaway R, Harrison D,
Parris M, James S, Mueller F, Ray S, Riding M, Temple L
and Wutherich K: “High-Pressure, High-Temperature
Technologies,” Oilfield Review 20, no. 3 (Autumn 2008):
46–60.
Chan KS, Choudhary S, Mohsen AHA, Samuel M,
Delabroy L, Flores JC, Fraser G, Fu D, Gurmen MN,
Kandle JR, Madsen SM, Mueller F, Mullen KT,
Nasr-El-Din HA, O’Leary J, Xiao Z and Yamilov RR:
Autumn 2012
“Oilfield Chemistry at Thermal Extremes,” Oilfield Review
18, no. 3 (Autumn 2006): 4–17.
Adamson K, Birch G, Gao E, Hand S, Macdonald C,
Mack D and Quadri A: “High-Pressure, High-Temperature
Well Construction,” Oilfield Review 10, no. 2
(Summer 1998): 36–49.
Baird T, Fields T, Drummond R, Mathison D, Langseth B,
Martin A and Silipigno L: “High-Pressure, High-
Temperature Well Logging, Perforating and Testing,”
Oilfield Review 10, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 50–67.
2. “Special Focus: 2012 Forecast—International Drilling and
Production. Global Drilling Remains Consistently Strong,”
World Oil 233, no. 2 (February 2012): 43–46.
“Special Focus: 2012 Forecast—U.S. Drilling. Growth
Amidst Economic and Regulatory Turbulence,”
World Oil 233, no. 2 (February 2012): 67–72.
5
 HPHT Wells Drilled 2007 to 2010 Worldwide classified as HPHT wells, representing about 1.5%
650 of the worldwide total. Most of the wells consid-
Well ered HPHT exceed established temperature
High temperature limits; only a few wells exhibit truly extreme
550 pressures (left). The study also indicated that the
High pressure
HPHT market is heavily dominated by two coun-
Reservoir temperature, °F

tries: the US (60%) and Thailand (20%) (below).

450 One caveat to consider in this analysis is that
geothermal wells are not included in the totals.
Because of their extremely high bottomhole tem-
350 peratures, geothermal wells present operational
complexities rarely encountered in oil and gas
exploration.3 Moreover, the number of geother-
250 mal wells is small compared with the number of
their oil and gas counterparts.
The HPHT market may currently be relatively
150 small, but there is an industry-recognized accel-
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000
eration in the number of extreme wells being
Reservoir pressure, psi
drilled and planned. For example, according to
> Extreme temperature or pressure. Schlumberger engineers conducted an internal study of
one report covering extreme wells drilled off-
temperature and pressure data from wells worldwide. Over a four-year period, no wells exceeded
both high-temperature (350°F [177°C]) and high-pressure (20,000 psi [138 MPa]) limits, which are shore, during the 30-year period from 1982 to
commonly used for wireline logging tools. Many wells exhibiting extremely high pressure do not 2012, operators drilled 415 HPHT offshore wells
exhibit high temperature, and vice versa. In addition, more wells exceeded the 350°F temperature than
exceeded 20,000 psi.

Oilfield Review
AUTUMN 12
HPHT Fig. 1
ORAUT 12-HPHT 1

Significant high-temperature activity

Potential for high-temperature activity
Geothermal activity

> Drilling activity in high-temperature environments. Exploration and development drilling in high-temperature environments is regionally isolated. The
majority of extreme wells are located on land, although there is significant activity in the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea and offshore India and Southeast
Asia. The number of geothermal wells, which represent the high end of extreme temperatures, is not statistically significant.

6 Oilfield Review
Offshore HPHT Wells

Norwegian North Sea

14
North Sea 118 16
13
23 3 Mediterranean Sea Caspian Sea

0
Gulf of Mexico 0 26
17
4 10
97
133 90

Southeast Asia
West Africa
0
18 0 16
52 10
Brazil

238

75 290
Australia
36
10 22
Wells
415 Drilled through 2011

433 Projected from 2012 through 2015

483 Projected from 2016 through 2020

> Offshore HPHT activity. HPHT drilling activity is projected to accelerate in the coming years, especially offshore. In the next four years, the number of
offshore HPHT wells (green) is expected to be more than double the total drilled in the preceding three decades (blue). By the year 2020 (pink), the well
count is projected to triple. (Adapted from Simmons & Company International Limited, reference 4. Used with permission.)

worldwide (above).4 The forecast for the four-year
period ending in 2016 anticipates that the total
will be doubled, with the region off the coast of
Brazil alone adding more than 238 deep wells by
2016. By 2020, the total number of offshore HPHT
wells is projected to exceed 1,200—tripling the
total number of extreme offshore wells in just
10 years. The analysis highlights the need in the
coming decade for equipment to address these
HPHT operating conditions. The problem with
such analyses, however, is that the results depend
on the user’s definition of HPHT.
A Matter of Semantics
Operators and service companies often use vary-
ing criteria for classification of HPHT wells.
Operators contend with the effects of pressure
and temperature on drilling, well construction
and surface equipment; service companies often
focus on how those conditions affect their prod-
ucts, equipment and services. Although the dis-
tinction may appear subtle, the engineering
design approach often differs.
In an effort to resolve some of the confusion,
the API recently published recommendations for
equipment used in HPHT wells, which were
defined as those with pressure greater than
15,000 psi [103 MPa] and temperature above
350°F.5 The recommendations apply primarily to
engineering standards related to design speci­
fications of equipment, acceptable materials
and testing of well control equipment and com-
pletion hardware.
The report includes design verification and
Oilfield Review
validation, material
AUTUMN selection
12 and manufacturing
HPHT Fig. 3 are intended to ensure
process controls, which
that equipmentORAUT
used12-HPHT
in the oil 3and gas industry is
fit for service in HPHT environments. The three
criteria for HPHT classification are the following:
• anticipated surface conditions that dictate
completion and well control equipment rated
above 15,000 psi
• anticipated shut-in surface pressure in excess
of 15,000 psi
• flowing temperature at the surface in excess of
350°F.
If any one of these conditions is met, the well
is considered an HPHT well. Although the report
establishes specific guidelines for defining HPHT
and provides protocols for certifying equipment,
it does not specifically address downhole elec-
tronics or certification of downhole tools.
In an attempt to define thresholds that
reflect physical and technological limitations,
Schlumberger developed an HPHT classification
system representing stability limits of common
3. A recent study estimates that approximately 4,000
geothermal wells had been drilled through 2011.
Sanyal SK and Morrow JW: “Success and the Learning
Curve Effect in Geothermal Well Drilling—A Worldwide
Survey,” paper SGP-TR-194, presented at the 37th
Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering,
Stanford, California, USA, January 30–February 1, 2012.
4. These findings were noted in the Simmons & Company
International Limited 2012 analysis prepared for Quest
Energy. For the report, HPHT was defined as conditions
greater than 10,000 psi [69 MPa] and 300°F [150°C].
The number of land-based HPHT wells drilled during
the period was much higher than that of those
drilled offshore.
5. API: “Protocol for Verification and Validation of HPHT
Equipment,” Washington, DC: API, Technical Report
PER15K-1, 1st ed., 2012.

Autumn 2012 7
 600
HPHT-hc conductivity and thermal diffusivity to ensure
260°C
that the temperature inside the housing rises
500
Ultra-HPHT very slowly.
Static reservoir temperature, °F 205°C Flasks have become an integral component in
400
HPHT tools such as the Schlumberger suite of Xtreme
150°C tools, designed for HPHT environments.7 The
300
Xtreme platform includes common measure-
ments for petrophysical analysis. Unfortunately,
200
the solution for keeping electronics protected
from wellbore heat traps self-generated heat

138 MPa

100
69 MPa
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000
Static reservoir pressure, psi
> HPHT classification system. This classification system was proposed by
Schlumberger engineers and is based on pressure and temperature
boundaries that represent stability limits of common components used by
service companies. These include electronic devices and sealing
elements. The HPHT-hc classification defines environments that are
unlikely to be seen in oil and gas wells, although there are geothermal
wells that exceed 500°F.
components such as elastomeric seals and elec-
tronics (above).6 Other service companies and
operators use their own definitions, which are
similar to the Schlumberger guidelines.
A Niche in Design
The well type—HP or HT—dictates the engi-
neering design approach because techniques
used for contending with pressure differ from
those for temperature. For pressure, the solution
is often to design equipment with sealing ele-
ments capable of withstanding extreme forces.
Exposed surfaces may be at risk, but internal
Oilfield Review
AUTUMN 12
HPHT Fig. 4
ORAUT 12-HPHT 4
241 MPa
20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000
electronics are protected, barring a seal failure,
which would be catastrophic should failure occur
(below left).
Protecting sensitive downhole electronics
from extreme temperatures, however, usually
relies on sheltering sensitive components from
the cumulative effects of exposure to heat. This is
most often accomplished using thermal barriers
in the form of flasks—double-insulated metal
housings—that protect electronic components
long enough for data acquisition and other
operations to be performed (below right). Flasks
are constructed to have extremely low thermal
inside the tool housings. This heat can push
internal temperatures well beyond a tool’s ther-
mal rating. Logging engineers monitor both time
and temperature to avoid potentially catastrophic
tool failure related to temperature when using
flasks in HPHT environments.
Tools that employ high-powered downhole
motors and pumps, such as pressure and sam-
pling tools, are examples of tools that generate
considerable heat—much greater than most
other evaluation tools. The thermal loads gener-
ated by these tools can quickly raise the tempera-
ture inside a flask above the rating of the
electronic components. Thus, flasking alone may
not provide sufficient operating time to complete
the required task when these high-power, high
heat–generating tools are used.
Tools that do not generate excessive heat and
have low power consumption, such as downhole
pressure gauges, may be used to collect data for
many hours, even days, in extreme conditions.

Thermal insulators

Electronics

0 cm 2.5
> The results of failure. This tool failed when exposed to pressures only
slightly above its rating. The failure was initiated at the threaded-ring
connection, where the pressure seal was most vulnerable. The result was a
catastrophic loss of the tools above and below the failure caused by the
sudden inrush of drilling mud from the wellbore.
Vacuum layer
Dewar flask
> Flasks for thermal barriers. The most common method of protecting
sensitive electronics from extreme heat is to use a Dewar flask (top). The
flask (bottom) consists of a glass liner inside a metal housing that serves as
a vacuum layer; the glass and air are poor heat conductors. Thermal
insulators at each end isolate the electronics section. Internally generated
heat from the electronic components is trapped inside the tool and can
cause the tool to overheat.

8 Oilfield Review
Thermal Hot Spots Unbalanced Loading

24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
Temperature, °C
> Thermal imaging. Infrared images reveal localized hot spots and overloaded electronic components (left). Identical components on a circuit board (right)
may not have the same loading. Large loading differences may be identified using thermal imaging and may require circuit board redesign. Solutions
include changing the layout to redistribute the load or installing heat sinks to draw heat away from target areas.

For long-duration measurements in HPHT wells,
flasks are not a solution for these types
of tools.
For solutions to address self-generated heat
or extended operations in high-temperature
environments, design engineers often focus on
the circuit boards. By maximizing efficiency, ana-
lyzing the heat generated by electronic compo-
nents and, wherever possible, employing
components that have above-average tempera-
ture ratings, engineers can extend the time avail-
able for tools to operate and acquire data
downhole (above).
Sourcing components that withstand high
temperatures has become increasingly difficult.
The electronics industry is driven by consumer
products that use plastic electronic components
that are not rated for use in even moderately
high-temperature conditions, for instance above
125°C [257°F]. Plastic components are often
composed of silicon chips, or dies, enveloped in a
plastic overpack. These components cannot
withstand the rigors of extreme environments
because the overpack fails first from tempera-
ture effects, although the underlying electronic
component may not have failed. In addition,
manufacturers treat plastic electronic compo-
nents with flame retardant chemicals, which
contain volatile compounds that are released at
elevated temperatures. These chemicals are
highly corrosive.
For high-temperature environments, design
engineers at Schlumberger have learned to elim-
inate plastic overpacks and use only the silicon
chips. These chips and other components are
attached directly to heat-tolerant ceramic multi-
layered circuit boards; the connecting wires
have the diameter of a human hair (below). In
some cases, engineers have created proprietary
6. DeBruijn et al, reference 1.
7. For more on Xtreme logging tools: DeBruijn et al,
reference 1.

Oilfield Review
AUTUMN 12
HPHT Fig. 7
ORAUT 12-HPHT 7

× 65

> Designed for extremes. To ensure tools are able to operate under extreme temperatures, engineers use components that rely on the underlying ceramic
and metal (center) without the plastic overwrap commonly used in consumer electronics. Ceramic components may be combined in multichip modules
(MCMs) (left). Component reliability can also be improved with manufacturing techniques such as the use of low-mass connections (right), some of which
are similar in thickness to a human hair.

Autumn 2012 9

Broken
wedge
× 200
> Electronic component failure mode. When electronic components fail, the mode can often be traced to mechanical failure from shock and vibration.
Cracks may form at connections (left) that eventually break under repeated loading. In the sealed environments of logging tools, corrosive chemicals may
be released from circuit boards and other components. At elevated temperatures, the corrosivity of these chemicals is accelerated, which causes damage
to sensitive electronics (top right). If the tools are opened for maintenance and repair, moisture in the air may also become a problem. When space is
available, desiccants can be used inside tool housings, protecting electronics from corrosion by absorbing humidity and volatilized chemicals (bottom right).
dies that are programmed and packaged for spe-
cific applications and built to high-temperature
specifications that exceed those readily available
in the commercial marketplace.
Extensive analysis of failed electronic compo-
nents has resulted in other design innovations.
The failure of electronic components may occur
at elevated temperatures; however, the actual
failure mode is often traced to mechanical break-
downs (above). The two most common causes of
mechanical failure are corrosion and vibration.
Corrosion can be problematic because high
temperatures accelerate chemical corrosivity,
especially that resulting from humidity and vola-
tilized gases from products used in the manufac-
ture of circuit boards. Where space permits,
desiccants are inserted in tool housings to absorb
volatilized chemicals and moisture.
Techniques to extend operability time miti-
gate the effects of high temperature, but such
techniques only extend the time available for
tools to operate at elevated temperatures.
Similarly, shock and vibration cannot be elimi-
nated, but better tool designs can improve the
mechanical integrity of connections and compo-
nents. Attaching circuit boards to specially
designed mounting rails and shock absorbers can
improve tool reliability. Once the designs are
finalized, thorough and rigorous testing, using
both thermal and mechanical loads, validates the
10
Seven Days at 150°C Without Desiccant
Cracked wedge
× 1,000
Seven Days at 150°C with Desiccant
design effectiveness or identifies weaknesses
that can then be rectified.
Engineered for Extremes
The MDT modular formation dynamics tester has
been an industry standard for fluid sampling since
its introduction in 1989. Through the decades, an
extensive array of sampling and downhole analy-
sis tools has been added to the basic platform.
Along with new features and services, several
modifications have been implemented to improve
the tool’s reliability and performance; however,
the basic design and layout of the tool electronics
and hardware have not changed.
In the years since
Oilfield the MDT tool was intro-
Review
AUTUMN 12engineers have been
duced, Schlumberger
HPHT
designing tools Fig. 8
to withstand high levels of shock
ORAUTprimary
and vibration—the 12-HPHTsources
8 of most elec-
tronic component failures. Much of the impetus
for establishing higher standards came from
requirements for LWD tools, which operate in
extremely harsh conditions. Design engineers
have integrated techniques developed for LWD
tools in wireline tools, and new designs of wire-
line tools are qualified to LWD standards when-
ever possible.
To pass these new qualification standards, the
MDT tool could not simply be upgraded but
required a full redesign. This newly designed tool
was introduced as the MDT Forte rugged modular
× 50
formation dynamics tester. The electronics sys-
tems for the MDT Forte tool were completely
reconfigured and mounted on a ruggedized chas-
sis (next page, top). Engineers then subjected the
new design to a rigorous qualification process.
The temperature qualification process of the
MDT Forte platform consisted of thermal aging of
components, thermal cycling from –40°C to
200°C [–40°F to 392°F] and cold storage at
–55°C [–67°F]. Shock and vibration qualification
included thousands of shocks on individual cir-
cuit boards, which were administered on differ-
ent axes by rotating the boards in the test facility.
Vibration testing of the boards included 10- to
450-Hz sweeps. Engineers also performed pres-
sure cycling, vibration transmissibility and trans-
verse shock transmissibility testing. After
qualifying the boards, they conducted tempera-
ture and shock qualification on full tool assem-
blies. They also performed extended low- and
high-temperature operations, including operation
at 210°C [410°F] for 100 h while administering
shocks to the tool assembly (next page, bottom).
These tests confirmed the new design could
withstand mechanical shock and vibration in
addition to thermal shocks, thereby meeting qual-
ification standards that previous-generation tools
could not. The temperature and pressure ratings
of the MDT Forte tool are 177°C [350°F] and
172 MPa [25,000 psi].
Oilfield Review
Original Design Redesign

> Making tools stronger and better. Older tool designs, like those of early generation MDT tools (left), used discrete components and circuit boards attached
to a central mandrel. These designs have been replaced by boards rigidly mounted to solid rails, such as those used in the MDT Forte tool (right). This
approach isolates sensitive electronics from shock and vibration and also helps dissipate heat. Many of the design changes have been introduced from
lessons learned developing LWD tools; newer generation tools are designed to pass LWD shock and vibration standards whenever possible.

Design engineers next focused on develop-
ing a tool with the improved reliability of the
MDT Forte tool that could also withstand higher
temperatures and pressures. The result is the
MDT Forte-HT rugged high-temperature version,
which is rated to 204°C [400°F] and 207 MPa
[30,000 psi].
To meet the 207-MPa pressure rating of the
MDT Forte-HT tools, engineers employed innova-
tive sealing technology that incorporates carbon
nanotubes in the O-ring seals. The structure of
these sealing elements provides strength to with-
stand downhole effects such as temperature deg-
radation and rapid gas decompression during
operations. The seals, which provide sample
assurance that is not possible with conventional
elastomers, retain full high-pressure capability
even at low subsea temperatures routinely expe-
rienced in deepwater environments while run-
ning in the well.
Engineers also upgraded the pressure gauge
used for the MDT tool by adding a new-generation
quartz gauge qualified to 207 MPa and 200°C for
100 h. A high-temperature InSitu Density reser-
voir fluid density sensor, which monitors fluid
density and helps improve fluid sample quality,
was developed and placed in the flowline. The
fluid density measurement provides the
ability to identify compositional grading and fluid
gradients at HPHT conditions—the first time

50 h 50 h 50 h
400°F
45 h 5h 45 h 5h
75% power load
75% 100% 75% 100%
Oilfield Review power power power power
Ambient AUTUMN 12 load load load load
temperature
HPHT Fig. 9 Shock test Shock test Shock test
ORAUT 12-HPHT 9

> Proof of concept. The MDT Forte tool platform (bottom) was designed to pass shock and vibration standards similar to those for LWD tools. Tool
qualification using the laboratory equipment shown (top left) cycles the tool through temperature variations while subjecting the tool to repeated
mechanical shocks. The test cycle (top right), which is just one of many, elevates the temperature to the tool limit and holds it for 50 h. The tool is allowed to
return to ambient conditions and subjected to fifty 250-gn shocks on four axes. The cycle is then repeated. These tests help identify design weaknesses as
well as validate design concepts.

Autumn 2012 11
 Upgraded Inflatable Packer these measurements have been available in these
environments.
For the MDT Forte-HT version, the dual-packer
module was also upgraded to 210°C. This module
uses sealing elements above and below the zone of
interest to isolate formations for sampling (left).
The inflatable packer elements isolate an interval
from 1 to 3.4 m [3.3 to 11.2 ft] in length.
The pumpout module presented one of the
most challenging aspects of upgrading the
MDT tools to the higher temperature and pres-
sure ratings. The pumpout module is important
for ensuring a reliable sample of formation fluid.
It uses a positive displacement pump to transfer
formation fluids that may be contaminated with
drilling mud filtrate into the wellbore until the
sample stream is free of impurities. When the
quality of the stream is acceptable, samples are
taken and recovered for analysis.
Four new pumpout displacement units are
now available to meet a range of specifications,
from a standard version to an extra, extra high-
pressure version (below left). Engineers designed
the new pump to operate more efficiently—to
generate less heat, resist plugging and handle
mud solids more effectively. The increased flow
area of the new pump decreases O-ring erosion
and delivers better sand-handling capabilities.
The pumpout modules are compatible with the
Quicksilver Probe device.8

Meeting the Sampling Challenge

The challenge of taking samples and pressures in
HPHT conditions extends beyond simply being
> MDT Forte-HT tool additions. Engineers designed modules and tools to able to acquire fluids or pressure data. The sam-
complement the new higher temperature rating of the MDT Forte-HT tool- pling time must be minimized to avoid tool dam-
string. This inflatable fullbore packer withstands temperatures up to 210°C. age from both internally generated heat and
external heat exposure; however, the sample
must be as free of contamination as possible to
ensure that the fluids collected by the tool and
analyzed in the laboratory are representative of
the formation fluids. In a recent test, a North Sea
operator successfully ran an MDT Forte-HT tool-
string that included two pumpout tools, a
Pumpout Module Displacement Units
Quicksilver Probe assembly and downhole fluid
analysis modules.
Standard tool High-pressure
Oilfield Review tool Extra high-pressure tool Extra, extra high- The well was drilled with oil-base mud (OBM)
pressure tool
AUTUMN 12 into a reservoir with pressures in excess of
Volume/stroke, 485 [30] HPHT366Fig.[22]11 177 [11] 115 [7]
cm3 [in.3] 17,000 psi [117 MPa]. Along with high downhole
ORAUT 12-HPHT 11
Maximum differential 32 [4,641] 42 [6,092] 58 [8,412] 81 [11,748] pressures, the operator faced bottomhole tem-
pressure, MPa [psi] peratures ranging from 347°F to 370°F [175°C to
Pump flow rate, 8.2 to 32.8 6.3 to 24.6 4.4 to 18.3 0.8 to 16 188°C]. Sample quality was crucial for accurately
cm3/s [in.3/s] [0.5 to 2] [0.4 to 1.5] [0.3 to 1.1] [0.05 to 1]
characterizing the reservoir fluids, but the high
> MDT pumpout module options. temperatures limited the time available for sam-
pling. Samples had to be taken quickly, yet fluids
needed to flow long enough to minimize OBM
filtrate contamination.

12 Oilfield Review
 Fluid Composition Pressure GOR Mobility

CO2 C1 C2 C3–5 C6+ psi XX,000 ft3/bbl YY,000 0.2 mD/cP 2,000
Station 1

Station 2
Depth

Station 3

Station 4

Station 5

CO2 C1 C2 C3–5 C6+

Fluid composition, %

100
80
60
40
20
0
2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500
Elapsed time, s

YY,000
GOR
ft3/bbl

XX,000
2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500
Elapsed time, s
> Quality sampling at extreme conditions. Using a reverse low-shock sampling technique, a North Sea
operator was able to identify fluid contacts and fluid composition in wellbore conditions approaching
370°F with the MDT Forte-HT tool. Samples were acquired with the Quicksilver Probe assembly, and
the filtrate contamination was less than 2%. The operator was interested in CO2 content (Track 1,
purple, top), which was available in the fluid composition analysis. A water contact can be identified
by the blue color in the composition track at Station 5. During the time interval shown in the sampling
plot (center), flow consisted of hydrocarbons with a trace of CO2. The change in GOR (green, bottom)
at 2,750 s was associated with a shift in direction of the reverse low-shock sampling. Accurate H2S
content was measured in the flowing stream using specially designed coupons. The low levels of
OBM filtrate resulted in samples that were unaltered by filtrate contamination, and reverse low-shock
sampling minimized scavenging of H2S by metal components of the tool.

The presence of OBM filtrate affects labora- For the well in question, the North Sea opera-
tory analysis of reservoir fluids and may distort tor collected several high-quality PVT samples in
H2S measurements because the filtrate may scav- a single trip (above). Filtrate contamination for
enge H2S from reservoir fluids. Sample quality all samples was 2% or lower. Downhole fluid anal-
and reliability of the fluid property measure- ysis provided fluid composition, CO2 content,
ments are improved when engineers, using the GOR and fluorescence.
pumpout module, first remove fluids contami- Because H2S was a concern for the operator,
Oilfield Review
nated with filtrate. The Quicksilver Probe device, the MDT tool was configured
AUTUMN 12 for reverse low-
which uses a focused sampling technique, greatly shock sampling. This technique
HPHT Fig. 11B helps minimize
decreases the time required to remove contami- ORAUT 12-HPHT
the scavenging of H 2S by tool11B
hardware and by
nated fluids and reach acceptable purity levels, OBM filtrate. The low-shock sampling technique
cutting sampling time by as much as half com- holds the pressure in the piston chambers of the
pared with the time required for sampling with pumpout module near that of the borehole
conventional probes. pressure, minimizing the drawdown pressure
results than those that draw formation fluid into
chambers at atmospheric pressure. Reverse
low-shock sampling routes fluid directly into
sample bottles without passing it through the
pumpout module. This technique reduces the
opportunity for metal hardware to scavenge
H2S, although additional precautions are taken
to minimize scavenging, including replacing
exposed parts with INCONEL alloys and coating
8. For more on the Quicksilver Probe device: Akkurt R,
Bowcock M, Davies J, Del Campo C, Hill B, Joshi S,
Kundu D, Kumar S, O’Keefe M, Samir M, Tarvin J,
Weinheber P, Williams S and Zeybek M: “Focusing
on Downhole Fluid Sampling and Analysis,”
Oilfield Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 2006/2007): 4–19.

during sampling. The technique produces better

Autumn 2012 13
 Sensor Assembly Bellows Assembly Reservoir Pressure Only
Temperature crystal Operators cannot always acquire fluid samples or
perform complex downhole fluid analyses, nor do
they always need to. These tasks are especially
problematic in low-permeability formations in
Pressure
inlet which fluid samples may be difficult to obtain or
long sampling times are required. However, accu-
rate pressure and fluid mobility data are important
Pressure crystal Bellows for understanding these reservoirs.9 These data
0 cm 2.5 are especially crucial for establishing fluid gradi-
Reference crystal
ents and identifying fluid contacts. Engineers at
Schlumberger developed the PressureXpress res-
ervoir pressure while logging service, which typi-
cally measures downhole pressure and mobility in
less than a minute, to address situations in which
pressure data alone may be sufficient.
The speed with which this service delivers
> Quartzdyne pressure transducer. Three quartz crystal resonators—a
multiple measurements greatly improves the like-
temperature sensor, a pressure sensor and a reference—make up the
Quartzdyne transducer. An increase in pressure at the pressure inlet of the lihood of successful operations at elevated tem-
bellows assembly causes an increase in frequency of the signal from the peratures, although the original tool is rated for
pressure crystal. An increase in temperature causes the frequency of the only 150°C [300°F]. The lower temperature rating
temperature crystal signal to decrease. The signal from the temperature and absence of a flask to protect sensitive compo-
sensor is used to compensate for temperature effects. The reference
crystal simplifies frequency counting output from the other two crystals. Its nents severely limited the use of the tool in HPHT
output is mixed with the output of the temperature and pressure sensors, environments. A more robust version was devel-
lowering their frequencies from the MHz to the kHz range. The design oped to meet the challenge of HPHT operations.
results in a low power consumption gauge that is highly stable and shock To upgrade the PressureXpress tool design,
resistant, while providing high-resolution measurements. A pressure
resolution of 0.01 psi [70 Pa] and temperature resolution of 0.001°C [0.002°F] engineers focused on the electronics and the
can be obtained using this gauge. pressure gauge. Pressure measurements with
quartz gauges are highly accurate, but the data
must be corrected for temperature. This tempera-
ture correction applies to the measurement elec-
parts with compounds that inhibit H2S were confirmed by laboratory analysis. Combined tronics rather than the reservoir temperature.
adsorption. Specially designed metal strips— Oilfield Review
with a Quicksilver Probe assembly, the MDT For downhole pressure measurements, the
coupons—that detect H2S concentrations AUTUMN
were 12
Forte-HT tool met the operator’s sampling objec- PressureXpress and PressureXpress-HT high-
HPHT Fig. 12
included in the tool flowlines. tives
ORAUT 12-HPHT 12 of obtaining uncontaminated reservoir temperature reservoir pressure services use a
The fluid properties, measured downhole in fluid, determining CO2 concentration and Quartzdyne gauge, which differs from conven-
extreme pressure and temperature conditions, detecting H2S. tional quartz gauges in that it has three separate
crystals: One measures pressure, another mea-
sures temperature and a third acts as a reference
(above left).10 The measurement is extremely
Pressure Data Comparison accurate when all three crystals are at the same
3,393 temperature, and the gauge is reliable at tem-
3,391.99 psi peratures up to 225°C [437°F]. But the gauge is
3,392
sensitive to abrupt pressure and temperature
Pressure, psi

3,391
changes. When exposed to rapid high-tempera-
3,390.03 psi ture and pressure changes, which can occur when
3,390 running into the well on wireline, the gauge must
be allowed to stabilize before acquiring data.
3,389
The PressureXpress-HT tool is equipped with
3,388 two flasks—one for the pressure gauge and
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 another for the electronics—to isolate the pres-
Time, s sure gauge sensor from the borehole and to isolate
> Thermal isolation of the PressureXpress tool pressure gauge. The PressureXpress-HT tool isolates the the rest of the tool electronics from the gauge.
pressure gauge and the rest of the electronics in separate flasks, which protects the gauge from This configuration has proved to provide more-
external wellbore temperatures and internally generated heat from the electronics. A comparison of
stable measurements than those taken with tools
measurements from a flasked sensor (red) and an unflasked sensor (blue) demonstrates the higher
accuracy and greater stablility of the flasked gauge. The output of the unflasked sensor stabilizes at the without flasks or when the electronics are housed
input pressure (3,391.99 psi) after almost 150 s. with the gauge in the same flask (left). Electronic

14 Oilfield Review
components for the PressureXpress-HT tool were
also upgraded based on many of the lessons
learned from the MDT Forte-HT tool design.
The modifications to the PressureXpress-HT
tool have extended the temperature specifica-
tions of the tool to 232°C [450°F] for 14 h.
Pressure and mobility measurements may be
obtained with drawdown differential pressures
up to 55 MPa [8,000 psi] and pretest mobility as
low as 0.3 mD/cP may be detected. The tool
retains its slim diameter, even with the addition
of flasks. The probe section can be as small as
10.3 cm [4.05 in.] while the main tool body has a
diameter of only 9.8 cm [3.9 in.].
Gulf of Thailand Challenges
Because of high geothermal gradients, the south-
ern regions of the Gulf of Thailand represent some
of the world’s harshest environments for hydro-
carbon production (right). The Arthit field in the
Gulf of Thailand is about 230 km [143 mi] off-
shore. PTT Exploration and Production Plc
(PTTEP) discovered the field in 1999. The field is
characterized by highly compartmentalized, com-
plex reservoirs that have bottomhole tempera-
tures between 320°F [160°C] and 500°F [260°C].11
Production is from Late Eocene to Late
Oligocene formations that are characterized by
low permeability. Low-permeability formations
may require extended sampling time, even when
only pressures and mobility data are acquired.
Most boreholes are small, usually drilled with
a 61/8-in. bit, which limits the size and selection of
tools that can be run at TD. Because of the small
hole size, PTTEP historically acquired pressure
and sampling data with an SRFT slimhole repeat
formation tester. Although this tool is rated only
to 177°C [350°F], it was one of the few options
available for the hole size typically drilled in the
field. The measurements needed from the tool
included formation pressure, fluid gradients and
CO2 content. Of these, only CO2 content required
fluid sampling. The pressure data were used to
determine fluid contacts, fluid mobility, sand-to-
sand pressure correlation, reservoir connectivity,
compartmentalization and perforation design
strategy. The data were also used to identify
depleted zones.
In 2009, a flasked PressureXpress tool was
introduced in Thailand. The tool was capable of
obtaining all of the PTTEP objectives except
one—CO2 content. However, this tool did not
include a separate flask for the pressure gauge,
which caused gauge stability problems because
the internal temperature rose during operations.
Autumn 2012
MYANMAR
LAOS
180°F to
220°F
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
220°F to
320°F
ailand
f Th
f o
G ul
VIETNAM
320°F to
350°F
350°F to Arthit
500°F field
Songkhla
Anda
man
Sea 0 km 200
0 mi 200
> Gulf of Thailand temperature trend. Reservoir temperatures in the Gulf
of Thailand range from relatively benign in the north to extremes of 500°F
[260°C] in the south. Field development in the high-temperature reservoirs,
such as the Arthit field, presents challenges for equipment used downhole.
(Adapted from Daungkaew et al, reference 11.)
An additional flasked section that isolated the than a minute compared with two to three minutes
gauge was added next, which resulted in a con- with the SRFT tool.
figuration similar to the PressureXpress-HT tool. Not only does the PressureXpress-HT tool set
The success of the modified PressureXpress and retract more quickly than the previous-
tool led design engineers at Schlumberger to generation tool did, but tool performance and
develop a fully upgraded PressureXpress-HT tool, data quality are improved. A direct comparison of
which was field-tested in the Gulf of Thailand. the data from the PressureXpress-HT tool with
The tool, which incorporated upgraded electron-
  9. Fluid mobility is a measurement of the ease with which
ics for high-temperature operations and flasks fluids travel through rock. It is the ratio of rock permeability
developed specifically for it, is combinable with divided by the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
10. For more on Quartzdyne Technologies: http://www.
other evaluation tools and can be included on the quartzdyne.com/quartz.php (accessed August 7, 2012).
first trip into the well. The SRFT tool isOilfield
not com-Review
11. Daungkaew S, Yimyam N, Avant C, Hill J, Sintoovongse K,
binable and requires an additional tripAUTUMN
when the 12 Nguyen-Thuyet A, Slapal M, Ayan C, Osman K,  
operator requires samples. HPHT Fig. 14 Wanwises J, Heath G, Salilasiri S, Kongkanoi C,
ORAUT 12-HPHTPrapasanobon
14 N, Vattanapakanchai T, Sirimongkolkitti A,
Ngo H and Kuntawang K: “Extending Formation Tester
PTTEP compared PressureXpress-HT opera-
Performance to a Higher Temperature Limit,” paper  
tional and measurement performance with those IPTC 14263, presented at the International Petroleum
of the SRFT tool. Rig time was noticeably reduced. Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand,  
February 7–9, 2012.
Time savings were realized from improved effi-
ciencies and through set and retract times of less
15
 data from the SRFT tool demonstrated the stabil-
Resistivity
SRFT Pressure Data ity and accuracy of the measurements. In a Gulf
SRFT Mobility Data 90-in. Induction
of Thailand well, the new tool provided fluid
X,000 psi Y,000 Crossover 0.2 ohm.m 200
gradient data that clearly identified a gas/water
PressureXpress Pressure Data PressureXpress
Mobility Data
Neutron Porosity 30-in. Induction contact, whereas the data from the SRFT tool
X,000 psi Y,000 45 % –15 0.2 ohm.m 200 were scattered and not definitive (left).
Gamma Ray Depth, Drawdown Mobility Bulk Density 10-in. Induction A comparison of pretest data from the first
ft
0 gAPI 200 0.1 mD/cP 10,000 1.95 g/cm3 2.95 0.2 ohm.m 200 application of the tool demonstrated the higher
X,100 efficiency and improved performance of the
PressureXpress-HT tool (below left). Performance
continued to improve after a few jobs; on an off-
set well, 76% of the attempted pressure tests
0.319 psi/ft (gas)
were successful with no unstable tests and no
Gas/water contact lost seals.
The tool is combinable with other logging
tools. Because it sets and retracts quickly, and
because the quartz gauge requires little stabiliza-
tion time, PTTEP has experienced average time
0.401 psi/ft (water)
savings between 157 and 167 min per job. This
translates into direct rig cost savings. Fast set-
retract cycling has also allowed PTTEP to per-
form more tests before the tool heats up and
X,150
must be removed from the well.
The success of the PressureXpress-HT tool
demonstrates that the new design meets the
challenge of extreme conditions by protecting
sensitive electronics with thermal barriers and
> Stable pressure measurements. Engineers identify fluid contacts from fluid pressure gradients. This minimizing heat generation. Because the
information enhances conventional log evaluation. For instance, the rise in resistivity (Track 4) around PressureXpress tool does not have the capability
X,115 ft might be interpreted as a gas/water contact (GWC). The density-neutron porosity data
to sample or measure CO2, PTTEP continues to
(Track 3) provide little help in determining the fluid contact. However, with pressure data at around
X,120 ft from the PressureXpress-HT tool (Track 1, blue circles), a GWC can be identified from the use the SRFT tool for taking fluid samples. In
change in slope of a line drawn through pressure measurements. No such trend can be established development wells, where fluid properties are
with the SRFT data (black circles). Engineers also identified permeable zones using fluid mobility known, fluid sampling is often unnecessary
measurements from the PressureXpress-HT data (Track 2). (Adapted from Daungkaew et al,
reference 11.) and pressure data, from the PressureXpress-HT
tool, for example, can be used for reservoir man-
agement and modeling. Pressure information
helps engineers understand dynamic properties
at the wellbore and across a reservoir.

Field Results Time and Temperature

Well A-1 To understand the reservoir limits and define
Number of attempts Valid Dry Tight Unstable Lost seal Supercharged field potential, engineers often conduct long-
PressureXpress-HT
data 37 18 (49%) 2 (5%) 10 (27%) 2 (5%) 4 (11%) 1 (3%)
duration pressure transient tests. Shut-in and
Number of attempts Valid Dry Tight Unstable Lost seal Supercharged
buildup tests help accurately define reservoir
SRFT data potential. These tests provide data on reservoir
10 Oilfield Review
2 (20%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) 4 (40%) 0
AUTUMN 12A-2 volume, permeability thickness and boundaries,
Well
HPHTValid
Number of attempts
Fig. 15 Dry Tight Unstable Lost seal Supercharged
along with skin effect in the well being tested.
PressureXpress-HT ORAUT 12-HPHT 15
data Critical decisions that affect long-term pro-
29 22 (76%) 6 (21%) 1 (3%) 0 0 0
duction plans require data from long-duration
> Comparison of PressureXpress-HT field results with SRFT data. In the first well test (Well A-1), the tests. Although some measurements that reflect
PressureXpress-HT tool was able to make more attempts and had a higher success rate than the SRFT well production can be acquired at the surface,
tool. In Well A-2, only the PressureXpress-HT tool was run. This test had a 76% success rate for
pressure attempts, which engineers considered excellent for the downhole conditions and formation for best results, measurements are acquired with
properties. (Adapted from Daungkaew et al, reference 11.) gauges positioned downhole, as close to the
producing zone as feasible.

16 Oilfield Review
 Quartz gauges are the industry standard for
measurement accuracy and precision downhole.
These gauges use quartz as the active sensing ele-
ment because of its well-defined elasticity. When
exposed to a stress, the quartz distorts, or strains,
with a precise, repeatable response in reaction to
the applied load. The measurement must be cali-
brated to compensate for the effects of tempera-
ture on the sensing element and associated
electronics. In HPHT environments, however,
operators have had to forgo extended well tests
because downhole conditions preclude the use of
gauges needed to make the measurements.
Engineers at Schlumberger developed the
Signature quartz gauge in recognition of the
industry’s need for a robust downhole device that
provided the accuracy and precision required but
could withstand harsh HPHT conditions (right).
Not only does the instrument survive HPHT envi-
ronments—no simple task—but the data
acquired meet needed accuracy and stability cri-
teria. In developing the Signature gauge, engi-
neers focused on two main areas of concern:
electronics and batteries.
> Signature gauge. The outside diameter of the Signature gauge is only
For high-temperature applications, engineers
25 mm [1 in.] and the tool weighs 1.7 kg [3.8 lbm]. Rated to 207 MPa and
chose ceramic electronic components; plastic 210°C, the gauge is accurate to within 0.015% at full scale and has a
components would never survive the tempera- resolution of 7 Pa [0.001 psi].
ture extremes for long-duration tests. The major-
ity of the electronic functionality for the
Signature gauge is incorporated into a high-tem-
perature application-specific integrated circuit
(ASIC), which minimizes component size and
power consumption. Limiting power consump-
tion is a challenge because consumption
increases dramatically at high temperatures,
often surpassing the ability of the battery to
deliver sufficient current to operate the tool.
Condensing the electronics into an ASIC
reduces the number of components, connections
and potential failure mechanisms. Since the pre-
dominant failure mode of electronics is mechani-
cal, this design was developed with reliability and Oilfield Review
AUTUMN 12
ruggedness in mind. HPHT Fig. 16
The electronic circuitry is integrated into a ORAUT 12-HPHT 16
multichip module (MCM). There are many types
of MCMs but the Signature gauge uses rigor-
ously tested high-temperature electronic com-
ponents on a single cofired ceramic substrate
(right).12 This technology provides mechanical
rigidity and hermeticity.
12. Cofiring is a fabrication technique used for creating
multilayer ceramic chips. 0 cm 1

> Designed for extreme conditions. The electronic components (gold) used in the Signature gauge are
applied directly to a ceramic substrate (brown). Conventional tools may use plastic components mounted
on circuit boards. The Signature gauge is designed for low power consumption to maximize battery life,
which is a chief limiting factor for high-temperature operations that rely on downhole batteries.

Autumn 2012 17
 Pranhita-
Godavari Basin
I N D I A

Krishna-
Cuddapah Godavari Basin
Basin

Palar-
Pennar GSPC lease
Chennai Basin

Cauvery
Basin
Deep exploration 0 km 20
engal
y of B targets
Ba 0 mi 20

SRI 0 km 200
LANKA
0 mi 200

> Bay of Bengal basins. In 2005, Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation made a huge natural gas discovery offshore
India in the Godavari basin. Well depths here are approximately 5,500 m [18,050 ft], with bottomhole temperatures
greater than 200°C. (Adapted from Khan et al, reference 14.)

Electronics that survive long-term exposure
at high temperatures still need power to operate.
Because the melting point of lithium is 181°C
[358°F], conventional lithium batteries—the
industry standard—cannot be used in high-tem-
perature wells for long periods. Battery special-
ists at Schlumberger developed lithium batteries
that incorporate magnesium to strengthen the
cell structure of the battery, which allows battery
operation up to 210°C. Although battery life
remains the primary limiting factor in high-
temperature operations, batteries with this
design can power the tool for 12 days at 210°C
and 37 days at 205°C [400°F].
To maximize test duration and extend battery
life, the electronics are designed to consume min-
imal power during operations. Even if the batter-
ies are fully discharged, data are recorded in
nonvolatile memory and stored for the duration of
extended tests with no loss of information.
The Signature quartz gauges are available in
three models: standard quartz, high-pressure
(HP) quartz and HPHT quartz. The physical
dimensions for all three gauges are the same at
25 mm [1 in.] outside diameter; however, the
gauges differ in electronics, memory size and bat-
teries. The maximum pressure rating of the HP
version is 207 MPa and the temperature rating is
177°C. The HPHT model has the same pressure
rating but the maximum temperature is 210°C.
Because of the limitations imposed by high-tem-
perature environments, the HPHT memory
capacity is 12 days of 1-s recordings at maximum
temperature in contrast to 50 days for the other
two models.13
For the Signature gauge, the accuracy and
resolution for both pressure and temperature
measurements are some of the best in the indus-
try. The HP and HPHT models have pressure accu-
racy of 0.015% at full
Oilfield scale—207 MPa—with a
Review
AUTUMN 1270 Pa [0.01 psi]. Field
resolution better than
results have HPHT Fig. 18 resolution better than
demonstrated
ORAUT
7 Pa [.001 psi]. 12-HPHT 18
Temperature accuracy is 0.2°C
[0.4°F] with a resolution of 0.001°C [0.002°F].
The Challenge of the Bay of Bengal
The HPHT version of the Signature quartz gauge
was recently put to the test in a well operated
by the Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation
(GSPC).14 GSPC, India’s only state-owned oil and
gas company, made discoveries of significant
amounts of natural gas in the Krishna-Godavari
basin, which extends into the Bay of Bengal off-
shore India. Initial reports by GSPC in 2005 indi-
cated a resource potential for 566 billion m3
[20 Tcf] of gas, the largest discovery in India at
that time (above).15
The discovery well encountered 800 m
[2,600 ft] of gas-bearing sandstone at around
5,500 m [18,050 ft]. Reservoir temperatures
exceed 204°C. The highly faulted horst and gra-
ben structures are lower Cretaceous-age sand-
stones that have experienced extensive rifting
and tectonic faulting. Although seismic data indi-
cated potential targets for exploration, the depth
and complexity of the reservoir led reservoir
engineers to design a drillstem test (DST) to bet-
ter understand the reservoir potential.
13. Storage capacity for the standard and HP Signature
gauges is 16 MB. It is 4 MB for the HPHT model.
14. Khan ZA, Behera BK, Kumar V and Sims P: “Solving
the Challenges of Time, Temperature and Pressure,”
World Oil 233, no. 5 (May 2012): 75–78.
15. “India’s Gujarat Petroleum Strikes Record Gas Find,”
Spirit of Chennai, http://www.spiritofchennai.com/news/
national-news/a0272.htm (accessed June 6, 2012).
16. Khan et al, reference 14.

18 Oilfield Review
 Temperature
20,000 Pressure 425

18,000 405

16,000 385

Temperature, °F
All electronic gauges, except
Pressure, psi
Disturbance the Signature quartz gauge,
14,000 during buildup failed to record after this time. 365
Clean buildup
Drawdown Drawdown
12,000 345

10,000 325
Buildup 1 Buildup 2 Buildup 3
8,000 305
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time, d
> Extended pressure test. GSPC performed an extended well test that included three buildup and drawdown
sequences performed over 15 days. Five gauges were run downhole for redundancy and data security. The first
two sequences experienced operational problems, and the tests were compromised by disturbances in the
pressure data (blue). The third sequence was performed properly. After the gauges were retrieved, all but one
were discovered to have failed prior to the commencement of the third (and only valid) test. The only usable data
retrieved were from the HPHT Signature gauge. (Adapted from Khan et al, reference 14.)

To establish stable flow within the reservoir,
engineers designed the DST to include three suc-
cessive drawdowns and buildups conducted over
15 days. The estimated downhole pressure was
more than 95 MPa [13,800 psi] and the tempera-
ture was greater than 210°C at TD. Extensive
backup systems included five different electronic
recording devices. The Signature quartz gauge
was the only device that engineers deemed suit-
able for deployment at the 210°C level, which was
close to TD.
For the most accurate data, gauges should be
positioned as close to the producing zone as pos-
sible because the compressibility of natural gas
may distort the measurement. Although not opti-
mal, but because of temperature and pressure
limitations, three of the five devices were located
more than 1,000 m [3,280 ft] above the depth at
which the Signature gauge was positioned.
The operator ran three pressure transient
tests in sequence for the full 15 days. During the
first two tests, the operator experienced prob-
lems that invalidated the tests but were unre-
lated to the gauges. The third test sequence,
however, was performed as planned.
The test assembly was retrieved and only one
of the gauges was found to be operational, the
Signature quartz gauge (above). No usable down-
hole electronic data were recorded from the
other gauges because they had all failed prior to to lower temperatures and pressures. Pressure
the commencement of the final test. The data and sampling tools were once in that class. Now
from the Signature gauge were of sufficient that it has been proved that these services can
quality—pressure fluctuations of as little as 7 Pa be performed in extreme conditions, geologists,
were detected—that a second confirmation test engineers and geophysicists often consider the
was considered unnecessary. GSPC engineers measurements essential to fully characterize
estimated that US$ 1 million was saved because and understand reservoirs.
remedial services to resolve reservoir complexity Extreme wells call for extreme solutions.
were not needed.16 Although HPHT fields may contain a relatively
small number of wells, they also may contain sig-
The Limit nificant sources of hydrocarbons. Thanks to an
At one time, oil and gas service companies enormous research and engineering effort, more
expressed grave concern about their ability to and more options are available for operators to
develop tools capable of withstanding extreme drill wells, evaluate formations and properly
conditions. Electronics manufacturers shifted characterize reservoirs. —TS
Oilfield Review
their focus from rugged 12
AUTUMN components to those that
consume littleHPHT Fig. 19 operate at ambient
power and
ORAUTservice
conditions, leaving 12-HPHT 19
companies to fend for
themselves. Design engineers, however, are now
meeting the challenge of extreme operating envi-
ronments with innovative pressure and sampling
tools and downhole gauges for evaluating
HPHT reservoirs.
Service companies have demonstrated an
ability to meet the challenge of hostile drilling
environments. Although the portfolio of offer-
ings has expanded in recent years, it is still
limited to primary evaluation services. Some
measurements that operators would like to have
to characterize producing wells remain limited

Autumn 2012 19
 When Rocks Get Hot: Thermal Properties of
Reservoir Rocks

For many years, thermal stimulation has been the leading method for enhanced oil
recovery. Operators are using new techniques on heavy oil, tar sands, bitumen and oil
shale to liberate a vast store of liquid energy that could provide transportation fuels
for worldwide use for a century or more. Design of stimulation programs to produce
these resources efficiently over long periods of time requires better understanding
and measurement of thermal properties of rocks.

Evgeny Chekhonin When reservoir fluid gets hot, its viscosity remarkable successes. At the Kern River oil field
Anton Parshin decreases, and a greater amount of fluid usually in California, USA, for example, a massive pro-
Dimitri Pissarenko can be produced from the reservoir rock. gram of cyclic steam injection, starting in the
Yury Popov Stimulation of conventional petroleum reservoirs 1960s, revived this supergiant field by increasing
Raisa Romushkevich with heat from injected steam or hot water has its production rate more than tenfold after it
Sergey Safonov
been practiced for more than 50 years with some had stagnated for decades (below). Today, about
Mikhail Spasennykh
Moscow, Russia

Mikhail V. Chertenkov
Vladimir P. Stenin
Lukoil
Ca

Moscow, Russia
lif

UNITED STATES
orn

Oilfield Review Autumn 2012: 24, no. 3.

ia

Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Yevgeniya Kern River field
Gelman, Houston; and Sidney Green and Roberto Suarez- Bakersfield
Rivera, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
Micarta® is a trademark of Norplex-Micarta.
Plexiglas® is a registered trademark of ATOFINA.
TerraTek is a mark of Schlumberger.

Kern River Field Production History

160,000

140,000

120,000
Oil production, bbl/d

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000
Steam stimulation
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
> Kern River field, operated by Chevron near Bakersfield, California, USA.
Production of heavy oil at Kern River field peaked within its first 10 years of
operation and went into a 50-year decline. A program of thermal EOR by
cyclic steam injection, accompanied by intensive infill drilling, rejuvenated
the field in the 1960s, with high production levels continuing today.

20 Oilfield Review
Autumn 2012 21
 sandstones, shales and carbonates from many
petroleum reservoirs. The measurements have
revealed important new results about the hetero-
geneity and anisotropy of thermal rock proper-
Ukhta
ties. Investigators are also finding intriguing
Yarega field correlations between thermal and other petro-
physical properties.
0 km 200 Research on cores from Russian oil fields
0 mi 200 revealed surprising variability in reservoir ther-
mal properties over spatial scales ranging from
centimeters to tens of meters. Reservoir simula-
tions show why it is important for engineers to
understand this variability when they attempt to
Komi predict the outcome of thermal EOR. In the cases
Republic Timan-Pechora simulated, incorrect values caused estimates of
basin A
I
S key metrics for thermal stimulation to vary by up
S
U
R to 40% after just 10 years of production.

Yarega Oil Field

The Yarega heavy oil field in the Komi Republic,
Russia, illustrates the enormous potential of
thermal EOR. Discovered in 1932, and now oper-
ated by Lukoil, Yarega lies in a prolific oil prov-
ince west of the Ural Mountains called the
1,000 4,000 Timan-Pechora basin (left). The reservoir holds
large quantities of bitumen, a highly viscous,
semisolid hydrocarbon formed during the pro-
Steam injection, Mg × 10 3

750 3,000
Oil production, Mg × 10 3

Oil production cess of petroleum generation. Natural bitumen

500
Thermal
mining
250
Steam
injection
0 0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Year
> Yarega oil field, operated by Lukoil near Ukhta in the Komi Republic, Russia. Primary production of oil
from bitumen in the shallow Yarega field started in the 1930s and peaked in the early 1950s. Production
was declining rapidly around 1970, when new programs of thermal mining by steam injection were
introduced.
60% of world oil production attributed to methods often only loosely constrained, even though these
of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) comes from properties help determine project economics.
thermal stimulation. For the future, heavy oil After a brief look at an unusual thermal recov-
deposits, tar sands, bitumen and oil shale— ery operation taking place in the Yarega heavy oil
unconventional resources that represent Earth’s field in Russia, this article reviews the basic ther-
largest store of liquid fuels—are now being mal properties of rocks and their measurement
coaxed into releasing the oil they contain by by often time-consuming conventional tech-
Oilfield Reviewniques. It also introduces a new measurement
highly evolved forms of thermal recovery.
1
occurs at depths shallower than 370 m [1,200 ft]
2,000 in many Russian oil fields, where it constitutes a
resource estimated at more than 16 billion m3
1,000
[100 billion bbl] of oil. The pay zone in Yarega is
at depths between 180 and 200 m [590 and 660 ft]
and is composed of fine-grained quartz sandstone
of Middle Devonian age, with a porosity of 20% to
1990 2000
25% and nearly 100% oil saturation.2
Production from the shallow reservoirs at
the Yarega field resembles a mining operation.
Operators have used several configurations to
heat the reservoir with steam and extract the lib-
erated fluids. In the most common scheme, devel-
oped in the 1970s and called the two-level, or
two-horizon, system, steeply inclined steam
injection wells, drilled from overlying chambers
reached by conventional mine shafts, penetrate
and heat the reservoir. Additional mine shafts
lead to a second set of galleries near the bottom
of the reservoir, from which gently sloping pro-
duction wells are drilled upward into the oil-
bearing layers.

This article examines an important, but often12 technique that employs optical sensors to rapidly
SUMMER The effect of thermal stimulation on produc-
overlooked, facet of thermal EOR—the Thermal
thermalProperties Fig.thermal
quantify 2 properties of rock. Since the tion from the Yarega field has been dramatic.
ORSUMflu-
behavior of reservoir rocks. Heating reservoir 12-THMPTS 2
1980s, scientists have scanned thousands of rock Before thermal mining began in the late 1960s,
ids means also heating large volumes of rock. samples with this optical method, including igne- production in conventional wells drilled from
And, while engineers designing a stimulation pro- ous and metamorphic rocks from deep scientific the surface recovered barely 4% of the original
gram usually know the thermal properties of the boreholes around the world and, more recently, oil in place. Thermal mining has raised the
fluids, thermal properties of formation rocks are

22 Oilfield Review
average recovery to 33% and in some zones, to
nearly 70%. Lukoil recently introduced new
forms of steam-assisted gravity drainage
(SAGD) at Yarega, which are expected to
increase annual production to 3.5 million met-
ric tons (3,500,000 Mg) [25 million bbl] of oil in
the near future.3
After a steady state is reached, the sample’s
thermal conductivity is estimated by comparing
the temperature drop across its faces with the
drop across those of reference materials of known
conductivity flanking the sample. The divided
bar method defines the standard for accuracy in
measuring thermal conductivity, but is time-
consuming. The measurement of a typical cylin-
drical sample, 3 to 5 cm [1.2 to 2.0 in.] in
diameter and 1 to 3 cm [0.4 to 1.2 in.] long, takes
(continued on page 27)

Thermal Rock Properties Steel head plate

Engineers often use reservoir simulations to
design thermal EOR programs and predict the
amount of additional oil attributed to thermal
stimulation and its production rate over time at
various wells in the field. To accomplish this, sim-
ulators employ sophisticated algorithms to com-
pute the evolution of temperature and heat flow
within a reservoir after stimulation. These two
quantities—temperature and heat—are linked
by the thermal properties of rocks and their pore
fluids (see “Physics of Temperature and Heat,”
page 24). The most important of these properties
are volumetric heat capacity, thermal conductiv-
ity and thermal diffusivity. Volumetric heat capac-
ity specifies the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit volume of rock (and any
pore fluids within) by one degree. Thermal con-
ductivity determines where and how much heat
flows in response to temperature differences in
the reservoir. Thermal diffusivity determines
the speed at which a temperature front moves
through the reservoir.4
A fourth property, the coefficient of thermal
expansion, links the thermal and mechanical
responses of reservoir rocks by determining the
amount by which a volume of rock expands as its
temperature increases. Knowledge of this prop-
erty is needed, for example, to assess changes in
mechanical wellbore stability and in caprock
integrity caused by changing temperature condi-
tions in the reservoir.
In the enormous volume of petrophysical data
from geologic formations around the world, there
are relatively few measurements of thermal prop-
1. For more on Kern River and modern methods of thermal
erties of reservoir rocks made in the laboratory or
in situ. As a result, engineers often calculate
these thermal properties by using crude predic-
tive models, without reference to actual mea-
surements on core samples. This lack of thermal
measurements represents a big gap in current
knowledge of reservoir rock properties.
One reason for the lack of data is that it is
difficult to measure thermal rock properties.
The long-time standard for measuring thermal
conductivity, the divided bar method, obtains
the property by placing a disk-shaped sample of
material between two cylindrical metal bars
held at constant temperature (above right).
Micarta
Brass warm bath
Copper Micarta
Copper
Temperature
transducer Rock or cell Fused silica
wells
Copper
Copper Micarta
Increasing temperature
Brass cold bath
Rubber
Micarta
Steel
Steel Hydraulic ram
50 mm
> Measuring rock thermal conductivity. The divided bar method is the
standard laboratory technique for determining rock thermal conductivity. The
method sandwiches a disk-shaped rock sample between brass plates—two
ends of a divided bar—held at different temperatures. The sample is flanked
by disks of a reference material of known thermal conductivity; fused silica,
with a thermal conductivity of 1.38 W/m°K, is a commonly used reference.
After a steady state is reached, as indicated by steady temperatures in the
transducer wells, the sample’s thermal conductivity is determined by
comparing the temperature drop across its length with the drop across the
reference material. The hydraulic ram compresses samples for
measurements under high pressure. (Adapted from Popov et al,
reference 12.)
of the Former Soviet Union: Reserves and Prospects,
EOR: Curtis C, Kopper R, Decoster E, Guzmán-Garcia A, Extraction, Transportation. Amsterdam: Gordon and
Huggins C, Knauer L, Minner M, Kupsch N, Marina Breach Publishers (1998): 69–184.
Linares L, Rough H and Waite M: “Heavy-Oil Reservoirs,” For a recent comprehensive review of enhanced recovery:
Oilfield Review 14, no. 3 (Autumn 2002): 30–51. Alvarado V and Manrique E: “Enhanced Oil Recovery:
Alboudwarej H, Felix J, Taylor S, Badry R, Bremner C, An Update Review,” Energies 3, no. 9 (2010): 1529–1575.
Brough B, Skeates C, Baker A, Palmer D, Pattison K, 2. Mamedov YG and Bokserman AA: “Development of
Beshry M, Krawchuk P, Brown G, Calvo R, Cañas Triana JA, Heavy Oils and Natural Bitumens in the Former Soviet
Hathcock R, Koerner K, Hughes T, Kundu D, Oilfield
López de Review Union and Eastern and Central Europe: State-of-the-Art
Cárdenas J and West C: “Highlighting Heavy Oil,”
SUMMER 12 and Outlook,” Proceedings of the Sixth UNITAR
Oilfield Review 18, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 34–53. International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands,
Thermal Properties
Allix P, Burnham A, Fowler T, Herron M, Kleinberg R
Fig. 4
Houston, February 12–17, 1995: 11–18.
and Symington B: “Coaxing Oil from Shale,”ORSUM 12-THMPTS 4
Chertenkov MV, Mulyak VV and Konoplev YP: “The
Oilfield Review 22, no. 4 (Winter 2010/2011): 4–15. Yarega Heavy Oil Field—History, Experience, and
Butler RM: Thermal Recovery of Oil and Bitumen. Future,” Journal of Petroleum Technology 64, no. 4
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, 1991. (April 2012): 153–160.
For a comprehensive report on methods developed in the 3. Chertenkov et al, reference 2.
former Soviet Union: Bokserman AA, Filippov VP, 4. The three thermal properties are not independent;
Filanovskii VYu: “Oil Extraction,” in Krylov NA, thermal diffusivity is the ratio of thermal conductivity to
Bokserman AA and Stavrovsky ER (eds): The Oil Industry volumetric heat capacity.

Autumn 2012 23
 Physics of Temperature and Heat

Thermal properties connect temperature and
heat flow, which are fundamental concepts
in physics and classical thermodynamics.
Temperature is a measure of the average
energy content of macroscopic bodies—solids,
liquids and gases—while heat flow represents
the transfer of thermal energy between bodies
or regions at different temperatures.
Temperature has its own basic SI unit,
degrees kelvin (°K), with absolute zero (0°K)
as the lowest possible temperature. In the
commonly used Celsius scale (°C), the
freezing point of water is taken as 0°C, placing
absolute zero at −273.15°C. A difference of
one degree in either scale represents the
same change in temperature.
Volumetric heat capacity, thermal conduc-
tivity, thermal diffusivity and the coefficient of
thermal expansion are the main thermal prop-
erties of interest for engineers. Volumetric
heat capacity (VHC) measures the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit
volume (1 m3) of a substance by 1°K (below).
The original unit of heat, the Calorie, was
defined in 1824, by the French physicist and
chemist Nicolas Clément, as the amount of
heat needed to raise 1 kg of water by 1°C. The
later discovery, by the English physicist and
brewer James Prescott Joule, of the equivalence
of heat and mechanical energy led to
replacement of the Calorie as a basic physical
unit by the derived unit for mechanical or
kinetic energy, kg m2/s2—now called the
Heat Flow
q
1m Heat flow
vector
θ
1m
> Heat flow. Heat flow is a vector quantity, q,
whose magnitude, at any point in a material,
gives the amount of thermal energy flowing per
unit time across a surface of unit area oriented
perpendicular to the vector direction. If the
heat flow vector (red arrow) is oriented at an
angle, θ, to the surface, energy flow across the
surface is reduced by the cosine of the angle.

Volumetric Heat Capacity

joule (J). Clément’s Calorie, which is equiva-

26°C lent to about 4.2 kJ, survives today as the com-
mon unit for measuring the energy content of
food. Since 1 m3 of water weighs 1,000 kg,
Bitumen Sandstone Water the volumetric heat capacity of water is about
1m 1m 4.2 MJ/m3°K. The volumetric heat capacity
of rocks is generally lower, in the range
25°C 1 to 4 MJ/m3°K (next page, bottom left).
1m

Temperature differences drive the flow of

thermal energy—the flow of heat (above).
Like the flow of fluid or electrical current,
heat flow has both magnitude and direction
1.7 MJ and is therefore represented as a vector
2.7 MJ
quantity. The magnitude of the heat flow
4.2 MJ Oilfield Review
vector gives the amount
SUMMER 12 of thermal energy per
second crossing a surface
Thermal Propertiesof unit
Fig.area
3B oriented
> Volumetric heat capacity. Volumetric heat capacity is the amount of thermal
energy in the form of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit volume of ORSUM 12-THMPTS 3B vector.
perpendicular to the direction of the
material—1 m3 in SI units—by 1°K, starting from a given temperature T0. The units of heat flow are thus energy per unit
There can be no change of phase, such as melting, during the temperature time per unit area, or power per unit area and
rise. The volumetric heat capacity of dry sandstone typically falls between are conventionally taken as watt per square
that of bitumen and water.
meter (W/m2).

24 Oilfield Review
 Thermal conductivity provides the quanti- proportional to the temperature difference
tative connection between heat flow and divided by the distance between the faces. Thermal Conductivity
temperature differences (right). It can be The constant of proportionality is the ther- T
defined by considering a cube of homoge- mal conductivity, which thus has units of
neous material with a temperature differ- W/m°K. The thermal conductivity of water is ∆z q
ence between two opposite faces. The about 0.6 W/m°K. The thermal conductivity
amount of heat flowing through the cube, of rocks is generally higher, in a range from T + ∆T
from the high- to low-temperature faces, is about 0.5 to 6.5 W/m°K. ∆T
q = –k
∆z

Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity

T +∆T T
∆x
Volumetric Heat Thermal Conductivity, T
Capacity, MJ/m 3 °K W/m°K
5 1,000
∆z qz
qx
Silver
Copper T + ∆T
q z = –k ∆T q x = – k ∆T
Gold
Aluminum ∆z ∆x
Water at 100°C
Water at 25°C > Thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity
4 100
Limestone Nickel relates temperature gradients and heat flow. A
block of material with a temperature difference
Human
Steel ΔT across two opposing faces separated by a
tissue
Lead distance Δz sustains a heat flow whose
Copper magnitude is proportional to the temperature
difference divided by the distance (top). The
Stainless steel
Ammonia proportionality constant is the block’s thermal
conductivity k. Many materials display
3 10 anisotropic thermal conductivity, in which
Sandstone
temperature differences placed across
Shale, siltstone different pairs of opposing faces of a cube
result in different magnitudes of heat flow
Gold (bottom). Thermal anisotropy is common in
finely layered materials, such as rocks, where
Paraffin the thermal conductivity parallel to layers (k ||)
is up to 50% higher than thermal conductivity
Carbon
2 Ethanol 1.0 Glass perpendicular to layers (k⊥).
Bitumen
Shale, siltstone Water

Limestone
Petroleum
Lead
Methanol
Some materials, including rocks, exhibit
Bitumen Oilfield Review
Motor oil, grade SAE 50 macroscopic thermal12
SUMMER anisotropy; for example,
1 0.1
Sandstone Thermal Properties
different numerical values for Fig. 3C con-
thermal
ORSUM
ductivity result 12-THMPTS
from measurements3C across
different pairs of opposing faces on a cube of
the material. The simplest type of thermal
Air anisotropy, common in rocks, arises when the
Carbon dioxide material has a layered structure at fine scales.
0 Air, dry at sea level 0.01 The thermal conductivity in the direction per-
pendicular to the layering is generally lower
than the conductivity in any direction parallel
> Thermal properties of common materials. to the layering.

Autumn 2012 25
 Volumetric heat capacity and thermal
Thermal Diffusivity conductivity combine to determine a third
q out q out thermal property, called thermal diffusivity
(left). Imagine a cube of uniform material
with more heat flowing in through the bot-
tom face than is flowing out through the top
face. The difference in the two flows is the
T T + ∆T
rate at which heat is being added to the
cube, which will cause its temperature to
rise. Since the rate of heat flow is deter-
mined by the material’s thermal conductivity
and the temperature increase by its volumet-
q in q in
ric heat capacity, the rate of temperature
increase is obtained by dividing the thermal
conductivity by the volumetric heat capacity.
Time 0 Time 0 + 1 s
This ratio, called thermal diffusivity, governs
the speed at which temperature changes
propagate through a material.
Temperature is not the only property that
> Thermal diffusivity. Thermal diffusivity controls the rate at which changes when a cube of material is heated:
temperature rises in a uniform block of material when more heat is flowing
Most substances also expand. The rate of
into the block than flowing out. If an initial temperature gradient is established
between the block and its surroundings, the heat fluxes in and out are linear expansion—defined as the fractional
determined by the block’s thermal conductivity, while the temperature rise increase in length of a cube’s sides per unit
caused by the heat imbalance is determined by the block’s volumetric heat temperature rise—is called the coefficient
capacity. Thermal diffusivity is thus the ratio of thermal conductivity to
volumetric heat capacity.
of linear thermal expansion (below left).
The thermal expansion of reservoir rocks
provides an important link between the ther-
mal and mechanical responses of the reser-
voir during thermal EOR.
Thermal conductivity, heat capacity,
Thermal Expansion
thermal diffusivity and the coefficient of
Block of material Block of material thermal expansion are properties that apply
at temperature T0 at temperature T0 + 1°K to macroscopic chunks of matter. The con-
x 1m cepts break down when applied to individual
1m 1m 1m+∆ + ∆y
atoms or molecules of a substance. Like all
macroscopic properties—including petro-
physical properties such as porosity, permea-
1 m + ∆z
1m

bility and electrical conductivity—thermal

properties may vary from point to point in a
rock formation and depend on its tempera-
ture and pressure.

Oilfield Review
SUMMER 12
Thermal Properties Fig. 3D
ORSUM 12-THMPTS
> Thermal expansion. The coefficient 3D
of thermal expansion measures a
fractional change in linear dimension of a uniform cube for a unit temperature
rise. Each side of the cube may expand by a different amount in anisotropic
materials.

26 Oilfield Review
about 10 to 15 minutes. In addition, laboratory
Drainage
technicians must spend an hour or two cutting, channel
trimming and polishing the disk to ensure good
thermal contact with the heating bars. This last
step is difficult to complete with fractured or Plunger system
for pressure control
poorly consolidated reservoir rocks.5
Alternatives to the steady state method are Pressure- Unconsolidated
transient methods in which a scientist applies a resistant rock sample
steel cell
pulse of heat to the sample, usually with a needle-
Needle probe for
shaped probe, and records the temperature thermal property
response at one or more locations on the sample measurements
(right). Thermal conductivity or diffusivity is
then calculated from a theoretical model that
predicts how the material should respond in the
given configuration. One configuration of this
transient line source method, which is useful for Connection wires
measuring loose samples such as unconsolidated
sediments and soils, applies the pulse of heat
Minimum Sample
along a thin wire that carries a temperature sen-

Thermal conductivity
sor at its midpoint. This wire is inserted, like a
Maximum
hypodermic needle, into the material and mea-
sures the temperature as a function of time. In
another configuration, a scientist places the Minimum
needle-shaped probe with its sensor on the flat
top of a cylindrical core and records this surface’s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Maximum
temperature response to a pulse of heat.6 Azimuth, degree
Because thermal conductivity relates two
Connection
directional quantities, the temperature gradient wires Maximum

and the heat flow vector, its value may depend on
the direction of measurement, for example, on
the direction of the temperature gradient
imposed on a sample. The line source method
provides a convenient way of characterizing
directional dependence: Any variation of the
temperature response as the needle is rotated
through various directions on the surface of the
core indicates that its thermal conductivity is
anisotropic—heat flows preferentially in certain
directions through the rock.
The most common form of anisotropy in
crustal rocks is the result of features such as thin
layers or oriented fractures that determine the
directional characteristics of a rock’s bulk physi-
cal properties. The simplest example is fine layer-
ing or bedding, which is present in nearly all
clastic reservoir and source rocks—sandstones
and shales—and distinguishes the direction per-
pendicular to the layers from the directions par-
allel to the layers. This type of anisotropy induced
by layering—also called transverse isotropy,
axial anisotropy or cross anisotropy—may be
present in sedimentary and igneous rocks perme-
ated by thin oriented fractures, and in metamor-
phic rocks that have been compressed strongly in
Thermal conductivity
Sample
Minimum
90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Azimuth, degree
Minimum Maximum
> Measuring thermal conductivity of unconsolidated or anisotropic materials. The line source method
determines thermal conductivity by placing a thin probe with a heating element and temperature
sensor in contact with a sample. A theoretical model predicting the temperature response to a pulse of
heating is used to calculate the sample’s thermal conductivity. For unconsolidated samples, the probe
is inserted, like a hypodermic needle, inside the material (top). For solid rocks, the probe is attached to
the bottom of a Plexiglas block placed on the surface of the sample. For laminated samples cut at an
angle to the measurement surface, the response of the probe changes as it rotates through various
directions (bottom). Variations in response with angle may be used to determine the thermal anisotropy
of layered rocks.
5. Beck A: “A Steady State Method for the Rapid Von Herzen R and Maxwell AE: “The Measurement of
Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Rocks,” Thermal Conductivity of Deep-Sea Sediments by a
Journal of Scientific Instruments 34, no. 5 (May 1957): Needle-Probe Method,” Journal of Geophysical
186–189. Oilfield Review Research 64, no. 10 (October 1959): 1557–1563.
Pribnow DFC and Sass JH: “Determination ofSUMMER Thermal 12 Waite WF, Gilbert LY, Winters WJ and Mason DH:
Conductivity for Deep Boreholes,” Journal of Geophysical “Estimating Thermal Diffusivity and Specific Heat from
Thermal Properties
Research 100, no. B6 (June 10, 1995): 9981–9994. Fig.Probe
Needle 5 Thermal Conductivity Data,” Review of
Beck AE: “Methods for Determining ThermalORSUM 12-THMPTS
Conductivity 5 Instruments 77, no. 4 (April 2006): 1–5.
Scientific
and Thermal Diffusivity,” in Haenel R, Rybach L and Woodside W and Messmer JH: “Thermal Conductivity of
Stegena L (eds): Handbook on Terrestrial Heat Flow Porous Media. I. Unconsolidated Sands,” Journal of
Density Determination. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Applied Physics 32, no. 9 (September 1961): 1688–1699.
Kluwer (1988): 87–124. Woodside W and Messmer JH: “Thermal Conductivity of
6. Jaeger JC: “The Measurement of Thermal Conductivity Porous Media. II. Consolidated Rocks,” Journal of
with Cylindrical Probes,” EOS Transactions American Applied Physics 32, no. 9 (September 1961): 1699–1706.
Geophysical Union 39, no. 4 (1958): 708–710.

Autumn 2012 27
one direction and, as a result, have acquired a
distinctive planar fabric.7
In finely layered rocks, the value of thermal
conductivity in the direction perpendicular to
the layers—and therefore the heat flow for a
given temperature drop—is usually 5% to 30%
lower than its value in directions parallel to the
layers; in some rocks, the difference is as high as
50%. The physics and mathematics of thermal
anisotropy are similar to those of electrical
anisotropy, which is critical to the proper evalua-
tion of laminated reservoirs.8
Measuring Thermal Properties by
Optical Scanning
Most of the fundamental science of rock thermal
properties was carried out in two waves. The first
took place in the 1930s, when scientists began to
unravel the thermal structure of Earth’s interior;
the second occurred during the years of the plate
tectonics revolution of the 1960s and 1970s,
when scientists recognized that the Earth’s
internal heat and its flow to the surface were
driving forces of global tectonics. Much of the
latter research was devoted to mapping heat flow
through ocean basins, which shows the thermal
signature of convection patterns in the Earth’s
deep interior (below).9 Scientists study thermal
rock properties as a necessary component for
heat flow determination and to understand the

Shallow Geothermal Gradients

Temperature, °C
Cross Section of Ocean Ridge
0 50 100 150 200 250
0

Battle Mountain, Nevada

1
Basin and Range province erican
East of Rocky Mountains North Am Eurasian
Plate Plate
2
Depth, km

Sierra Nevada Mountains

5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Surface heat flow, mW/m2

Surface Heat Flow

Heat flow, mW/m2

23 to 45 45 to 55 55 to 65 65 to 75 75 to 85 85 to 95 95 to 150 150 to 450

> Earth’s surface heat flow. Flow of heat from the Earth’s deep interior to the surface is a driving force of global tectonics. A map of surface heat flow
highlights ocean ridges, where magma derived from partial melting of the upper mantle rises to the surface to create new oceanic crust (bottom, adapted
from Davies and Davies, reference 9). To produce this map, Davies and Davies compiled nearly 40,000 measurements, from which correlations of heat flow
with geologic regions were derived to extend the discrete measurements using a digital map of global geology. At ocean ridges (top right), heat flow is
dominated by convection—the movement of hot material (white arrows) from depth to the surface. Over the continents, average heat flow is determined by
the geothermal gradient—the variation of temperature with depth—and the thermal conductivity of crustal rocks. The graph shows geothermal gradients in
the shallow crust for several regions of the US (top left). Each geothermal gradient corresponds to a different value of surface heat flow.

Oilfield Review
28 SUMMER 12 Oilfield Review
Thermal Properties Fig. 6
ORSUM 12-THMPTS 6
potential of geothermal energy. Beginning in the n
ctio
g dire
1980s, researchers looked at thermal properties nnin
Sca Infrared
of sedimentary rocks to provide input to model 1 sensor
the thermal history of basins in early quantita- Optical
Infrared heat
tive attempts at petroleum system modeling.10 sensors source
2 3
These lines of research converged in a study of
thermal and other petrophysical measurements
on rocks from deep scientific boreholes, including
the 12,262-m [40,230-ft] Kola Superdeep Borehole
Temperature
n line
profiles Sca
in the Soviet Union, the deepest hole ever drilled.
The work was driven by the recognition that
thermal properties measured along the track of
long scientific boreholes were much more hetero-
geneous than previously imagined. Scientists
realized that new methods were needed to char-
Scan lines
acterize the thermal properties of rocks, includ- p le
ing better methods of measuring these properties Sam
in situ, as well as laboratory methods that worked
more rapidly and at higher resolution on smaller
core samples.11
In the 1990s, scientists from Russia, Germany
and the US participated in a joint study of major
laboratory methods for measuring thermal con-
ductivity, focusing on cores from the superdeep
KTB borehole in Germany.12 One method in this
study used an optical device developed in the
early 1980s in the former Soviet Union. Unlike > Principle of the optical scanning method. Optical scanning provides a fast, contactless method of
prior techniques for measuring thermal proper- measuring thermal properties (top right). This method determines thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity by heating a spot on the sample with a moving optical heat source—a laser or focused
ties, the optical method is contactless—no sen-
electric light (top left). Three infrared sensors, moving in tandem with the source, measure temperature
sor touches the material; instead, the device uses at the surface of the sample. Sensor 1 is situated ahead of the heat source along the scan line
remote optical thermal sensors to scan the sam- to register surface temperature before the sample is heated. Two trailing sensors register the
ple surface for the thermal signature of a con- temperature rise induced by the heating: Sensor 2 measures along the scan line, and Sensor 3, along
a parallel line (dashed black). A theoretical model predicting the temperature at these two locations as
stant, focused heat source (right). The source a function of time is used to calculate the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity at various
and sensors move together along the sample—a locations under the scan line. By scanning the sample in three different directions, the method can
core, for example—in a fixed arrangement that determine anisotropic thermal properties of laminated rocks (bottom right).

7. Transverse isotropy, axial anisotropy and cross
anisotropy are synonymous terms referring to the
particular directional character of materials in which
properties have the same values in all directions parallel
to planes of isotropy and different values perpendicular
to or crossing the planes of isotropy; this perpendicular
direction is the axis of cylindrical symmetry.
8. Thin oil-bearing layers in laminated reservoirs significantly
increase the resistance to current flow, but only in the
direction perpendicular to the beds. A resistivity logging
tool that measures resistance in directions parallel to the
beds generally will not detect the presence of oil. For
more on the anisotropy of finely layered formations:
Anderson B, Barber T, Leveridge R, Bastia R, Saxena KR,
Tyagi AK, Clavaud J-B, Coffin B, Das M, Hayden R,
Klimentos T, Minh CC and Williams S: “Triaxial
Induction—A New Angle for an Old Measurement,”
Oilfield Review 20, no. 2 (Summer 2008): 64–84.
9. The earliest systematic studies of Earth’s surface heat
flow were a series of papers in the late 1930s:
Anderson EM: “The Loss of Heat by Conduction from
Earth’s Crust,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh 60, part 2. Edinburgh, Scotland: Robert Gran
and Son, Ltd. (1939–1940): 192–209.
Benfield AE: “Terrestrial Heat Flow in Great Britain,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 173,
10. Brigaud F, Chapman DS and Le Douaran S: “Estimating
no. 955 (December 29, 1939): 428–450.
Krige LJ: “Borehole Temperatures in the Transvaal and
Orange Free State,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London A 173, no. 955 (December 29, 1939): 450–474.
Bullard EC: “Heat Flow in South Africa,” Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London A 173, no. 955 (December
29, 1939): 474–502.
Birch AF and Clark H: “The Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks and Its Dependence on TemperatureOilfieldand
Composition, Part I,” American Journal of Science 238,
Review
no. 8 (August 1940): 529–558. SUMMER 12
Birch AF and Clark H: “The Thermal ConductivityThermalof Properties
Rocks and Its Dependence on TemperatureORSUM and 12-THMPTS
Composition, Part II,” American Journal of Science 238,
no. 9 (September 1940): 613–635.
Many researchers contributed to mapping surface heat
flow over the globe and unraveling its relation to plate
tectonics. For more: Sclater JG and Francheteau J:
“The Implications of Terrestrial Heat Flow Observations
on Current Tectonic and Geochemical Models of the
Crust and Upper Mantle of the Earth,” Geophysical
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 20, no. 5
(September 1970): 509–542.
The most recently published compilation of surface heat
flow data: Davies JH and Davies DR: “Earth’s Surface
Heat Flux,” Solid Earth 1, no. 1 (February 22, 2010): 5–24.
Thermal Conductivity in Sedimentary Basins Using
Lithologic Data and Geophysical Well Logs,”
AAPG Bulletin 74, no. 9 (September 1990): 1459–1477.
McKenna TE, Sharp JM Jr and Lynch FL: “Thermal
Conductivity of Wilcox and Frio Sandstones in South
Texas (Gulf of Mexico Basin),” AAPG Bulletin 80, no. 8
(August 1996): 1203–1215.
For more on petroleum system modeling: Al-Hajeri MM,
Al Saeed M, Derks J, Fuchs T, Hantschel T, Kauerauf A,
Neumaier M, Schenk O, Swientek O, Tessen N,
Welte D, Wygrala B, Kornpihl D and Peters K: “Basin
and Petroleum System Modeling,” Oilfield Review 21,
no. 2 (Summer 2009): 14–29.
Fig.
11. Orlov VP 7and Laverov NP (eds): Kola Superdeep Well:
7 Results and Research Experience. Moscow:
Scientific
Technoneftegaz, 1998 (in Russian).
Burkhardt H, Honarmand H and Pribnow D: “Test
Measurements with a New Thermal Conductivity
Borehole Tool,” Tectonophysics 244, nos. 1–3 (April 15,
1995): 161–165.
12. Popov YA, Pribnow DFC, Sass JH, Williams CF and
Burkhardt H: “Characterization of Rock Thermal
Conductivity by High-Resolution Optical Scanning,”
Geothermics 28, no. 2 (April 1999): 253–276.
KTB is the Kontinentales Tiefbohrprogramm der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland, or German Continental
Deep Drilling Program. For more on the KTB borehole:
Bram K, Draxler J, Hirschmann G, Zoth G, Hiron S and
Kühr M: “The KTB Borehole—Germany’s Superdeep
Telescope into the Earth’s Crust,” Oilfield Review 7, no. 1
(January 1995): 4–22.

Autumn 2012 29
allows the first sensor to register the ambient recorded temperature profiles. According to a
surface temperature under laboratory condi- model for the arrangement with two thermal sen-
tions. After a spot on the surface has been heated sors flanking the heat source, the maximum tem-
by the source—either a laser or a focused elec- perature rise seen by the trailing sensor is directly
tric light—one or two trailing sensors record the proportional to the source power, in watts, and
rise in temperature along lines parallel to the inversely proportional to the product of the source-
trace of the heated spot.13 sensor separation and the sample’s thermal con-
Optical scanning uses tailored theoretical ductivity. This model can be inverted for the
models to determine thermal properties from the unknown thermal conductivity, given the mea-
Hamburg
Berlin
G E R M A N Y
KTB wellsite
CZECH REPUBLIC
Nuremberg
5
5
Thermal conductivity by divided bar, W/m°K
Thermal conductivity by divided bar, W/m°K
sured temperature rise, source-to-sensor distances
and source power. Alternatively, thermal conduc-
tivity can be determined by comparing the tem-
perature rise in the sample with that in a standard
material of known conductivity placed next to it in
the scan line. Another common configuration adds
a second trailing sensor offset from the main scan
line and uses two different standards flanking the
sample to determine both thermal diffusivity and
thermal conductivity. Aligning the axis of the scan
along various directions through the rock allows
characterization of the thermal conductivity of an
anisotropic sample; full characterization requires
scans along three distinct directions lying in two
nonparallel planes.
Nearly all of the core samples from the KTB
borehole were crystalline metamorphic rocks,
Prague
chiefly amphibolites and gneisses, possessing a dis-
tinctive foliation and requiring measurement of
thermal conductivity parallel and perpendicular to
their planar fabric.14 The joint international study of
cores from the KTB borehole demonstrated that

measurements of thermal properties by optical

4 4 scanning compare well in precision, or repeatabil-
ity, and in accuracy with measurements made by the
divided bar and line source methods (left). The
3 3 divided bar measurements were conducted with a
device maintained and continually improved since
the late 1960s by the US Geological Survey; the line
2 2 source measurements were conducted with a unit
specially constructed at the Technische Universität
Collection 2 Collection 1 Berlin to work on cores from deep scientific wells.
1 1 Differences between optical scanning and divided
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Thermal conductivity by optical scanning, W/m°K Thermal conductivity by line source, W/m°K
bar measurements averaged 2.1%, with a standard
deviation of 6.5%; the closest agreement was for
5 5
measurements in directions parallel to rock folia-
Thermal conductivity by optical scanning, W/m°K
Thermal conductivity by divided bar, W/m°K

tion. Differences between optical scanning and line

4 4
source measurements were generally less than 5%.15
The accuracy and reliability of thermal properties
measured by optical scanning have since been con-
3 3
firmed on thousands of core samples. Many of these
cores come from deep scientific wells drilled into
large impact structures such as the Puchezh-Katunki
2 2
impact structure in Russia, the Ries impact structure
in Germany, the Chesapeake crater in the US and the
Collection 1 Collection 1 Chicxulub crater in Mexico.16 This work established
1 1 that optical scanning measurements can be accurate
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
to within 1.5% for thermal conductivity within the
Thermal conductivity by optical scanning, W/m°K Thermal conductivity by line source, W/m°K
range 0.1 to 50 W/m°K and to within 2% for thermal
> Thermal properties of rock samples from the superdeep KTB borehole. A study of core samples from diffusivity in the range 0.1 × 10–6 to 5 × 10–6 m2/s. The
the KTB borehole in Germany (top) demonstrated that measurements of thermal conductivity by optical remote sensing and nondestructive nature of optical
scanning compare well with measurements made by the divided bar and line source methods. The
crossplot at upper left, for example, shows good agreement between optical scanning measurements scanning allows easy, repeated testing of samples
of thermal conductivity and divided bar measurements on 36 different samples cut from the KTB cores. of a variety of sizes; the laboratory instrument used
Scientists prepared this collection so that the same physical rock sample could be used in both in the scientific studies characterizes samples from
instruments. The remaining crossplots compare one method against another when two different rock 1 to 70 cm [0.4 to 28 in.] long.
samples are cut from the same core. Open diamonds represent measurements in the direction parallel
to the rock foliation; solid diamonds represent measurements perpendicular to the foliation. (Adapted Optical scanning measurements are also rela-
from Popov et al, reference 12.) tively immune to the shape and quality of the sample
Oilfield Review
SUMMER 12
Thermal Properties Fig. 8
30 ORSUM 12-THMPTS 8 Oilfield Review
surface, tolerating up to 1 mm [0.04 in.] of roughness
with little loss of accuracy. The scan speed is routinely
set between 1 and 10 mm [0.04 and 0.4 in.] per sec-
ond, which usually allows a throughput of about one
sample per minute. Slower speeds and a smaller dis-
tance between the heating spot and temperature sen-
sor enlarge the measurement’s depth of investigation,
which can be up to 3 cm in samples with moderate to
high thermal conductivity.
A new instrument developed at Schlumberger
Moscow Research Center and engineered at the
Schlumberger Innovation Center in Salt Lake City,
Utah, USA, has further refined the specifications
for rapid, high-resolution optical measurement of
thermal properties (right). This instrument for
rock profiling, housed at TerraTek Rock Mechanics Parameter Value
and Core Analysis Services laboratory, can detect Thermal conductivity range 0.2 to 6.0 W/m°K
heterogeneity in thermal conductivity and thermal Thermal diffusivity range (0.1 to 2.5) × 10–6 m 2/s
diffusivity—or volumetric heat capacity, as calcu- Accuracy of thermal conductivity 4%
lated from these two quantities—with a resolution Accuracy of thermal diffusivity 5%
better than 0.4 mm [0.016 in.] at a core scanning Spatial resolution in rock profiling Better than 0.4 mm
velocity of 3.0 mm/s [0.12 in./s] (below right).17
Scanning velocity 3.0 mm/s
13. Popov Yu A: “Theoretical Models for Determination of
the Thermal Properties of Rocks on the Basis of Movable
> High-resolution optical scanner at the Schlumberger Innovation Center in
Sources of Thermal Energy, Part I,” Geologiya i Razvedka Salt Lake City, Utah.
(Geology and Prospecting) no. 9 (September 1983): 97–105
(in Russian).
Popov Yu A: “Theoretical Models for Determination
of the Thermal Properties of Rocks on the Basis of
Movable Sources of Thermal Energy, Part II,” Geologiya i
Razvedka (Geology and Prospecting) no. 2 Maximum
(February 1984): 81–88 (in Russian). 7.0
Popov Yu A: “Peculiarities of the Method of Detailed
Investigations of Rock Thermal Properties,” Geologiya i
Razvedka (Geology and Prospecting) no. 4 (April 1984):
76–84 (in Russian). 6.5
14. Foliation is the layered fabric—the orientation,
arrangement and texture of minerals, grains and other Average
Excess temperature, °C

constituents in rock—of metamorphic rocks that have

been strongly compressed in one direction. 6.0
15. Popov et al, reference 12.
16. Popov Yu, Pohl J, Romushkevich R, Tertychnyi V and
Soffel H: “Geothermal Characteristics of the Ries Impact
5.5
Structure,” Geophysical Journal International 154, no. 2
(August 2003): 355–378. Oilfield Review
Popov Yu, Romushkevich R, Korobkov D, Mayr S, SUMMER 12
Bayuk I, Burkhardt H and Wilhelm H: “Thermal Thermal Properties Fig. 9
5.0
Properties of Rocks of the Borehole Yaxcopoil-1 (Impact
Crater Chicxulub, Mexico),” Geophysical Journal ORSUM 12-THMPTS 9
International 184, no. 2 (February 2011): 729–745.
Mayr SI, Burkhardt H, Popov Y, Romushkevich R,
4.5
Miklashevskiy D, Gorobtsov D, Heidinger P and Minimum
Wilhelm H: “Physical Rock Properties of the Eyreville
Core, Chesapeake Bay Impact Structure,” in Gohn GS,
Koeberl C, Miller KG and Reimold WU (eds): The
ICDP-USGS Deep Drilling Project in the Chesapeake Bay
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Impact Structure: Results from the Eyreville Core Holes.
Boulder, Colorado, USA: The Geological Society of Scan line Displacement, mm
America, Special Paper 458 (2009): 137–163.
The Chicxulub crater is believed to be an imprint
of the catastrophic asteroid impact that ended the
age of dinosaurs. For more: Barton R, Bird K,
Garcia Hernández J, Grajales-Nishimura JM,
Murillo-Muñetón G, Herber B, Weimer P, Koeberl C,
Neumaier M, Schenk O and Stark J: “High-Impact
Reservoirs,” Oilfield Review 21, no. 4 (Winter 2009/2010):
14–29.
>Resolution and repeatability of optical scanning. Two optical scans (red and blue, top) of a gravelly
17. Popov Yu, Parshin A, Chekhonin E, Gorobtsov D,
Miklashevskiy D, Korobkov D, Suarez-Rivera R and sandstone core illustrate the strong heterogeneity of thermal properties in rocks and the repeatability
Green S: “Rock Heterogeneity from Thermal Profiles of optical measurements. Excess surface temperature—the temperature rise measured along a scan
Using an Optical Scanning Technique,” paper ARMA line (yellow, bottom) after heating by the laser—is proportional to thermal conductivity. The difference
12-509, presented at the 46th US Rock Mechanics/ between the maximum and the minimum, divided by the average, gives a measure of property
Geomechanics Symposium, Chicago, June 24–27, 2012.
heterogeneity.

Autumn 2012 31
 Thermal Properties of Reservoir Rocks:
A Growing Database
Because scientists are now better able to mea-
sure thermal properties, new avenues of petro-
physics are opening up. Like many rock
properties, thermal conductivity depends in com-
plex ways on the composition and distribution of
minerals in the rock matrix and fluids in its pore
space. Studies going back to the 1950s have pro-
vided data on this dependence, but until recently
Okhotsk such studies were limited by measurement tech-
Timan- Yeniseisk-Anabar
Pechora basin niques that were unable to resolve layers and
basin fractures at scales finer than a few centimeters.
Tungus
Moreover, conventional techniques cannot deter-
Middle Ob’
I A mine thermal conductivity and diffusivity simul-
Northern S
Volga-Urals U S taneously and have difficulty characterizing
Southern R
unconsolidated rocks and core samples and plugs
Volga-Urals
saturated with brine, oil or gas.18
Optical scanning avoids nearly all of the
obstacles hindering accurate, routine determina-
tion of thermal rock properties. This method
enabled a large petrophysical study of more than
8,000 samples, including sedimentary rocks of
various lithologies, ages and geologic settings
from eight geologic regions, to uncover new con-
nections between thermal rock properties and
the usual staples of petrophysical reservoir evalu-
> Core samples from Russian oil provinces. Scientists have compared thermal conductivity measured ation: porosity, permeability, electrical conduc-
by high-resolution optical scanning with other petrophysical properties on more than 8,000 core samples tivity, acoustic velocity and fluid saturation.19
of sedimentary rocks from various petroleum provinces in Russia. The collection was supplemented by
samples from deep scientific boreholes and oil fields in Germany, Mexico and the US. Most of the cores in this study came from
basins in petroleum provinces of the former
Soviet Union (above left). Scientists measured
the thermal conductivity of all samples under
Samples from Northern and Southern Volga-Urals Provinces
50
both dry and fluid-saturated conditions, and the
high-resolution scans revealed several key fea-
40 Dry tures of this diverse collection.
Heterogeneity factor, %

Scientists first discovered a wide variation of

30 thermal properties within individual dry samples.
A simple measure of heterogeneity within a sam-
20 ple is the difference between the maximum and
minimum thermal conductivity measured along a
10 scan line, divided by the average conductivity
Water along the same line. This heterogeneity factor,
saturated
0 expressed as a percentage, characterizes the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
range of conductivity in the sample as seen by
Sample numbers
optical scanning. Measured on dry samples, the
> Heterogeneity of thermal conductivity and porosity. Heterogeneity of rock
factor varied from about 4% to 50% for rocks in
thermal properties is closely related to variations in porosity. In this plot,
Oilfield Review
50 clay-rich limestone samples, studied under dry and water-saturated the collection (left).
conditions, are arranged inSUMMER 12
order of increasing heterogeneity as measured Second, and more interesting, was that the
Thermal
under dry conditions (blue). Properties
Heterogeneity Fig. 11 as the difference
is quantified heterogeneity factor went no higher than about
between the maximum and ORSUM
minimum 12-THMPTS 11
thermal conductivities measured along 15% when measured on samples saturated with
a scan line, divided by the average value along the line. When this
heterogeneity factor of a dry sample is less than about 15%, it changes by water. This result could be explained by higher
only a few percent when the sample is saturated with water and scanned values of porosity in samples whose heterogene-
again (red). When the heterogeneity factor of a dry sample is greater than ity factor, when dry, was above about 15%. Void
15%, it generally changes dramatically after water saturation. Scientists
space, or air, has essentially zero thermal con-
traced this effect to large spatial variations of porosity in samples with dry
heterogeneity factors above 15%. (Adapted from Popov et al, reference 12.) ductivity, in contrast to most solid rock, and is
distributed in a complex way at scales below the

32 Oilfield Review
resolution of the optical scans—about 1 mm. Middle Ob’ Province
When its low thermal conductivity is averaged 1.45 2.0

with that of the rock matrix, void space has large 1.5
1.25
effects on the result because an optical scan
1.0
senses low and high values of conductivity

Logarithm of permeability
depending on whether the heated spot contains 1.05
0.5
more or less pore space. In contrast, when pore
space is saturated with water, whose thermal 0.85 δk 0

δk
Permeability measured
conductivity is relatively close to that of solid parallel to bedding –0.5
rock, its effect on the average thermal conductiv- 0.65

ity is much less significant. –1.0

Scientists have known for some time that 0.45
–1.5
changes in thermal properties are caused by the Increasing thermal anisotropy
opening of microscopic cracks and fissures in 0.25 –2.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
rock samples brought from high pressure deep Sample numbers
underground to atmospheric pressure at the sur- δk
face.20 But high-resolution optical scans con- 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
X00
firmed the importance, for thermal properties, of
Fine-grained massive polymictic sandstone
even small variations in natural porosity in sedi-
mentary rocks. The threshold of 15% to 20% in the Massive and bedded polymictic sandstone
heterogeneity factor is significant: When varia-
tions along a scan line remain below this level on Bedded polymictic arkosic siltstone

dry samples, saturating the rock with water does X40

Intercalated sandstone and siltstone
not change the measured range of scanned con-
ductivity values. In such rocks, heterogeneity Fine-grained bedded mica-quartz sandstone
along a scan line arises directly from variations in

Depth, m
composition or mineralogy of the rock matrix. Fine-grained massive mica-quartz sandstone
Optical scans have also revealed that anisot- Medium- and coarse-grained bedded
polymictic sandstone X80
ropy may be a key to unlocking new relationships
Fine- and coarse-grained massive and
among thermal and other petrophysical proper- bedded mica-quartz sandstone
ties. One example is the relationship between Fine- and coarse-grained bedded
mica-quartz sandstone
thermal conductivity and permeability (right).
These two properties depend not only on the
Y20
amount of pore space, but also on its distribution Bedded mica-quartz siltstone
through the rock volume—in isolated pores or in
connected pathways. When compared on a col-
lection of rock samples, permeability and ther-
–1.5 –0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
mal conductivity often show a wide scatter. But Logarithm of permeability
when the samples are limited to rocks with a > Anisotropic thermal conductivity and permeability. Most sedimentary rocks have anisotropic thermal
heterogeneity factor above 20%—that is, to sam- properties: Thermal conductivity measured in a direction parallel to the layering generally is 5% to
ples in which thermal conductivity is strongly 50% higher than its value measured perpendicular to the layering. Moreover, the value measured in
affected by pore fluids—there appears to be a each direction changes in going from dry to water-saturated conditions. The degree of thermal
direct correlation between permeability and the anisotropy and its change with fluid saturation are both related to permeability (top). Samples with
higher thermal anisotropy generally have lower permeability. Moreover, the percentage change in
percentage change in thermal conductivity in thermal conductivity parallel to layering when going from dry to water-saturated conditions—a
going from dry to water-saturated conditions. The quantity labeled δk || in these plots—closely tracks the logarithm of permeability. Measurements on
relationship is strongest when both thermal con- core samples collected throughout a 140-m [450-ft] depth interval in the Middle Ob’ province of Russia
ductivity and permeability are measured parallel show that this correlation holds across different lithologies (bottom). (Adapted from Popov et al,
reference 19.)

18. Early studies of the thermal properties of fluid-saturated
porous rocks include the following:
Asaad Y: “A Study of the Thermal Conductivity of Fluid
Bearing Porous Rocks,” PhD thesis, University of
California, Berkeley, USA, 1955.
Zierfuss H and van der Vliet G: “Laboratory
Measurements of Heat Conductivity of Sedimentary
Rocks,” AAPG Bulletin 40, no. 10 (October 1956):
2475–2488.
Somerton WH: “Some Thermal Characteristics of
Porous Rocks,” Petroleum Transactions, AIME 213
(1958): 375–378.
Oilfield Review20. Walsh JB and Decker ER: “Effect of Pressure and
A large, published compilation of thermal rock
SUMMER
properties is maintained by the US Geological Survey: 12 Saturating Fluid on the Thermal Conductivity of Compact
Thermal
Robertson EC: “Thermal Properties of Rocks,” Reston,Properties Fig. Journal
Rock,” 13 of Geophysical Research 71, no. 12
Virginia, USA: US Geological Survey, OpenORSUM
File 12-THMPTS (June1315, 1966): 3053–3061.
Report 88-441 (1988). Pribnow D, Williams CF, Sass JH and Keating R:
19. Popov Y, Tertychnyi V, Romushkevich R, Korobkov D and “Thermal Conductivity of Water-Saturated Rocks from
Pohl J: “Interrelations Between Thermal Conductivity the KTB Pilot Hole at Temperatures of 25 to 300°C,”
and Other Physical Properties of Rocks: Experimental Geophysical Research Letters 23, no. 4 (February 15,
Data,” Pure and Applied Geophysics 160, no. 5–6 1996): 391–394.
(2003): 1137–1161.

Autumn 2012 33

Thermal conductivity, W/m°K
4.5
4.0
Thermal conductivity, W/m°K
Yarega Field Samples to any layering. A conclusion of the large study
7 of samples from Russian oil fields was that a
6 specific relative change of thermal conductiv-
5
ity—defined as the percentage change in ther-
mal conductivity in the direction parallel to
4
layering when going from dry to water-saturated
3 conditions—may be the single most important
2
thermal property for the petrophysical charac-
terization of reservoir rocks.21
1
Understanding these subtleties enabled sci-
0 entists to discern new correlations relating ther-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Porosity, % mal conductivity to porosity, acoustic velocity
and electrical resistivity (left). These functional
Dry samples Oil-saturated samples Brine-saturated samples
mappings hold promise in both directions: Going
from the standard petrophysical properties to
Yarega Field Samples thermal conductivity opens the possibility of
detecting changes in thermal properties far from
the wellbore by remote geophysical sensing with

electrical or seismic methods; going in the

3.5 reverse direction enables high-resolution optical
scans to explore the petrophysical heterogeneity
3.0
of rocks at both macroscopic and microscopic
2.5 scales. Thermal rock properties may also help to
quantify this multiscale heterogeneity in the
2.0
evaluation of unconventional reservoirs such as
1.5 gas shale.22
1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500
Acoustic velocity, m/s
Thermal Properties at Reservoir Conditions
Optical scanning provides rapid measurements
West Siberia Samples
3.1 of thermal properties under normal laboratory
2.9 conditions—ambient temperature and atmo-
Thermal conductivity, W/m°K

spheric pressure. To calibrate these measure-

2.7
ments to conditions in the reservoir, a special
2.5
chamber was built at the Schlumberger Moscow
2.3 Research Center to study the influence of ele-
2.1 vated temperature and pressure on thermal
1.9 properties (next page). The new device employs
1.7 a variation of the line source method to deter-
1.5
mine thermal conductivity and diffusivity at
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 temperatures up to 250°C [480°F] and at pres-
Logarithm of resistivity
sures up to 200 MPa [29,000 psi]. Pore pressure
NaCl concentration: 240 g/cm3 120 g/cm3 60 g/cm3 Tap water in the sample and axial and lateral components
of confining stress can be varied independently
> Correlation of thermal conductivity with porosity, acoustic velocity and
within the chamber.23
electrical resistivity. Thermal conductivities of samples from the Yarega field
show good correlation with porosity (top) and acoustic velocity (center). The Thermal conductivity and diffusivity usually
solid lines in the top two panels are based on best least-squares fits to the have an inverse relationship with temperature.
measurements for curves with an exponential dependence of thermal For example, under an increase of temperature
conductivity on porosity or on acoustic velocity. Measurements on samples from 25°C to 100°C [77°F to 212°F], thermal con-
from western Siberia (bottom) show a correlation between thermal
conductivity and resistivity. The solid lines in the bottom plots are best fits to ductivity in core samples from the Yarega oil field
the measurements for curves with a logarithmic dependence of thermal decreased by 50% while thermal diffusivity
conductivity on the logarithm of resistivity. decreased by 70%. A suite of measurements on
samples selected from different reservoir rocks
determined average trends for changes in thermal
Oilfield Review properties with temperature, which were then
SUMMER 12 applied to all measurements in the database.
Thermal Properties Fig. 14
ORSUM 12-THMPTS 14

34 Oilfield Review
 To connect thermal and mechanical proper- Pore pressure
ties, a new instrument was developed at the Input and output wires

Schlumberger Moscow Research Center to mea-

sure the thermal expansion of core samples over a
range of typical reservoir temperatures. The Water thermostat
instrument, which uses a standard test method Upper power gate
called a quartz-rod dilatometer, accommodates Rubber rings
either cube-shaped samples or standard cylindri- Sealing rubber
cal core plugs used in petrophysical studies— Axial stress gauge
3 cm in diameter and length—and can measure Elastic cuff

anisotropic thermal expansion coefficients by ori- Heat screen

Perforated container
enting the same sample in different positions.
This measurement technique gives results that Heat insulating disks Rock sample
are more consistent than conventional approaches
in which thermal expansion along a variety of External heater
directions is measured on three different samples
Side (overburden)
cut from the same rock core. A typical measure- pressure Plunger
ment sequence, which takes up to 12 hours, deter-
Lower power gate
mines the coefficient of thermal expansion at
Pressure for axial
temperatures from 20°C to 300°C [70°F to 572°F] stress
in temperature steps of 20°C.24 Rubber rings
A second instrument at TerraTek provides Lower internal screw
thermal expansion measurements at elevated
pressure. The device accommodates dry or satu-
rated cylindrical plugs 5 cm [2 in.] long and 2.5 to
3.8 cm [1 to 1.5 in.] in diameter. The specimen
can be loaded axially and radially in two direc- 12
tions and subjected to a maximum hydrostatic 11 1

Thermal conductivity, W/m°K

confining stress of 27 MPa [3,900 psi]. The device 2
10
3
measures thermal expansion coefficients at tem- 9
Rock sample
peratures up to 200°C [400°F] in a few tempera- 8
ture steps.25
7
Platinum line source
Platinum 6
Thermal Properties in Russian line source
Platinum 5
Heavy Oil Fields potential
Platinum lead 4
Since its introduction in the 1980s, the optical potential 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
lead Temperature, °C
scanning method has measured thermal proper-
ties of more than 80,000 rock samples. About 10% 0.1 25 50 80 100 130
of the samples come from 15 oil and gas fields in Pressure, MPa
Russia.26 This growing database of reservoir ther- > Measuring thermal properties at high temperature and pressure. Scientists at Schlumberger Moscow
mal properties is beginning to change the way Research Center constructed a chamber (top) to determine rock thermal properties at reservoir
petrophysicists regard the importance of hetero- conditions. The measurement cell (bottom left), which employs a version of the line source method,
was calibrated on quartz crystals, a material with well-known anisotropic thermal properties.
geneity in EOR processes.
Measurements (bottom right) indicate that values for the thermal conductivity along the principal axes
Thermal rock properties measured by scans (1, 2 and 3) of the quartz thermal conductivity tensor measured at different temperatures and pressures
of more than 500 cores from the production zone with the new instrument (solid circles) compare well with published results (open circles). (Adapted
and surrounding formations at Yarega field, for from Popov et al, reference 23.)
example, showed variations up to 150% over dis-
tances of a few meters. The largest variations cor-
related generally with changes in lithology, but 21. Popov et al, reference 19. 24. Popov Yu, Parshin A, Miklashevskiy D and Abashkin V:
the degree of heterogeneity in individual dry 22. Popov et al, reference 17. Oilfield Review “Instrument for Measurements of Linear Thermal
SUMMER
23. Popov YA, Spasennykh MY, Miklashevskiy DE,12
Expansion Coefficient of Rocks,” paper ARMA 12-510,
samples was not expected. Moreover, differences presented at the 46th US Rock Mechanics/
Thermal
Parshin AV, Stenin VP, Chertenkov Properties
MV, Novikov SV and Fig. 15
Geomechanics Symposium, Chicago, June 24–27, 2012.
in thermal conductivity and diffusivity of up to Tarelko NF: “Thermal PropertiesORSUM 12-THMPTS
of Formations from 15 ASTM International: “Standard Test Method for Linear
Core Analysis: Evolution in Measurement Methods,
Equipment, and Experimental Data in Relation to Thermal Thermal Expansion of Solid Materials with a Push-Rod
EOR,” paper CSUG/SPE 137639, presented at the Dilatometer,” West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA,
Canadian Unconventional Resources and International ASTM E228-11, April 2011.
Petroleum Conference, Calgary, October 19–21, 2010. 25. Popov et al, reference 24.
26. Popov et al, reference 23.

Autumn 2012 35
 Thermal Conductivity, W/m°K Thermal Diffusivity, 10 –6 m 2/s Volumetric Heat Capacity, MJ/m 3°K 120% were observed among nearly identical rock
X85
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 samples saturated with air, oil or water (left).
Overall, the ranges of thermal properties seen
X90
in the Yarega study ran from 0.8 to 5.2 W/m°K for
X95 thermal conductivity and from 1.1 to 3.4 MJ/m3°K
for volumetric heat capacity. Coefficients of lin-
Y00
ear thermal expansion, measured on samples
Y05 from Yarega under reservoir conditions, varied by
more than a factor of two, from 8 × 10–6 to 17 ×
Y10
Depth, m

10–6 per °K.

Y15 This variation far exceeds what had been
observed in previous studies. Optical scanning
Y20
and complementary measurements are revealing,
Y25 possibly for the first time, the natural variability
of thermal properties in reservoirs—caused
Y30
either by natural heterogeneity in rock texture,
Y35 mineral and organic composition, or by changes
in fluid saturation, temperature and pressure. All
Y40
Dry sample Oil-saturated sample Water-saturated sample these factors affect the flow of heat into the res-
Quartz sandstone and leucoxene sandstone Siltstone with layers of sandstone and silty sandstone Basalt ervoir and therefore the production forecasts for
Quartz sandstone Siltstone a thermal recovery project.
> Variation of rock thermal properties. Thermal properties at the Yarega oil field show large
variations—up to 150%—over a 50-m [166-ft] interval covering the depths of thermal mining. Each Precise Design and Control of Thermal EOR
data point represents a separate core sample measured under various conditions. Colored lines Estimating the economics of thermal EOR requires
represent moving averages of the data. (Adapted from Popov et al, reference 23.)
that operators accurately predict the amount of
additional hydrocarbon that will be produced from
a field and the production rates of wells following
stimulation by a given amount of heat. The thermal
properties used in these reservoir simulations are
often derived from theoretical models, called mix-
ing laws, that estimate the combined thermal
properties of a volume of rock and pore fluid from
Range of measurements the volume fractions of its constituents.27
6
made by optical scanning
Arithmetic 27. The bulk physical properties of a composite material
Thermal conductivity, W/m°K

generally cannot be precisely calculated without

knowledge of the microscopic distribution of its
constituents. Mixing laws are mathematical
4 combinations of the constituent properties to estimate
bulk properties. Examples are the weighted arithmetic
Landau mean, weighted harmonic mean, weighted geometric
Weiner
mean and Hashin-Shtrikman model.
For more on mixing laws see: Berryman JG: “Mixture
2 Theories for Rock Properties,” in Ahrens TJ (ed): Rock
Physics & Phase Relations: A Handbook of Physical
Hashin-Shtrikman
Constants. Washington, DC: American Geophysical
Harmonic Union (1995): 205–228.
Zimmerman RW: “Thermal Conductivity of Fluid-
0 Saturated Rocks,” Journal of Petroleum Science and
0 10 20 30 40 Engineering 3, no. 3 (1989): 219–227.
Porosity, % 28. Popov Y, Parshin A, Ursegov S, Taraskin E, Chekhonin E,
Oilfield Review Andrianov N, Bayuk I and Pimenov V: “Thermal
> Models of rock thermalSUMMER
properties.12Reservoir engineers use predictive Reservoir Simulation: Thermal Property Data
models called mixing laws Thermal Properties
to calculate Fig.bulk
a rock’s 16 thermal conductivity Uncertainties and Their Influence on Simulation
as a function of porosityORSUM
from the 12-THMPTS
conductivities16of the solid matrix and Results,” paper WHOC12-291, presented at the World
Heavy Oil Congress, Aberdeen, September 10–13, 2012.
saturating fluid. Each model employs different assumptions about the
29. For more on cementing: Boisnault JM, Guillot D,
distribution of pore space. Predictions of standard mixing laws for Bourahla A, Tirlia T, Dahl T, Holmes C, Raiturkar AM,
oil-saturated quartz sandstones, with matrix thermal conductivity of Maroy P, Moffett C, Pérez Mejía G, Ramírez Martínez I,
6.6 W/m°K and varying porosity, overlap the range of thermal conductivities Revil P and Roemer R: “Concrete Developments in
measured by optical scanning of oil-saturated sandstones from the Yarega Cementing Technology,” Oilfield Review 11, no. 1
oil field (blue shading), but can differ from actual values for specific samples (Spring 1999): 16–29.
by more than 100%. 30. For more on asphaltenes: Akbarzadeh K, Hammami A,
Kharrat A, Zhang D, Allenson S, Creek J, Kabir S,
Jamaluddin A, Marshall AG, Rodgers RP, Mullins OC and
Solbakken T: “Asphaltenes—Problematic but Rich in
Potential,” Oilfield Review 19, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 22–43.

36 Oilfield Review
 Temperature, °C The economic implications for the various
50 110 170 230 290 scenarios differ dramatically from one another
and, given the typical life of an EOR project, have
Reservoir long-term consequences. Production predictions
based on empirically derived thermal rock prop-
erties may provide field operators with realistic
expectations for returns on capital investments.

Heater well Other Applications

Many oilfield processes other than thermal stim-
Producer well ulation may benefit from operators having accu-
rate knowledge of thermal properties surrounding
4.0 50 7 60 the wellbore. A cementing operation, for exam-
HC
3.5 2, V ple, has to maintain pressure in the annulus
Cumulative oil production, × 10 5 m 3

TC× 6
C×2 50
40
2, VH between the casing and the formation in the nar-
Cumulative steam/oil ratio
3.0
×2 5 TC ×
row range between formation pore pressure and
Relative variation, %

Relative variation, %
C
VH 40
2.5 TC, 30 H C formation fracture pressure. This requirement
4 TC, V
2.0 30 holds over the full length of the wellbore from the
20 3 start of the job until the cement fully cures. Since
1.5
Relative 20
variation 2 the curing process can raise the temperature of
1.0
10 the slurry by more than 100°C [180°F], pressure
1 10
0.5 and temperature in the annulus may be strongly
0 0 0 0 affected by the thermal response of the surround-
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Number of years Number of years
ing rock and its pore fluids. Knowing the actual
values of thermal properties in a formation helps
> Sensitivity of a SAGD operation to reservoir thermal properties. In SAGD operations (top), steam is
operators determine the best choice of cement
injected into a heater well and oil is produced from a producer well. Predictions of the performance
over time of a SAGD operation—in terms of cumulative oil production (bottom left) and cumulative mixtures and additives.29
steam/oil ratio (bottom right)—vary with the modeled thermal properties of the reservoir zone. The Another important process governed in part
base scenario (dashed black line) is modeled with an assumed, or measured, average volumetric heat by the temperature regime near the wellbore,
capacity (VHC) and thermal conductivity (TC) for the reservoir zone. Variation in cumulative oil and therefore by the surrounding distribution
production from the base scenario is determined, on the low side, by doubling volumetric heat capacity
(left, dashed red line), thereby reducing the temperature rise for a given amount of injected heat. of thermal properties, is the precipitation of
Variation in oil production on the high side is determined by doubling thermal conductivity (left, red asphaltenes, which can choke off production
line), thereby increasing the speed at which the temperature rise at the heater well propagates into the by clogging flow pathways. Knowing where
reservoir. Increasing thermal conductivity or volumetric heat capacity drives the cumulative steam/oil
asphaltenes are likely to precipitate helps engi-
ratio higher (right, red line) than its value in the base scenario (dashed black line). Relative changes
(green) in oil production and steam/oil ratio in these different scenarios are as high as 40% in the early neers design better well completions.30
years of production and persist at levels above 20% for 10 years or more. (Adapted from Popov et al, Petroleum production is essentially a ther-
reference 28.) momechanical process. Modern reservoir simu-
lators calculate the pressure, volume and
temperature changes accompanying mass and
heat transfer during production or testing, but
Values of thermal conductivity obtained from model has two horizontal wells crossing a they often use average values of thermal proper-
standard mixing laws may be compared
Oilfield Review with 150-m by 500-m by 25-m [490-ft by 1,640-ft by 80-ft] ties, usually based on point measurements on
experimental results obtainedSUMMER
by optical
12 scan- pay zone of uniform thermal and production prop- cores, to characterize the entire reservoir. The
ning (previous page, bottom).Thermal
AlthoughProperties
the mix- Fig. 18 typical of tar sand reservoirs. The key met-
erties, growing database of measurements made possi-
ORSUM
ing laws provide helpful bounds, the 12-THMPTS
predicted 18rics for a SAGD operation are the cumulative oil ble by optical scanning shows that thermal rock
values may differ from measured values by more production (COP) and the cumulative steam/oil properties vary significantly at both macroscopic
than a factor of two. Similar large discrepancies ratio (CSOR), which is the volume ratio of steam and microscopic scales. Understanding the
are found between the default settings for ther- input to oil produced. This ratio largely determines effects of heterogeneity in scaling up from high-
mal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity efficiency of a steam injection process. Simulations resolution thermal scans of cores to full reser-
programmed in most reservoir simulators and the in which the thermal conductivity and volumetric voir simulations is a fundamental challenge for
average values calculated from the database of heat capacity were varied by factors of up to two— engineers constructing the next generation of
measured thermal properties maintained at the to reflect a range of uncertainties in reservoir reservoir models. —MO
Schlumberger Moscow Research Center.28 properties—show production scenarios with rela-
A simplified model of a SAGD process illus- tive deviations in COP and CSOR of 20% to 50%
trates the importance of using accurate rock prop- persisting over the duration of the simulated
erties in simulations of thermal EOR (above). This SAGD operation.

Autumn 2012 37
 Basin to Basin:
Plate Tectonics in Exploration

Ian Bryant The principles of plate tectonics help explorers understand and evaluate hydrocarbon
Nora Herbst
Houston, Texas, USA plays. Since the start of the 21st century, these ideas have been successfully applied
to presalt basins and turbidite fans along the coasts of South America and western
Paul Dailly
Kosmos Energy Africa. Guided by global plate tectonics, exploration companies are applying winning
Dallas, Texas
play strategies from one coast of the South Atlantic to discover and prove similar
John R. Dribus plays on the opposite coast.
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

Roberto Fainstein
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia

Nick Harvey New discoveries often emerge from previous suc-
Neftex cesses. Once a play concept has proved commer-
Abingdon, England cially viable, oil companies are able to apply
characteristics from their play to a regional or
Angus McCoss global framework in search of other accumula-
Tullow Oil plc
tions. Through integration of exploration infor-
London, England
mation, drilling data and geologic models from a
Bernard Montaron successful play and through application of plate
Beijing, People’s Republic of China tectonic models, geoscientists are finding analog
plays across ocean basins.
David Quirk From the North Sea to the Gulf of Mexico and
Maersk Oil from offshore South America to offshore Africa,
Copenhagen, Denmark explorationists have discovered major oil and gas
fields in continental margin systems. The Santos,
Paul Tapponnier Campos and Espirito Santo basins off the coast of
Nanyang Technological University Brazil contain prolific oil discoveries, and the
Singapore
application of plate tectonic concepts has enabled
Oilfield Review Autumn 2012: 24, no. 3.
explorers to extend that play across the Atlantic
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. to offshore western Africa. Within the last few
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Steve years, exploration companies have applied prin-
Brown, Copenhagen, Denmark; George Cazenove and
Jonathan Leather, Tullow Oil plc, London; James W. ciples of plate tectonics to extend and relate
Farnsworth, Cobalt International Energy, Inc., Houston; upper Cretaceous turbidite fan plays westward—
Winston Hey, Houston; Susan Lundgren, Gatwick, England;
and Richard Martin and Mike Simmons, Neftex, Abingdon, from West Africa across the Equatorial Atlantic to
England. French Guiana and Brazil. This article describes
Petrel is a mark of Schlumberger.
some of the fundamental concepts that today’s
geoscientists use to extrapolate plays across
ocean basins. Case studies demonstrate how
explorers have used plate tectonics and regional
geology to expand exploration efforts in both
directions across the Atlantic Ocean.
Basic Concepts
Basins, petroleum systems and hydrocarbon plays
are vital concepts in petroleum exploration. Basins
collect the sediments that become the building
blocks for petroleum systems. A petroleum system
comprises an active source rock and the oil and
gas derived from it that migrate to a reservoir and
become confined there by a trap and seal.1 A play
is a model used to explore for hydrocarbon depos-
its having similar characteristics. Petroleum sys-
tems may contain one or more plays, depending on
the reservoir and style of trapping mechanism.2
Exploration experts systematically apply these
concepts to locate prospects for drilling. Software
platforms for databases, data integration and
modeling are helping experts optimize their explo-
ration workflows.
A basin is a depression in the Earth’s surface
that accumulates sediments. Basins form when
the Earth’s lithosphere is stretched, fractured,
loaded down or compressed in response to
global tectonic processes. These processes also
govern the size and depth—the accommodation
space—of a basin, while climatic conditions
determine water and sediment input for the
basin fill material.

38 Oilfield Review
 Basins may be deformed by tectonic motion:
extension, compression, strike-slip motion or
any combination thereof. Extension may cause
normal faulting and may be accompanied by
stretching, thinning and sagging of the crust.
Compression results in thrust faulting, folding,
shortening and thickening. Strike-slip motion
gives rise to translation and lateral faulting.
A combination of these phenomena produces
Autumn 2012
1. Al-Hajeri MM, Al Saeed M, Derks J, Fuch T, Hantschel T,
Kauerauf A, Neumaier M, Schenk O, Swientek O,
Tessen N, Welte D, Wygrala B, Kornpihl D and
Peters K: “Basin and Petroleum System Modeling,”
Oilfield Review 21, no. 2 (Summer 2009): 14–29.
Stewart L: “The Search for Oil and Gas,” Oilfield Review 23,
no. 2 (Summer 2011): 59–60.
2. Doust H: “Placing Petroleum Systems and Plays in
Their Basin History Context: A Means to Assist in the
Identification [of] New Opportunities,” First Break 21,
no. 9 (September 2003): 73–83.
Doust H: “The Exploration Play: What Do We Mean By
It?,” AAPG Bulletin 94, no. 11 (November 2010): 1657–1672.
39
 O Overburden
C Caprock
R Reservoirs
Source rocks
O

Tertiary
Clayey-sandy
R sediments
C

Marls
C

Oceanic R

Cretaceous
crust Continental crust Limestone

C Salt

C
Lithosphere Synrift
R lacustrine
sediments

> Petroleum systems. Explorationists define the petroleum system as the geologic elements and processes that are
essential for the existence of a petroleum accumulation. This cross section summarizes petroleum systems along a South
Atlantic continental margin. The geologic elements must be present in the following order: The source rock contains
organic matter, reservoir rock receives the hydrocarbons and has sufficient porosity and permeability for storage and
recovery of hydrocarbons, sealing caprock is impermeable to keep the fluids in the reservoir and overburden rock buries
the source rock to depths having the optimal temperature and pressure for source rock maturation and hydrocarbon
generation. Rifting of the South Atlantic Ocean started with extension and faulting (black solid going to dashed lines) of
continental crust (brown). The continental crust thinned and eventually split apart. As the two parts of the continental crust
separated (only the right side is shown here), oceanic crust (gray) formed at a midocean ridge (not shown) during seafloor
spreading. The continental margin is located where the thinned continental crust meets oceanic crust. Synrift lacustrine
basins were preserved and filled with source (blue) and reservoir (white) rock that were eventually trapped and sealed
underneath salt (purple). Hydrocarbons from synrift source rock migrated to limestone reservoirs (green bricks) that were
buried and trapped beneath postsalt marls (green). The marls also provided source rock (dark green). During the Tertiary,
clayey-sandy sediments (yellow and tan) buried the margin, providing source rock, reservoirs, caprock and overburden.
[Illustration adapted from Huc AY: “Petroleum in the South Altantic,” Oil & Gas Science and Technology—Revue de l’Institut
Français du Pétrole 59, no. 3 (May–June 2004): 243–253.]

pull-apart basins, push-up blocks and transten-
sion or transpression oblique slip. Thus, local
or large-scale movements provide the impetus
for creation of stratigraphic or structural
traps. Stratigraphic traps result from facies
changes or juxtaposition of impermeable and
permeable strata. Structural traps form as a
result of strata deformation. The tectonic and
stratigraphic history of a basin gives it a global
and regional setting for its formation, filling
and deformation.3
Exploration teams composed of geologists, geo-
chemists, paleontologists, geophysicists and petro-
physicists unravel the history of a basin and
sequence of tectonic events and cycles of sedimen-
tation filling a basin. They identify source rocks
within the basin and correlate them with known
trapped hydrocarbons.The
Fig1_6 teams examine the geo-
logic elements and processes that created known
source rocks and traps to develop leads to other
similarly generated accumulations (above). After
further investigation, if the lead still appears to
have potential to trap hydrocarbons, it becomes
a prospect.4
Once identified, the prospects are ranked
according to uncertainty, risk, potential reward
and market value of hydrocarbons.
Integrated software systems that incorporate
mapping and petroleum systems and play analy-
sis tools, such as the Petrel E&P platform, help
geoscientists evaluate basins (next page).5
Geoscientists use them to construct and share
geologic models in 3D and provide an environ-
ment for storing data and models.

40 Oilfield Review
 Project and portfolio economics Model-based interpretation from basin to prospect Trap

Play and prospect evaluation Reservoir

Geomechanics and seal analysis Charge and timing petroleum system modeling Structural restoration
> Exploration software platform. Exploration experts combine seismic information, well logs, geochemical and heat flow data and other geologic data to
work from basin to prospect scale (clockwise top center to middle right). Regional to prospect scale models of traps (top right) and reservoirs (middle right)
built in the Petrel platform benefit from integration with structural restoration tools (bottom right) and petroleum system modeling (bottom center). Both
petroleum system modeling and structural restoration tools may be used to gain an understanding of the geomechanics of the basin to guide evaluation of
seals (bottom left) and plan exploration wells. Risk assessment tools allow exploration teams to assign uncertainty and risk to acreage and drillable
prospects (middle left). Petroleum economic evaluation enables planning exploration portfolios (top left).

By creating models at various scales, geo-
scientists are able to develop geocellular mod-
els from global to regional and local scales.
This integration allows geoscientists to deter-
mine, for example, whether a particular local
channel-levee interpretation is consistent with
the regional interpretation or whether a wide-
spread organic-rich facies mapped at the tec-
tonic plate scale corresponds to source rock
facies in the prospect model of the targeted
petroleum system.
3. A facies is a rock unit defined by characteristics that
distinguish it from neighboring units.
For more on stratigraphic and structural traps:
Caldwell J, Chowdhury A, van Bemmel P, Engelmark F,
Sonneland L and Neidell NS: “Exploring for Stratigraphic
Traps,” Oilfield Review 9, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 48–61.
For sequence stratigraphy: Neal J, Risch D and Vail P:
“Sequence Stratigraphy—A Global Theory for Local
Success,” Oilfield Review 5, no. 1 (January 1993): 51–62.
Fig2_1
4. This chain of events from hydrocarbon source to its
resting place in a distant reservoir applies to
conventional petroleum systems. For unconventional
systems, the source rock may also be the reservoir rock.
Such unconventional systems include oil and gas from
shale or coalbed methane.
McCarthy K, Rojas K, Niemann M, Palmowski D, Peters K
and Stankiewicz A: “Basic Petroleum Geochemistry for
Source Rock Evaluation,” Oilfield Review 23, no. 2
(Summer 2011): 32–43.
5. Al-Hajeri et al, reference 1.

Autumn 2012 41
 Present day

Jubilee discovery,
Tano basin
Cretaceous
Zaedyus discovery,
Guyana-Suriname basin
Precambrian

Play projection
Present day Cretaceous Precambrian

Extrusive volcanics
Nondeposition
Organic-rich clastics
Tupi discovery, Azul and Cameia discoveries,
Lacustrine facies Kwanza basin
Santos-Campos basin
Deep marine sand-dominated clastics
Paralic facies
Deep marine carbonates
Shallow marine carbonates
Deep marine clastics
Shallow marine clastics
Terrestrial sediments
> South Atlantic conjugate margins through geologic time. Two regional geologic models, built on opposing coasts of the South Atlantic, are constrained by
a global sequence stratigraphic model. By assimilating interpretations into a 3D environment using the Petrel platform, geoscientists have derived a
workflow to populate a tectonic plate–scale geocellular model for the sedimentary evolution of the margins through geologic time as illustrated in the
exploded view of the South Atlantic continental margins from Precambrian time at the deepest surface to the present at the upper surface. Data assembled
in this way on a common software platform allow explorationists to project petroleum system facies to a data-poor region by using sequence stratigraphy
and elements of petroleum system modeling from a data-rich region to correlate and extrapolate associated facies. A recent example of this approach may
be found along the transform margin where successful exploration concepts developed in Turonian-age lowstand turbidite fans offshore Ghana have been
applied offshore French Guiana, leading to the recent Zaedyus discovery within similar deposits. Visualized in geologic time, these lowstand systems may
be explored with their associated petroleum elements. Compelling evidence from wireline log responses, hinterland cooling events and biostratigraphically
constrained unconformities were integrated; the results suggest that Campanian-age lowstand deposits may also provide attractive reservoir targets in the
Guyana-Suriname basin offshore northern South America. The Campanian stratigraphic interval, while not as well tested as the Turonian interval, has also
been attracting interest on the African margin offshore Ghana, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. (Illustration used with permission from Neftex.)

Because these various input data are con-
strained by a stratigraphic model, the geocellular
models are displayed not only in true vertical
depth (TVD) or two-way traveltime, but also in
geologic time (above). In addition, geologists are
able to project characteristics of a given strati-
graphic interval to analogous strata in conjugate
basins or in frontier areas. Geologists are also
able to use qualitiesFig3_2
from a data-rich region to
develop a sequence stratigraphic context for pre-
dicting facies in data-poor regions.
Plate Boundaries and Rifted and
Transform Margins
Plate tectonic science has established that the
Earth’s outermost layer, the lithosphere, com-
prises a number of major and many minor plates
that move relative to one another (next page).6

42 Oilfield Review
This motion is driven by the convection and flow
of hot ductile material in the mantle underlying
the lithosphere. The lithosphere consists of two
layers: the crust and the lithospheric mantle.7
The crust is further divided into two categories.
Continental crust is mostly of granitic composi-
tion; its density averages about 2.7 g/cm3, and its
thickness is about 35 km [22 mi] in most places
but ranges from 20 to 70 km [12 to 43 mi].
Oceanic crust has a basaltic composition and is
denser and thinner than continental crust. Its
density averages about 2.9 g/cm3, and its thick-
ness ranges from 5 to 10 km [3 to 6 mi]. The
higher density of the oceanic crust causes it to
rest lower in the mantle than continental crust.
Over geologic time, tectonic plate motions
have amalgamated small continents to form super-
continents and separated them again into a collec-
tion of smaller continents distributed across the
planet. The most recent giant supercontinent,
Pangea, formed during the Paleozoic era, then was
rifted apart beginning about 225 to 200 million
years ago [Ma]. The breakup started with Pangea
separating into the Laurasia and Gondwana super-
continents in the north and south, respectively.
The subsequent breakup of Laurasia and
Gondwana resulted in the opening of the Atlantic
and Indian oceans and evolved to the present day
configuration of continents and oceans.

Eurasia plate
Eurasia plate

North America plate

Juan de Fuca
plate Anatolia plate

Pacific plate
Caribbean plate
Philippine Arabia
Africa plate plate
plate
India
Cocos plate
plate

South America plate

Australia
plate
Nazca plate
Australia plate

Pacific plate

Scotia plate
Antarctica plate
Antarctica plate

Antarctica plate

Convergent boundary barbs point Possible boundary Major transform boundary Divergent boundary Plate movement
to direction of convergence
> Plates. The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into numerous plates. Relative motion of the plates (arrows) determines whether the plate boundaries are
convergent, transform or divergent. [Map adapted from “Interpretative Map of Plate Tectonics,” an inset to Simkin T, Tilling RI, Vogt PR, Kirby SH,
Kimberly P and Stewart DB: “This Dynamic Planet—World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics,” US Geological Survey,
Geologic Investigations Series Map I–2800 (2006).]

6. The lithosphere is the 50 to 200 km [30 to 120 mi] thick,
rigid outer layer of Earth; its thickness is determined by
the depth of the brittle-to-ductile transition temperature,
which is roughly 1,000°C [1,800°F]. The upper part of the
lithosphere is the crust and the lower part is the
lithospheric mantle.
For more on plate boundaries: Bird P: “An Updated
Digital Model of Plate Boundaries,” Geochemistry
Geophysics Geosystems 4, no. 3 (March 2003),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001GC000252 (accessed
August 21, 2012).
7. Earth’s mantle is the 2,900 km [1,800 mi] thick layer that
lies between Earth’s crust and outer core. The mantle is
divided into the upper mantle, transition zone and lower
mantle. The upper mantle is about 370 km [230 mi] thick
and divided into the lithospheric mantle and the
asthenosphere.

Autumn 2012
Fig4_3 43
 The plates move relative to one another and
Convergent Transform Divergent Convergent Continental rift zone
plate boundary plate boundary plate boundary plate boundary (young plate boundary) interact with each other at their boundaries
(left). The three types of plate boundaries are the
following: convergent, or compressional; trans-
Shield form, or strike slip; and divergent, or extensional.
Island arc Trench Oceanic spreading Trench
volcano ridge At convergent plate boundaries, plates move
stratovolcano
Lithosphere Continental crust toward one another. Plates respond in a number
tle Oceanic crust Uppe
n Asthenosphere r ma of ways when they collide, depending on whether
r ma ntle
pe
Up Subducting the convergence is continent to continent, ocean
Hot spot plate
to ocean or ocean to continent. Continent-to-
Lower mantle
continent convergence—collision—results in
shortening and thickening of the crust. The colli-
sion between the Indian and Asian continents is
one example. This convergence created the
Plate
Himalaya Mountains and Tibetan Plateau and
Asthenosphere resulted in the southeastward lateral escape of
Convergent boundary Transform boundary Divergent boundary
Sundaland and southeast China in the direction
away from the collision between India and Asia.8
> Plate boundaries. Earth’s lithospheric plates move relative to one another. This movement is Ocean-to-ocean or ocean-to-continent conver-
accommodated along plate boundaries. Convergent boundaries occur where plates move toward one gence results in subduction: one oceanic plate
another. One plate may subduct—dive—under another; trenches mark the line of the bending,
subducting plate. Chains of island arc stratovolcanoes may form along subduction zones above the dives under the other plate. An example of ocean-
downgoing plate. Transform boundaries occur where plates slide past one another; oceanic transform to-ocean convergence occurs at the Marianas
fault zones transfer seafloor spreading from one midocean ridge segment to another. Divergent plate Trench, where the Pacific plate plunges west-
boundaries occur where plates split apart at seafloor spreading ridges and continental rift zones. Hot ward under the small Philippine plate in the
spots occur where plumes of hot mantle material impinge on lithospheric plates; they may induce
shield volcanoes and cause flood basalts to pour out over plates (not shown). [Image adapted from western Pacific Ocean. Ocean-to-continent con-
“Schematic Cross Section of Plate Tectonics,” an inset to Simkin T, Tilling RI, Vogt PR, Kirby SH, vergence occurs along the western Andes
Kimberly P and Stewart DB: “This Dynamic Planet—World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Mountains, where the Pacific plate dives east-
Craters, and Plate Tectonics,” US Geological Survey, Geologic Investigations Series Map I–2800 (2006).] ward under the South America plate.
At transform boundaries, plates slide past
each other, which occurs along the San Andreas
Fault in California, USA. This fault accommo-
dates movement of the Pacific plate northward
Plate boundary
Midocean past the North America plate. The North and
ridge East Anatolian faults in Turkey are also trans-
form boundaries. These faults accommodate the
westward movement of the Anatolia plate
toward the Mediterranean Sea as it escapes the
Ocean crust
compression between the converging Eurasia
and Arabia plates.
At divergent plate boundaries, a plate splits,
forming two smaller plates that move apart from
Fracture Transform fault Fracture each other. Divergent plate boundaries may start
zone (active part of zone out as continental rift systems; in millions of
(inactive) fracture zone) (inactive)
years, these land-based rifts become oceanic rifts.
Fig5_1
Examples of modern-day continental rifts are the
East African rift; the Lake Baikal rift, Russia; and
Oceanic crust
the Basin and Range Province, western USA.
Lithosphere
In continental rifts, the crust undergoes
Asthenosphere
Plate boundary
extension, faulting and thinning until it splits. At
the split, a volcanic ridge forms as hot mantle
> Midocean ridge and transform fault plate boundary. Midocean spreading (white and red arrows) material wells up to fill the void left by the sepa-
rarely occurs along a single clean rift zone. Here, the divergent plate boundary (dashed yellow line) rating plates. The mantle material of basaltic
consists of two segments of a midocean ridge connected by a transform fault. In the transform fault, composition accretes to the plate edges, cools
or the active part of the fracture zone between the ridge segments, the plates slide past each other and forms new oceanic crust. As the plates move
in opposite directions (black opposing arrows). In the inactive part of the fracture zone, outside of the
ridge segments, the plate sections are locked together and move in the same direction (black parallel apart, the oceanic crust grows, building an ocean
arrows). (Adapted from Garrison TS: Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science, 4th ed. Pacific that widens between the slowly separating plates.
Grove, California, USA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 2002.) The process is called seafloor spreading. The Red

44 Oilfield Review
Sea and Gulf of Aden rift that separates the
Africa and Arabia plates is a young divergent
plate boundary. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which
encompasses the midocean rift and ridge that
separates the Americas from Europe and Africa,
is a mature divergent plate boundary.
As continents move apart, they rarely do so
along a single separation zone or rift. Rather,
the rift is a series of segments offset by trans-
form faults and fracture zones. Transform faults
are strike-slip faults that connect rift segments.
They transfer the spreading motion or accom-
modate spreading rate differences between rift
segments; they are active only between rift seg-
ments.9 Transform faults leave scars on the
ocean floor called fracture zones. Transform
faults and fracture zones are oriented perpen-
dicular to the midocean ridge and parallel to
the spreading direction; they mark the path of
plate movement as the rifted continental mar-
gins move farther apart.
The ages and thermal histories of oceanic
rocks differ on opposite sides of transform faults.
Along the fault, younger, hotter and lower density
rocks are juxtaposed against older, colder and
higher density rocks. Because they are hotter, the
younger rocks are thermally uplifted to a higher
elevation than their older, cooler and denser
cross-fault neighbors, causing a difference in
ocean floor elevation on either side of the fault.
These elevation differences may remain as the
rocks cool, leaving scars—fracture zones.
Because the fracture zones are nearly parallel to
the midocean ridge spreading direction—the
direction of relative plate motion—they leave
tracks of the opening of the ocean (previous
page, bottom).
As seafloor spreading continues, previously
connected continental margins move farther
apart. A continental margin, where continental
crust meets or transitions to oceanic crust, is a
relic of faulting during continental breakup.
Thus, continental margins that face a midocean
rift commonly have overlaps and may also have
transform and rifted margin segments. Transform
margins occur where continents break up and
separate by shear movement along transform
strike-slip faults. Rifted margins form where con-
tinents break up and separate by extensional
movement perpendicular to coastlines and along
dip-slip faults.
Gondwana Breakup
The relative movement of adjacent tectonic
plates throughout geologic time has been quanti-
fied by remote-sensing technologies. For conti-
nents, scientists determine plate movement by
Autumn 2012
fitting apparent polar wander curves.10 For netic field and from fracture zones on the ocean
oceans, scientists determine plate movement floor (below).11 However, there are no useful mag-
from magnetic anomaly patterns caused by netic anomalies to constrain the Gondwana
north-to-south polarity reversals of Earth’s mag- breakup history during the Cretaceous period
Magnetic chrons
MC1 MC1
MC3 MC2 MC2 MC3
MC6 MC5 MC4 MC4 MC5 MC6
Is M Is
oc id oc
hr oc hr
on ea on
s n s
rid
ge Normal polarity
Reverse polarity
Oceanic
crust
Seafloor spreading Lithosphere
Cold Hot and
and old young
Plate temperature and age
> Magnetic anomalies and seafloor spreading. Scientists obtained evidence
of seafloor spreading by determining the polarity of magnetic anomalies on
both sides of midocean ridges. Earth’s magnetic field changes its polarity
from time to time. The ocean floor is youngest and hottest at the oceanic
ridge spreading center and becomes progressively older and cooler toward
the continent-ocean boundary. As the ocean floor rocks and their
ferromagnetic minerals cool below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic
minerals become magnetized in the direction consistent with the existing
polarity of Earth’s magnetic field. Rocks displaying dominantly normal
polarity, equivalent to present-day magnetism, are shown by black stripes on
the plate cross section. Rocks with dominantly reverse polarity magnetism
are shown as white stripes. The symmetry of the magnetic anomaly striping
on either side of the ridge demonstrates the movement of the seafloor
away from the spreading center. Dating each polarity shift—normal to
reverse and reverse to normal—turns the magnetic anomaly map into an
magnetochronology map for seafloor spreading; the age of each reversal is
an isochron (white lines)—a contour of time—and the time interval between
magnetic reversals is a magnetic chron (MC), during which Earth’s magnetic
field is dominantly, or constantly, one polarity.
  8. Sundaland refers to the Sunda shelf region of Southeast Besse J and Courtillot V: “Correction to ‘Apparent and
Asia, which includes Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and True Polar Wander and the Geometry of Geomagnetic
Borneo. For more about the lateral escape of Southeast Field Over the Last 200 Myr,‘” Journal of Geophysical
Asia and Sundaland: Tapponnier P, Lacassin R, Leloup Research 108, no. B10 (October 2003): EMP 3-1 to 3-2.
PH, Schärer U, Zhong D, Wu H, Liu X, Ji S, Zhang L and 11. For more on plate motions, magnetic anomalies and
Zhong J: “The Ailao Shan/Red River Metamorphic Belt: seafloor spreading: Hellinger SJ: “The Uncertainties of
Tertiary Left-Lateral Shear Between Indochina and South Fig7_1 Finite Rotations in Plate Tectonics,” Journal of
China,” Nature 343, no. 6257 (February 1, 1990): 431–437. Geophysical Research 86, no. B10 (October 1981):
  9. Strike-slip displacement or motion refers to the horizontal 9312–9318.
movement of the other side of the fault relative to the Karner GD and Gambôa LAP: “Timing and Origin of the
reference side—the side on which one is standing, South Atlantic Pre-Salt Sag Basins and Their Capping
facing the fault. The motion is right lateral when the Evaporates,” in Schreiber BC, Lugli S and Babel M (eds):
other side of the fault moves to the right and left lateral Evaporites Through Space and Time. London:
when the other side moves to the left. The Geological Society, Special Publication 285
10. For more on plate motions and polar wander: Besse J (January 2007): 15–35.
and Courtillot V: “Apparent and True Polar Wander and
the Geometry of Geomagnetic Field Over the Last 200
Myr,” Journal of Geophysical Research 107, no. B11
(November 2002): EMP 6-1 to 6-31.
45
 Cratons
Marathon FZ Cretaceous
AFRICA volcanism
Midocean
Demerara Guinean ridge
Plateau Plateau
Aptian salt
Equatorial Segment Romanche FZ Gulf of
Chain FZ Guinea Gabon
Potiguar basin basin

Ascension FZ
Congo
Sergipe- basin
Alagoas
basin Kwanza
basin
SOUTH Espírito Central Segment
AMERICA Santo Namibe
basin basin
Campos
basin
Rio Grande FZ
Walvis
Santos Ridge
basin Rio Grande Namibia
Paraná Rise basin
Province

Pelotas Tristan da Cunha

basin hot spot
Southern Segment

Rawson
basin
Agulhas-Falkland FZ
Falkland Segment

> Tectonic map of the South Atlantic Ocean at the end of magnetic polarity chron 34 (MC34, 84 Ma). The red line
represents the midocean ridge at the end of MC34. From north to south, the South Atlantic Ocean is divided into the
Equatorial, Central, Southern and Falkland segments, bounded by the Marathon, Ascension, Rio Grande and
Agulhas-Falkland fracture zones (FZs). The black dots show the approximate locations of the discoveries of Tupi
offshore Brazil, Azul and Cameia offshore Angola, Jubilee offshore Ghana and Zaedyus offshore French Guiana.
(Adapted from Moulin et al, reference 12.)

from roughly 120 to 84 Ma because Earth’s mag-
netic field was stable and did not experience
magnetic polarity reversals during that interval.12
Nonetheless, through dating of the flood basalts
that poured over the Gondwana continent, geo-
scientists generally agree that the breakup of the
Gondwana supercontinent, which resulted in the
opening of the South Atlantic Ocean and the
separation of the South America and Africa
plates, started about 130 Ma during the Early
Cretaceous epoch. The breakup started in the
south, moved progressively north and was com-
pleted about 20 to 30 million years later during
the Aptian to Albian geologic ages.13 The central
segment opened later because the continental
plate was hotter and softer there. Consequently,
it stretched further and reached a higher eleva-
tion because of thermal uplift before breakup.
The South Atlantic Ocean extends from the
Marathon Fracture Zone (FZ) in the north to the
Antarctic Plate in the south and may be divided
into four segments separated by major FZs that
cross the Atlantic Ocean (above).
Adjacent to the Rio Grande FZ, the Rio
Grande Rise and the Fig8_1
Walvis Ridge originated from
the Tristan da Cunha hot spot that is responsible
for the Paraná and Etendeka flood basalts in
Brazil and Namibia, respectively.14 When the
ocean opened, the Rio Grande Rise and Walvis
Ridge formed as the South America plate drifted
to the NW and the African plate drifted NE rela-
tive to the Tristan da Cunha hot spot. The result-
ing ridges formed a broad volcanic high that
isolated the central segment of the South Atlantic
Ocean from encroachment by marine water from
the southern segment.
The basin filling histories of the central and
southern segments of the South Atlantic differ
from one another.15 In particular, the central seg-
ment is dominated by thick salt basins that formed
during the Aptian age (125 to 112 Ma), whereas
the continental margins of the southern segment
subsided at the margins of an open ocean.

46 Oilfield Review
 The equatorial South Atlantic segment began
to open later in the Early Cretaceous epoch—
around 112 Ma.16 In its northern latitudes, this
segment encompasses the Demerara plateau of
Suriname and French Guiana and the Guinea pla-
teau in West Africa. In its southern latitudes, it
includes coasts of northern Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire
and Ghana.17 The opening of the equatorial seg-
ment, unlike the other segments, was not perpen-
dicular to the continental margins because some
of the plate motion was taken up by oblique
movement or sideways tearing along faults.18
Geologists’ understanding of the geologic
events that controlled geography, climate and
basin history are based on the principles of plate
tectonics. These principles form the foundation
for developing exploration plays. Discoveries in
the presalt and transform margin basins along
the South American and western African coasts
since 2006 illustrate these points.
Matching Salt Basins: From Brazil to Angola
The Lula oil field—renamed from Tupi in 2010 to
honor former Brazilian president Luiz Inacio
Lula da Silva—was discovered in 2006 within
12. Torsvik TH, Rousse S, Labails C and Smethurst MA:
“A New Scheme for the Opening of the South Atlantic
Ocean and the Dissection of an Aptian Salt Basin,”
Geophysical Journal International 177, no. 3 (June 2009):
1315–1333.
Moulin M, Aslanian D and Unternehr P: “A New Starting
Point for the South and Equatorial Atlantic Ocean,”
Earth-Science Reviews 98, no. 1–2 (January 2010): 1–37.
Blaich OA, Faleide JI and Tsikalas F: “Crustal Breakup
and Continent Ocean Transition at South Atlantic
Conjugate Margins,” Journal of Geophysical
Research 116, B01402 (January 2011): 1–38.
Cartwright J, Swart R and Corner B: “Conjugate Margins
of the South Atlantic: Namibia–Pelotas,” in Roberts DG
and Bally AW (eds): Regional Geology and Tectonics:
Phanerozoic Passive Margins, Cratonic Basins and
Global Tectonic Maps, Vol. 1c. Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: Elsevier BV (2012): 202–221.
Mohriak WU and Fainstein R: “Phanerozoic Regional
Geology of the Eastern Brazilian Margin,” in Roberts DG
and Bally AW (eds): Regional Geology and Tectonics:
Phanerozoic Passive Margins, Cratonic Basins and
Global Tectonic Maps, Vol. 1c. Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: Elsevier BV (2012): 222–283.
13. Szatmari P: “Habitat of Petroleum Along the South
Atlantic Margins,” in Mello MR and Katz BJ (eds):
Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Margins. Tulsa:
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
AAPG Memoir 73 (2000): 69–75.
14. Hot spots are surface manifestations of mantle plumes,
which are stationary thermal anomalies that produce
thin upwelling conduits of magma within the mantle. Hot
spot volcanism yields flood basalts and long linear
chains of volcanoes within tectonic plate interiors; along
each chain, the volcanoes become progressively older
in the direction of plate movement.
Wilson M: “Magmatism and Continental Rifting
During the Opening of the South Atlantic Ocean:
A Consequence of Lower Cretaceous Super-Plume
Activity?,” in Storey BC, Alabaster T and Pankhurst RJ
(eds): Magmatism and the Causes of Continental
Break-Up. London: The Geological Society, Special
Publication 68 (1992): 241–255.
Autumn 2012
the Santos basin by Petróleo Brasileiro SA, or
Petrobras.19 The discovery was made beneath
Aptian salt on the Brazilian rifted margin of the
central South Atlantic and established the pre-
salt play.20
The presalt fields offshore Brazil are charged
with hydrocarbons migrating from organic-rich
source rocks deposited within anoxic lakes that
developed around the time the South Atlantic was
forming. At the start of the Aptian age, continental
rifting ended and seafloor spreading began; how-
ever, lake, rather than marine, conditions pre-
vailed as the region was uplifted above the mantle
plume of the Tristan da Cunha hot spot. In these
lakes above the rifted continental margins,
unusual carbonates were deposited during the
Early Aptian (123 to 117 Ma). Similar to the pro-
cess in present-day Lake Tanganyika in East
Africa, shallow lacustrine carbonates were depos-
ited during slow deepening of the lakes. Within the
Early Aptian carbonates, the fossil record shows
coquina strata overlain by microbialite strata as
conditions changed from fresh to hypersaline
water when the climate became more arid.21 These
Quirk DG, Hertle M, Jeppesen JW, Raven M, Mohriak W,
Kann DJ, Nørgaard M, Mendes MP, Hsu D, Howe MJ
and Coffey B: “Rifting, Subsidence and Continental
Break-Up Above a Mantle Plume in the Central South
Atlantic,” in Mohriak WU, Danforth A, Post PJ,
Brown DE, Tari GC, Nemc̆ok M and Sinha ST (eds):
Conjugate Divergent Margins. London: The Geological
Society, Special Publication 369 (in press).
15. Séranne M and Anka Z: “South Atlantic Continental
Margins of Africa: A Comparison of the Tectonic vs.
Climate Interplay on the Evolution of Equatorial West
Africa and SW Africa Margins,” Journal of African Earth
Sciences 43, no. 1–3 (October 2005): 283–300.
16. Moulin et al, reference 12.
17. The Guyanas, or Guianas, is the region of northern South
America that includes the nations of Suriname, Guyana
and French Guiana. West Africa, or western Africa, is
the westernmost region of the African continent and its
southern edge extends along the northern coastline of
the Gulf of Guinea and includes, from east to west,
Nigeria, Togo, Benin, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia,
Sierra Leone and Guinea.
18. Darros de Matos RM: “Tectonic Evolution of the
Equatorial South Atlantic,” in Mohriak W and Talwani M
(eds): Atlantic Rifts and Continental Margins.
Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union,
Geophysical Monograph 115 (2000): 331–354.
Mascle J, Lohman P, Clift P and ODP 159 Scientific Party:
“Development of a Passive Transform Margin: Côte
d’Ivoire–Ghana Transform Margin—ODP Leg 159
Preliminary Results,” Geo-Marine Letters 17, no. 1
(February 1997): 4–11.
Darros de Matos RM: “Petroleum Systems Related to
the Equatorial Transform Margin: Brazilian and West
African Conjugate Basins,” in Post P, Rosen N, Olson D,
Palmes SL, Lyons KT and Newton GB (eds): Petroleum
Systems of Divergent Continental Margin Basins. Tulsa:
Gulf Coast Section, Society for Sedimentary Geology
(2005): 807–831.
19. Beasley CJ, Fiduk JC, Bize E, Boyd A, Frydman M,
Zerilli A, Dribus JR, Moreira JLP and Pinto ACC:
“Brazil’s Presalt Play,” Oilfield Review 22, no. 3
(Autumn 2010): 28–37.
carbonates form the reservoirs of Brazil’s Santos
and Campos presalt basins.
With increased aridity during the Late Aptian
(117 to 113 Ma), the basins became conducive to
deposition of thick, 800- to 2,500-m [2,600- to
8,200-ft] layered evaporite sequences. Evaporites
in the Santos basin show a history of rapid pre-
cipitation of mostly halite from marine waters,
followed by slow precipitation of complex salts.
These later salts precipitated from highly con-
centrated brines augmented by hydrothermal
processes involving a fluid-rock chemical
exchange with basaltic rock. The first 600 m
[2,000 ft] of these evaporites are formed by two
massive halite layers separated by a thin anhy-
drite layer. The top of the evaporite sequence
shows a number of deposition cycles with potas-
sium- and magnesium-rich layered evaporites.22
This entire evaporite sequence precipitated in a
deep rift lake behind the barrier created by the
Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise. This barrier
was penetrated by deep fissures along which
marine waters traveled, interacting chemically
with the basaltic wall rock and leaking into the
evaporating lake.
20. Presalt refers to before the formation or deposition of
salt deposits. Presalt reservoirs are beneath salt
deposits that have not flowed away from their place of
deposition—beneath the autochthonous, or in place,
salt. This definition differentiates presalt strata from
subsalt or postsalt strata. For more: Beasley et al,
reference 19.
21. Coquina is a limestone formed principally from shell
fragments and indicates a nearshore environment with
vigorous wave action. Microbialites, which are
carbonate structures thought to be formed by microbes,
have a range of shapes and sizes. They form in
environments that are not conducive to the growth
of corals.
22. Hardie LA: “On the Significance of Evaporites,” Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 19 (May 1991):
131–168.
Jackson MPA, Cramez C and Fonck J-M: “Role of
Subaerial Volcanic Rocks and Mantle Plumes in
Creation of South Atlantic Margins: Implications for Salt
Tectonics and Source Rocks,” Marine and Petroleum
Geology 17, no. 4 (April 2000): 477–498.
Nunn JA and Harris NB: “Subsurface Seepage of
Seawater Across a Barrier: A Source of Water and
Salt to Peripheral Salt Basins,” Geological Society of
America Bulletin 119, no. 9–10 (September–October 2007):
1201–1217.
Nunn JA and Harris NB: “Erratum for ‘Subsurface
Seepage of Seawater Across a Barrier: A Source of
Water and Salt to Peripheral Salt Basins,’” Geological
Society of America Bulletin 120, no. 1–2 (January–
February 2008): 256.
47
W E

Postsalt sediments

Salt

Presalt

Basement
2 km

20 km

>Seismic lines across conjugate presalt rifted margins. These paired seismic lines are dip lines from the Santos basin
offshore Brazil (above) and the Kwanza basin offshore Angola (next page, top). The Santos basin seismic section is from a
generic 2D seismic line crossing close to the Lula field, a presalt discovery. The seismic section shows a nearly 2-km [1.2-mi]
thickness of presalt sediments underneath the salt. The Kwanza basin section, offshore Angola, is from a 3D seismic survey
and shows a well-developed presalt section separated from postsalt sediments by complex salt geometries. (The Santos
basin section is used with permission from WesternGeco and TGS. The Kwanza basin section is used with permission from
WesternGeco and Sonangol.)

The necessary factors promoting such thick
salt accumulations were a rapidly sinking margin
with balance-filled basins or lakes behind an
elevated outer volcanic high. This volcanic high
was a leaky barrier that restricted inflow of sea-
water in an environment characterized by a
warm, arid, desert climate (next page, bottom).23
Conditions were somewhat similar to present-day
conditions in the Dead Sea basin and in the
Danakil Depression on the Afar Peninsula, north-
east Africa.24 These layered salts form the seal for
the presalt reservoirs (See “Salt Deposition in
Actively Spreading Basins,” page 50).
The end of the Aptian age saw the final
breaching of the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise
barrier accompanied by flooding of marine
waters from the southern segment of the South
Atlantic Ocean. These open marine conditions
allowed ocean waters to fill the basins of the cen-
tral segment, halting any further evaporite depo-
sition. Marine sediments formed on top of the
salt, starting with marine carbonates in the
Albian age (113 to 110 Ma). The postsalt sedi-
mentation was controlled by continual opening
and deepening of the South Atlantic by global
changes of sea level. As the ocean opened, the
rifted margins tilted seaward, causing halokine-
sis, in which the salt flows and deforms, giving
rise to the salt structures that affected postsalt
sediments where large volumes of oil were found
in the Campos basin (above).25
The Tupi discovery in 2006 opened up a new
petroleum play in the central South Atlantic, the
presalt play. Lula field lies in 2,126 m [6,975 ft] of
water in the Santos basin Block BM-S-11 about
250 km [155 mi] southeast of Rio de Janeiro. The
1-RJS-628A discovery well was drilled to 4,895 m
[16,060 ft] TVD subsea.26 The well flowed 780 m3/d
[4,900 bbl/d] of oil and 187,000 m3/d [6.6 MMcf/d]
(continued on page 52)

23. Davison I: “Geology and Tectonics of the South Atlantic
Brazilian Salt Basins,” in Ries AC, Butler RWH and
Graham RH (eds): Deformation of the Continental Crust:
The Legacy of Mike Coward. London: The Geological
Society, Special Publication 272 (January 2007): 345–359.
Lakes or basins are balance filled when the rate of
water and sediment input is similar to the rate that the
accommodation space—area and depth—forms. For
more: Carroll AR and Bohacs KM: “Stratigraphic
Classification of Ancient Lakes: Balancing Tectonic and
Climatic Controls,” Geology 27, no. 2 (February 1999):
99–102.
24. Montaron B and Tapponnier P: “A Quantitative Model for
Salt Deposition in Actively Spreading Basins,” Search
and Discovery Article 30117, adapted from an oral
presentation at the AAPG International Conference and
Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, November 15–18, 2009.
Bosworth W, Huchon P and McClay K: “The Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden Basins,” Journal of African Earth
Sciences 43, no. 1–3 (October 2005): 334–378.
Mohriak WU and Leroy S: “Architecture of Rifted
Continental Margins and Break-Up Evolution: Insights
from the South Atlantic, North Atlantic and Red Sea–
Gulf of Aden Conjugate Margins,” in Mohriak WU,
Danforth A, Post PJ, Brown DE, Tari GC, Nemc̆ok M and
Sinha ST (eds): Conjugate Divergent Margins. London:
The Geological Society, Special Publication 369, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP369.17 (accessed September 17,
2012).
25. Halokinesis is the deformation of salt. Halokinetic
processes include downslope movement under gravity
flow, expulsion and diapirism caused by overburden
Fig10_1_left pageresulting from tectonic stretching or
loading and faulting
shortening. Salt deformation may cause deformation in
the strata deposited above it.
Hudec MR and Jackson MPA: “Terra Infirma:
Understanding Salt Tectonics,” Earth-Science
Reviews 82, no. 1–2 (May 2007): 1–28.
Quirk DG, Schødt N, Lassen B, Ings SJ, Hsu D, Hirsch KK
and Von Nicolai C: “Salt Tectonics on Passive Margins:
Examples from Santos, Campos and Kwanza Basins,”
in Alsop GI, Archer SG, Hartley AJ, Grant NT and
Hodgkinson R (eds): Salt Tectonics, Sediments and
Prospectivity. London: The Geological Society, Special
Publication 363 (January 2012): 207–244.
Beasley et al, reference 19.
26. Parshall J: “Presalt Propels Brazil into Oil’s Front
Ranks,” Journal of Petroleum Technology 62, no. 4
(April 2010): 40–44.

48 Oilfield Review
 E
W

Postsalt sediments

Salt

Presalt

Basement
2 km

20 km

450 km
Salt basins

Tropic of
Capric
orn
Arid belt

Walvis
Ridge

Present-day Atacama Desert Present-day Kalahari Desert

> Conditions conducive for thick salt accumulations. By the Aptian, about 120 Ma, the South Atlantic Ocean (map, center) had scissored open from the
south. The central segment of the South Atlantic was isolated from the open marine conditions of the southern segment by the Walvis Ridge (purple).
The region was in an arid belt (between dashed white lines) where climate conditions were similar to those in the present-day Atacama desert, northern
Chile (bottom left), and Kalahari desert, southern Africa (bottom right ). The central segment contained balance-filled basins and lakes. Under these climatic
and isolated basin conditions, the basins and lakes became centers for precipitation of thick, layered salt sequences from basinal and hydrothermal brines,
which were fed by marine water flowing through fracturesFig10_1_right
in the leakypage
basaltic dam formed by the Walvis Ridge. (Map courtesy of CR Scotese, used
with permission.)

Autumn 2012 49
 Salt Deposition in Actively Spreading Basins
Rifting, Spreading and Tectonics along the newborn plate boundary. Basaltic vol-
The salt basins that face one another between canism and anoxic deepwater lakes—some
the Rio Grande Rise and the Gulf of Guinea deeper than 1,000 m [3,300 ft], similar to Lake
are among the largest found along Tanganyika today—punctuated the geology of
Phanerozoic passive ocean margins (below). such rifts in the Late Hauterivian to Early
They formed during the Aptian (125 to Barremian (133 to 128 Ma).2
110 Ma), during the opening stages of the cen- Continental separation was completed
tral South Atlantic. The geometric, kinematic 128 to 125 Ma. As full seafloor spreading
and temporal environment of this lower began, the rate of plate separation increased
Cretaceous salt deposition appears strikingly to a few centimeters per year. The marine
similar to that of the Mid-Late Miocene Red basin, now 1,700 km [1,060 mi] long, 300 to
Sea (15 to 5 Ma).1 500 km [190 to 310 mi] wide and 2 km
After the Tristan da Cunha hot spot induced [1.2 mi] deep, remained isolated between two
giant volcanic eruptions that covered huge large “dams” formed by the nascent equatorial
areas of the African–South American litho- Atlantic transform margin to the north and
sphere with thick flood basalts about 143 Ma, the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise to the
the plates started to separate slowly at several south. These dams restricted seawater flow
millimeters per year. Narrow rifts, 50 to 80 km into the basin—flow that took place mostly
[31 to 50 mi] wide, which overlapped, formed along tectonic fissures through the southern
Tra
nsfo
rm
ma
rgin
AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
Aptian salt basin
Hot spot
> South Atlantic restoration. The Aptian, about 120 Ma, salt basin (purple) was 1,700 km [1,060 mi]
long and restricted from open ocean conditions by the Tristan da Cunha hot spot (red circle) to its
south and the embryonic equatorial Atlantic transform margin (opposing red arrows) to its north.
The black arrows indicate the direction of plate movement. (Map courtesy of CR Scotese, used
with permission.)
50
Walvis Ridge. Rapid evaporation of seawater
created thick, layered evaporite deposits.
Continuous open marine conditions were rees-
tablished in the Early Albian (112 to 110 Ma).
Evaporites in the Santos Basin
Three conditions are required to create a
thick, layered salt deposit: a basin about
1,500 m [4,900 ft] deep, a continuous supply of
mineral-laden seawater and a warm and arid
climate. As evaporation takes place, the basin
water level drops quickly and stabilizes to a
critical level: The evaporation rate equals the
water intake rate. The water salinity increases
gradually until the saturation concentration is
reached for the least soluble salt mineral con-
tained in the water.
Layers of calcite, dolomite and gypsum pre-
cipitate—in that order—followed by halite
(rock salt). Halite precipitates in quantities
just sufficient to maintain the water salinity at
the halite saturation level; this process can last
several thousand years to accumulate hundreds
of meters of halite. If the climate becomes wet-
ter, increased freshwater intake from rivers and
rain may reduce the salinity enough to stop
halite precipitation. For example, salinity may
drop back to the gypsum precipitation point
and eventually increase back to the halite pre-
cipitation point. This is the layered sequence
observed in the bottom 600 m [2,000 ft] of
Santos basin evaporites.
Water salinity levels may increase further,
until they reach the saturation point at which
complex salts begin to precipitate. These salts
are potassium-, calcium- and magnesium-rich
evaporites such as sylvite, carnallite and
tachyhydrite. Precipitation of complex salts
requires an extremely arid climate and pre-
cipitation may take a long time because these
highly saline brines evaporate very slowly.
During this process, the lake surface level
will not change despite salt accumulating
on the lake bottom. The final result is a salt
flat (next page).
Oilfield Review
 During the Aptian, South Atlantic salt
1 5 Basin level drops
Freshwater lakes form.
as water evaporates.
basins were located at latitudes correspond-
ing to the arid belt that contains most of the
southern hemisphere’s modern deserts. The
initial evaporation rate was probably 2 m
2 6 [7 ft] per year greater than the rainfall input,
Freshwater lakes deepen.
Ocean level falls. Salt deposition starts.
a rate currently observed in the Red Sea.4 At
an average halite deposition rate of 2 to 3 cm
[0.8 to 1.2 in.] per year, it may have taken
3 Ocean level rises, spills over barrier 7 20,000 to 30,000 years to deposit the lower-
and floods into freshwater lakes. Salt deposition ending.
most 600 m of Santos basin evaporites.5 Above
Terminal brine marks final salt deposition.
that level, there are at least nine cycles con-
taining complex salts, and these could have
Ocean level falls.
taken 10 times longer to precipitate.
4 8 Basin returns to
Fractured ridge allows hydraulic full marine conditions. Replacing water by salt doubles the weight
communication between ocean and lake.
applied to the basin floor and accelerates sub-
sidence. Approximately 30% of accommoda-
tion space is gained in about 50,000 years by
> Salt deposition sequence. During early rifting (1), freshwater lakes form on the stretching adding 500 m [1,600 ft] to the initial 1,500-m
continental margin. (The developing ocean is on the left side of each panel.) The ocean level [4,900-ft] basin depth.
drops and the lakes deepen (2) as the stretching continental margins thin and subside. The barrier
that separates the ocean from the lakes increases in relief with respect to the lake bottom. Sea Observations from modern analogs such as
level rises (3), and seawater spills over the barrier and mixes with the lake water. About 123 Ma in Lake Assal in the Afar region, Ethiopia, sug-
the Early Aptian (4), sea level falls by 50 m [80 ft] and isolates the basins from open ocean waters. gest seawater entered the salt basin through
The evaporation rate from the basins (5) is greater than the rate of water influx from rivers and fissures across the basaltic Walvis Ridge. This
rainfall and from seawater springs emanating from the leaky barrier; such leaks are the result of
fractures and fissures. The basin water level drops and water salinity gradually increases until fissural process is also based on other
the brine salinity level reaches the saturation concentration of the least soluble chemical considerations:
component in the brine, which begins to deposit as a salt mineral (white, 6). During salt • The volumetric flow rate through cracks
deposition, salt layers (not shown) form as the brine chemistry changes. Salinity and salt
must be small, as required by the salt pre-
saturation concentrations depend on the climatic water balance within the basins and the
seawater input to them through the leaky barrier. Salt mineral precipitation begins with the least cipitation model.
soluble chemical component in the brine. This component precipitates until it depletes. More • Because fissures in basalts can be up to a
soluble components precipitate later. In this way, salt layers gradually build up and fill the basins hundred meters deep, seawater flowing
to form thick layered salt sequences. The final episode of salt deposition is marked by a terminal
brine (purple, 7) of high salinity, supersaturated with the least soluble component at the time.
through fissures is less sensitive to varia-
Finally, sea level rises sufficiently to inundate the continental margins (8); open marine conditions tions in ocean water level compared to that
are reestablished above the salt basins and such marine conditions shut down salt deposition. required by flow over a dam.
• When the evaporation rate increases and
the basin level drops below the ocean level,
the hydraulic-head difference will tend to
promote flow through the fissures to main-
tain the basin’s water level.
1. Mohriak WU and Leroy S: “Architecture of Rifted Montaron B and Tapponnier P: “A Quantitative Model
Continental Margins and Break-Up Evolution: Insights for Salt Deposition in Actively Spreading Basins,” • The fractures provide a large contact sur-
from the South Atlantic, North Atlantic and RedSide
Sea– Bar, Fig3_4
Search and Discovery Article 30117, adapted from an face between seawater and basalts, which
Gulf of Aden Conjugate Margins,” in Mohriak WU, oral presentation at the AAPG International
Danforth A, Post PJ, Brown DE, Tari GC, Nemc̆ok M Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, favors the rock-to-fluid chemical exchange
and Sinha ST (eds): Conjugate Divergent Margins. November 15–18, 2009. required for a chemical composition that is
London: The Geological Society, Special Publication 3. Montaron and Tapponnier, reference 2.
369, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP369.17 (accessed compatible with complex salt deposition.6
4. Hardie LA: “The Roles of Rifting and Hydrothermal
September 17, 2012).
CaCl2 Brines in the Origin of Potash Evaporites: An Field observations and model results dem-
Bosworth W, Huchon P and McClay K: “The Red Sea Hypothesis,” American Journal of Science 290, no. 1 onstrate that the deposition of thick, layered
and Gulf of Aden Basins,” Journal of African Earth (January 1990): 43–106.
Sciences 43, no. 1–3 (October 2005): 334–378. evaporitic sequences requires a deep basin in
Hardie LA: “On the Significance of Evaporites,”
2. Karner GD and Gambôa LAP: “Timing and Origin of the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 19 a hot and arid climate with a continuous sup-
South Atlantic Pre-Salt Sag Basins and Their Capping (May 1991): 131–168.
Evaporates,” in Schreiber BC, Lugli S and Ba˛bel M ply of mineral-laden saltwater. These condi-
Warren JK: Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and
(eds): Evaporites Through Space and Time. London:
Hydrocarbons. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2006. tions must remain stable long enough for
The Geological Society, Special Publication 285
(January 2007): 15–35. 5. Montaron and Tapponnier, reference 2. thick deposits to accumulate.
6. Montaron and Tapponnier, reference 2.

Autumn 2012 51
of gas on a 5/8-in. choke, producing light oil with a In 2012, the Azul-1 well by Maersk Oil and was in 1,682 m [5,518 ft] of water in Kwanza
density of about 880 kg/m3 [30° API gravity] and then the Cameia-1 well by Cobalt International basin Block 21; the well was drilled to 4,886 m
a low sulfur content of about 0.5%.27 Development Energy, Inc., extended the proven presalt play [16,030 ft] and flowed 5,010 bbl/d [800 m3/d] of
drilling in the field confirmed the operator’s esti- across the South Atlantic to the Kwanza basin, oil and 14.3 MMcf/d [405,000 m3/d] of gas.
mates of up to 1,000 million m3 [6.5 billion bbl] of offshore Angola.29 The Azul-1 well was in 953 m In the process leading up to the Cameia-1
recoverable oil, thus drawing worldwide atten- [3,130 ft] of water in Kwanza basin Block 23; the discovery, exploration experts at Cobalt
tion to Brazil’s presalt play.28 Many subsequent well was drilled to 5,334 m [17,500 ft] and dem- International Energy recognized that during the
presalt discoveries have been made in the Santos onstrated potential flow capacity of greater than Aptian age, the present-day Kwanza and Campos
and Campos basins of Brazil. 3,000 bbl/d [480 m3/d] of oil. The Cameia-1 well presalt basins were in the same depositional
basin, separated by only 80 to 160 km [50 to
100 mi]; explorationists concluded the basins
must have shared the same presalt history and
have similar characteristics.30 The presalt play
A FR I CA
that led to the Tupi discovery in the Brazilian
Santos basin was extended north along the
Angola
20 Brazilian coastline to the Campos basin. Cobalt
drilled the Cameia-1 well to hunt for a Campos
21
basin presalt play analog across the Atlantic
Ocean in the Kwanza basin offshore Angola. The
Lontra Idared Mavinga Cameia-1 Cameia-2 Bicuar
Cameia-1 oil discovery well drilled into a reser-
voir that contained high-quality, highly perme-
able and fractured carbonates in postrift and
presalt strata atop a basement high and was
sealed by salt. The well encountered an oil col-
umn that was about 370 m [1,200 ft] thick and
Postsalt Postsalt
Salt contained more than 270 m [900 ft] of net pay.31
Salt
To appraise the discovery, Cobalt drilled the
Postrift Postrift
Synrift Synrift Cameia-2 well and confirmed the vertical and lat-
Synrift Basement
eral extent, geometry and quality of the reservoir
(left). The appraisal well validated the Cobalt
Block 20 Block 21 model of additional reservoirs within the postrift
North South
and synrift strata beneath the original discovery
Oil confirmed by production Cameia-1 Cameia-2 and indicated the reservoirs were separated by
Oil confirmed by log or oil sample
seals. Cobalt is conducting ongoing testing to
determine reservoir potential—the number of
Untested possible oil zone
reservoirs and seals, how the fluids vary between
Seal Postsalt the reservoirs, the reservoir properties and the
depths to the oil/water contacts.32
Salt Superpay reservoir
Salt Matching Turbidite Sequences:
Middle reservoir
From Ghana to French Guiana
Postrift The West Cape Three Points partnership discov-
Postrift Lower reservoir
ered the Jubilee oil field offshore Ghana in June
Postrift Postrift 2007. The partnership comprises Kosmos Energy
Basement Ltd., Tullow Oil plc, Anadarko Petroleum
Synrift
Synrift Corporation, Sabre Oil & Gas, Inc., Ghana
National Petroleum Company and EO Group Ltd.
> Kwanza basin presalt prospects and discoveries. The Cobalt Cameia-1 and Cameia-2 wells The Mahogany-1 discovery well encountered 90 m
discovered and appraised, respectively, oil reservoirs in the synrift (light brown) and postrift (yellow) [300 ft] of high-quality pay in an upper Cretaceous
sedimentary basins under the autochthonous salt (purple)—the presalt sediments—in Block 21 turbidite reservoir confined by a combination
(center right), Kwanza basin offshore Angola. Cobalt plans to drill the Lontra, Idared, Mavinga and structural-stratigraphic trap.33 In August 2007, the
Bicuar wells (dashed lines) to test other prospects in Blocks 20 and 21. The Cameia-1 well discovered Hyedua-1 well, located 5.3 km [3.3 mi] southwest
a superpay reservoir (bright green) atop a basement high (bottom). Cobalt drilled the Cameia-2 well,
a step-out well, to confirm the size of the discovery and to explore prospective reservoir zones below of the Mahogany-1 discovery, encountered 41 m
the superpay reservoir. The appraisal well confirmed the discovery and underlying reservoir intervals [130 ft] of high-quality reservoir in equivalent tur-
(light green), which are separated by sealing intervals (red). (Illustrations used with permission from bidite sandstones. These wells opened up a deep-
Cobalt International Energy, Inc., reference 32.)

52 Oilfield Review
 15˚W 10˚W 5˚W 0˚ 5˚E 15˚W 10˚W 5˚W 0˚ 5˚E
Senegal basin AFRICA Senegal basin A FR I C A
Benue Benue
Ocean Ocean Volta
10˚N Bové basin trough Bové basin trough
Volta Benin and 10˚N basin Benin and
basin Keta basins Keta basins
Ivory Coast
Ivory Coast
basin
basin
5˚N 5˚N

~
Para-Maranhao
~
Para-Maranhao basin
basin
0 500 km 0 500 km
0 310 mi SOUTH AM E RICA Early Cretaceous, 125 Ma 0 310 mi S O U TH A M ER IC A Late Albian, 100 Ma

15˚W 10˚W 5˚W 0˚ 5˚E 15˚W 10˚W 5˚W 0˚ 5˚E

Senegal basin AFRICA Senegal basin A FR I C A
Benue Benue
Ocean Ocean Bové basin Volta trough
10˚N Bové basin Volta trough 10˚N Benin and
Benin and basin
basin Keta basins Keta basins
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast
basin basin
5˚N 5˚N

~
Para-Maranhao ~
Para-Maranhao Ocean
SOUTH AMERICA
basin basin SOUTH AMERICA

0 500 km 0 500 km
0 310 mi Late Aptian to Early Albian, 110 Ma 0 310 mi Late Santonian to Early Campanian, 85 Ma

Thick continental crust Transform fault zones Zaedyus discovery,

West African shield
and extension Guyane Maritime, French Guiana
Brazilian shield Present-day 2,000-m [6,560-ft] isobath
Onshore Mesozoic to Cenozoic Divergent basins, thinned Direction of crustal extension Jubilee discovery,
coastal basins continental crust and thick clastics Tano basin, Ghana
> Opening of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Rifting between northern South America and southern West Africa started during the Early Cretaceous about
125 Ma (top left). Small basins opened when continental crust stretched, thinned and faulted. These basins filled with sediment from the eroding continental
uplands and were deformed along the transform fault zones. During the Late Aptian to Early Albian, about 110 Ma (bottom left), oceanic spreading and
accretion began. Ocean floors grew as the plates were separating during the Late Albian, about 100 Ma (top right). By Late Santonian to Early Campanian,
about 85 Ma (bottom right), the continental separation was complete. The seafloor spreading and passive margin phase began and the steep transform
margins subsided thermally and were cut, loaded and blanketed by river and delta sediments from the continents while South America and Africa continued
to separate. (Adapted from Brownfield ME and Charpentier RR: “Geology and Total Petroleum Systems of the Gulf of Guinea Province of West Africa,“
Reston, Virginia, USA: US Geological Survey Bulletin 2207-C, 2006.)

water play targeting reservoirs in Late Cretaceous
turbidites along the equatorial African transform
margin, which stretches from northern Sierra
Leone east to southern Gabon in the equatorial
segment of the South Atlantic Ocean.
Deepwater turbidite fields discovered off-
shore Ghana are charged with hydrocarbons
sourced from organic-rich sediments that rap-
idly filled deep, active pull-apart basins during
the Early Cretaceous epoch (above). These
basins formed on rifted continental crust
between transform faults. During the Albian age,
the continents split and seafloor spreading
began. Oblique motion between the two margins
is recorded by transform faults and fracture
27. “BG, Petrobras Announce Discovery of Oil Field in 31. Cobalt International Energy, Inc.: “Investor
Santos Basin Offshore Brazil,” Drilling Contractor 62, Presentation—March 2012,” (March 13, 2012),
no. 6 (November–December 2006): 8. http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=231838&p=
irol-presentations (accessed June 8, 2012).
28. “Country Analysis Briefs: Brazil,” US Energy Information
Administration (February 28, 2012), http://www.eia.gov/ 32. “Multiple Catalysts To Grow Shareholder Value,” Cobalt
countries/cab.cfm?fips=BR (accessed August 29, 2012). International Energy, Inc. (September 19, 2012), http://
29. “Maersk Oil Strikes Oil with Its First Pre-Salt Well in phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?item=UGFyZW50SUQ9
Angola,” Maersk Oil (January 4, 2012), http://www. NDgwMTA3fENoaWxkSUQ9NTEzNzk4fFR5cGU9MQ==
maerskoil.com/Media/NewsAndPress &t=1 (accessed September 20, 2012).
Releases/Pages/MaerskOilstrikesoilwithitsfirst 33. A turbidite is a rock deposited from a turbidity flow,
pre-saltwellinAngola.aspx (accessed March 29, 2012). which is an underwater current of sediment-laden water
Fig12_1
“Cobalt International Energy, Inc. Announces Successful that moves rapidly down a slope. The gravity, or density,
Pre-Salt Flow Test Offshore Angola,” Cobalt current moves downslope because its density is higher
than that of the surrounding water.
International Energy, Inc. (February 9, 2012),
http://ir.cobaltintl.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=231838&p= Dailly P, Henderson T, Hudgens E, Kanschat K and
irol-newsArticle&ID=1659328&highlight (accessed April Lowry P: “Exploration for Cretaceous Stratigraphic Traps
4, 2012). in the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa and the Discovery of
30. Cobalt International Energy, Inc.: “Update on West Africa the Jubilee Field: A Play Opening Discovery in the Tano
and Gulf of Mexico Drilling Programs,” (February 8, Basin, Offshore Ghana,” in Mohriak WU, Danforth A,
2012), http://phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?item= Post PJ, Brown DE, Tari GC, Nemc̆ok M and Sinha ST
UGFyZW50SUQ9MTI1NzQyfENoaWxkSUQ9LTF8VHlwZT0 (eds): Conjugate Divergent Margins. London: The
z&t=1 (accessed August 2, 2012). Geological Society, Special Publication 369, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1144/SP369.12 (accessed August 7, 2012).
Dribus JR: “Integrating New Seismic Technology and
Regional Basin Geology Now a Must,” Journal of
Petroleum Technology 64, no. 10 (October 2012): 84–87.

Autumn 2012 53
 SW Offset, km NE
0 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400

Demerara Plateau

Marginal
ridge

Continental
slope Suriname–French Guiana
abyssal plain

> Conjugate transform margins. These seismic lines cross the Suriname–French Guiana (above) and Côte d’Ivoire–Ghana (next
page, top) transform margins; the red dots on the globes are the locations of these seismic sections. The red lines mark the
approximate position of the Demerara Fracture Zone (FZ) and the Romanche FZ, on the left and right, respectively. Transform
margins are characterized by shallow dipping, often narrow, continental margins, bordered by marginal ridges that backstop
steep continental slopes across abrupt continent-ocean boundaries leading to oceanic abyssal plains. Explorers are targeting
reservoirs located in abyssal plain sediments in upper Cretaceous turbidites that lie on top of lower Cretaceous organic-rich
source rocks. The green dots mark the approximate stratigraphic position of these upper Cretaceous reservoirs. These
Cretaceous source and reservoir rocks are sealed and buried under marine shales. On the Côte d’Ivoire–Ghana seismic line,
the labels A through F represent stratigraphic units identified from seismic data. [Adapted from Greenroyd CJ, Peirce C, Rodger M,
Watts AB and Hobbs RW: “Demerara Plateau—The Structure and Evolution of a Transform Passive Margin,” Geophysical Journal
International 172, no. 2 (February 2008): 549–564.]

zones, and subsidence and sediment deposition
occurred during rifting and subsequent sag of
the margins (above).
The opening and deepening of the equatorial
South Atlantic and the global rise and fall of sea
level controlled sedimentation after continental
breakup. Erosion of the continent led to deposi-
tion of sediments in deltas on the continental
margins. When sea level fell—a lowstand—the
rivers cut through their deltas and carried sedi-
ments, often in sediment avalanches known as
turbidity currents, onto the steep continental
slopes and toward the deep abyssal plain. Sands
that were deposited as these turbidity currents
slowed may have formed reservoirs for deepwater
oil fields such as those of the upper Cretaceous
series in the Jubilee field. Subsequent deposition
of muds sealed these reservoirs as they were
buried beneath thousands of meters of younger
sediment. During the Late Cretaceous epoch, the
movement of the tectonic plates changed direc-
tion, causing deformation of the rifted margin
and the formation of structures that helped form
traps, and oil started migrating updip toward the
coast (next page, bottom right).34
The partnership drilled the Mahogany-1 well
to reservoir rock in a Turonian-stage stack of low-
stand turbidite sands on the SW flank of the
South Tano ridge.35 The reservoir was
3,530 to 3,760 m [11,600 to 12,300 ft] below the
seafloor. A drillstem test demonstrated that the
well was capable of flowing oil at 20,000 bbl/d
[3,200 m3/d]. The oil was sourced from Early
Cretaceous rift-related organic-rich shales. The
Jubilee well proved the Late Cretaceous turbi-
dite play concept and subsequent drilling
revealed that Jubilee is part of a collection of
fields offshore Ghana that includes Tweneboa,
Enyenra and Ntomme.
Similar Late Cretaceous turbidite reservoirs
occur along the entire equatorial African coast,
which have led to additional oil discoveries such
as the Akasa and Teak fields offshore Ghana, the
Paon field offshore Côte d’Ivoire and the Venus,
Mercury and Jupiter fields offshore Sierra Leone.
Tullow Oil sought to project the Jubilee play
to the transform margin of South America and
duplicate the company’s deepwater success.36
Exploration experts at Tullow Oil used the prin-
ciples of plate tectonics, followed the major frac-
ture zones across the equatorial Atlantic and
identified basins offshore South America that
displayed similar elements of the Jubilee play.

Fig13_1_left page
54 Oilfield Review
S Offset, km N
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

Marginal Deep Ivorian basin

ridge

F
E
D
Continental
slope
C
A B

Gulf of Guinea
abyssal plain

Shelf and
delta
Midfan
Canyon fed by active Inner fan channelized
nearshore littoral drift channels lobes
or relict shelf sands Barrier bar

Sandy coastal Longshore

plain drift Slump
scar
Inner fan
They found evidence for an upper Cretaceous Midfan channelized and
unchannelized sands
series of lowstand turbidite channels and fans 500 to 2,000 m
deposited during seafloor spreading and buried [1,640 to 6,562 ft]
Coastal Slump
scar Outer fan
under a thick sequence of marine shales. They plain
Continental
inferred the presence of Cretaceous source rocks shelf
and stratigraphic traps, buried and sealed by the Slump
Slope
apron Basin plain
marine shales. This led the exploration teams to
focus on the continental slope off the Guyana Slumps
10 to 50 km
34. Antobreh AA, Faleide JI, Tsikalas F and Planke S: 6.2 to 31 mi
“Rift–Shear Architecture and Tectonic Development of
the Ghana Margin Deduced from Multichannel Seismic Basin plain
Reflection and Potential Field Data,” Marine and
Petroleum Geology 26, no. 3 (March 2009): 345–368.
35. Dailly et al, reference 33.
36. Patel T: “Did the Continental Drift Create an Oil
Bonanza?: Tullow Oil Bets Huge Fields Are ‘Mirrored’
Across the Atlantic,” Bloomberg Businessweek > Reservoirs in Late Cretaceous turbidites. Explorationists looked for canyons feeding reservoir rocks in
(February 24, 2011), http://www.businessweek.com/
magazine/content/11_10/b4218020773519.htm channel-levee and turbidite fan deposits on the basin floor that originated from the Guyana Continental
(accessed August 20, 2012). Shelf and slope. These reservoir rocks are sourced and charged by Early Cretaceous organic-rich
shales that were deposited during continental rifting. Since their deposition, these reservoir rocks have
been buried and sealed by marine shales (not shown). Expected well log responses are plotted for the
five types of deposits (boxed red areas between black curves); the left curve is spontaneous potential
or gamma ray, and the right curve is resistivity. (Illustration used with permission from Tullow Oil plc.)

egap thgir_1_31giF
Autumn 2012 55
Shelf and east of the Demerara Plateau offshore
French Guiana (below).37
Tullow Oil and partners acquired 2,500 km2
[970 mi2] of high-quality 3D marine seismic
data over the steep continental slope offshore
French Guiana.38 Explorers at Tullow Oil used
these data to look for submarine canyons and
turbidite deposits on the basin floor that origi-
nated from the Guyana Continental Shelf and
slope. These seismic data showed features simi-
lar to those observed in 3D seismic data over the
Jubilee field offshore Ghana. The exploration
team identified and mapped a number of pros-
pects (next page). After follow-up regional
investigations, the Tullow Oil team decided to
test the play by drilling a well at the GM-ES-1
location within the Zaedyus prospect, in the
Guyane Maritime license, which is about 150 km
[93 mi] offshore.39
Tullow Oil started operations in March 2011,
drilling near the toe of the continental slope in
2,048 m [6,719 ft] of water. By September 2011,
the company announced the discovery of 72 m
[240 ft] of net oil pay within two turbidite fans.40
Wireline logs and samples of reservoir fluids
showed good quality reservoir sands at a reser-
voir depth of 5,711 m [18,740 ft]. The Zaedyus
exploration well proved that the Jubilee play—
developed for the transform margin offshore
Ghana and applied successfully elsewhere along
the equatorial African margin—was also appli-
cable to the transform margin offshore French
Guiana and probably elsewhere along the trans-
form margin of northern South America.
Learning from Success
The recent history of oil discovery along the
South Atlantic margins has been one of learning
from success. Pioneering explorationists studied
the large discoveries of the Lula reservoir in the
Santos basin, offshore Brazil, and the Jubilee
reservoir, offshore Ghana, and stepped along the
same margin to look across the ocean where con-
jugate margins hosted similar large discoveries.
Explorationists used the principles of plate
tectonics to leverage their accomplishments.
When a continent splits and a new spreading
center opens up, plate tectonic concepts pro-
vide the basis for hypothesizing which series of
tectonic and stratigraphic events will occur.
Armed with the principles of plate tectonics and
astute observations from exploration plays that
have led to successful discoveries, exploration-
ists have extrapolated plays into new leads,

Oil discovery
Gas condensate and oil discovery
Prospect
Dry hole
Oil shows

Deepwater West Cape

Tano block Three Points block

WEST AFRICA

Sierra
Oceanic transform fract ure zone Leone

Côte d’Ivoire
Jubilee discovery
Lib

Guyana Ghana
er

0 25 km
margin
ia

Suriname French Equato rial Atlantic transform 0 16 mi

Guiana

n e
Oceanic transform fracture zo

SOUTH AMERICA

Guyane Discovery
Maritime Prospect
0 600 km Mid-Atlantic Ridge
license Lead
0 370 mi

Atlantic Ocean

Zaedyus discovery > Extending West African success across to South America. Tullow Oil plc used plate tectonic
concepts to develop an exploration program to extend the Jubilee play (black star) proved along
the West Africa transform margin to the northern South America transform margin. The transform
margins (gray shading) on the west and east sides of the Equatorial Atlantic have similar geology.
0 100 km
Explorationists had recognized Late Cretaceous stratigraphic traps within the Guyana-Suriname basin
0 62 mi that were analogous to those proved by the Jubilee and similar discoveries in West Africa. Tullow
explorationists made the Zaedyus discovery in the Guyane Maritime license, offshore French Guiana
(red star). (Illustration adapted with permission from Tullow Oil plc.)

56 Oilfield Review
 Seismic horizon relationship
View angle
Structural high Turbidite feeder canyon
Late Cretaceous
horizon

Early Cretaceous
horizon

Fan systems Channel

Major turbidite fan Channels Discovery

Guyane
Maritime Prospect
license Lead

Atlantic Ocean

Zaedyus discovery

0 100 km
0 62 mi

> Jubilee analogs offshore French Guiana. Tullow Oil plc acquired 2,500 km2 [970 mi2] of 3D seismic data in 2009 (red box in map inset). The depth-based
seismic interpretation image (top), viewed from above and the northeast, shows an Early Cretaceous horizon (color-coded in red to blue from shallow to
deep) overlain by a Late Cretaceous horizon (brown to yellow) intersecting at the steep continental slope formed by the transform margin. The data
revealed features similar to those observed in the Tano–West Cape Three Points area, offshore Ghana. These features include a turbidite feeder canyon
and structural high that focus sediments into channels and fan systems that are prospects for reservoirs. The close-up view of the area (bottom) shows
channels and turbidite fans imaged by the 3D seismic data. (Images used with permission from Tullow Oil plc.)

37. Plunkett J: “French Guiana—A New Oil Province,”
presented at the Kayenn Mining Symposium, Cayenne,
French Guiana, December 1–3, 2011.
38. The partnership was a joint venture between Tullow Oil
plc—the operator—Royal Dutch Shell, Total and
Northpet, a company owned 50% by Northern Petroleum
plc and 50% by Wessex Exploration plc. Royal Dutch
Shell formally took over as operator of the Guyane
Maritime license on February 1, 2012.
39. Plunkett, reference 37.
40. “Zaedyus Exploration Well Makes Oil Discovery
Offshore French Guiana,” Tullow Oil plc (September 9,
2011), http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=
137&newsid=710 (accessed August 10, 2012).
prospects and drilling targets both regionally
and globally.
Understanding plate tectonics also allows
explorationists to take what they learn from one
play and ask, “What if?” If hydrocarbons are found
in an immature rift margin setting, could one find
the same in a mature rift margin or a transform
margin setting? In recent years, exploration com-
panies have answered these questions affirma-
Fig16_2
tively through discovery wells. Recent discoveries
in the Albert rift basin of Uganda, the East Africa
rift basin of Kenya, the Levant basin offshore
Israel and Cyprus and the Mozambique basin off-
shore Tanzania have been similarly impressive.
Plate tectonic concepts and models, and their
ability to engender reasoned hypotheses for new
plays, are powerful exploration tools for hitherto
undeveloped basins. They are also cause for
reexamining basins that have been explored
but deemed either hydrocarbon poor or too risky
to develop. —RCNH

Autumn 2012 57

Chris Avant is the Schlumberger Oilfield Services
Account Manager for Chevron in Bangkok, Thailand.
He manages all contracts and business development
with Chevron Thailand, a position he has held since
2011. He began his career with Dowell Schlumberger
in 1999 and has held a number of positions with the
company in Canada, Indonesia, Mexico and the US,
acquiring expertise in cementing, coiled tubing and
wireline operations. Chris received a BS degree in
petroleum engineering from the University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada.
Bijaya K. Behera is a Professor at the School of
Petroleum Technology in Pandit Deendayal
Petroleum University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
Previously, he was the deputy general manager (geo-
sciences) with Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation
(GSPC) Ltd where he was responsible for exploration
and development projects in the Krishna-Godavari
offshore HPHT field. He has 18 years of experience in
the oil and gas industry and prior to GSPC, he worked
for Schlumberger, Fugro Group of Companies,
Geosoft Infotech LLC, Tata Petrodyne and Jubilant
Oil and Gas Pvt Ltd. Bijaya earned a doctorate degree
in geology from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Mumbai, India.
Ian Bryant is a Senior Geoscience Advisor and
Worldwide Métier Manager for Technical Consulting
for Schlumberger Information Solutions in Houston.
Before moving to this position, he managed the
Schlumberger Integrated Services for Exploration
group and held a variety of research, marketing and
business development positions. He began his career
in 1984 with Shell, first as a reservoir geologist at the
Exploration and Production Laboratory, in Rijswijk,
the Netherlands, and then as a geologist working in
exploration, appraisal and development in New
Zealand. Ian has a BS degree in physical geography
with geology and a PhD degree in sedimentology from
the University of Reading, England.
Evgeny Chekhonin is a Schlumberger Senior Research
Scientist in Moscow. He works in the thermal measure-
ments and interpretation program with a focus on opti-
cal scanning technology and theoretical support of
thermal property measurement. Evgeny received a mas-
ter’s degree in applied mathematics and a doctorate
degree in mathematics and computer science from
Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas, Moscow.
Mikhail V. Chertenkov is the Head of the Field
Development Technologies Department for Lukoil in
Moscow. His areas of interest are the enhancement of
heavy-oil fields and new field development technologies.
Mikhail obtained a degree in reservoir geology and
exploration from Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia.
Paul Dailly is Senior Vice President for Exploration
and a founding partner of Kosmos Energy Ltd in
Dallas. He led the technical team that discovered the
Jubilee play offshore Ghana, currently coordinates the
Kosmos exploration portfolio and manages the transi-
tion of the company’s Ghanaian discoveries from
appraisal to development. Before joining Kosmos in
2004, he spent 15 years as an exploration geologist,
including positions with BP and Triton Energy. After
the sale of Triton to Hess Corporation, he served as the
58
Contributors
technical team leader for Equatorial Guinea and later
as regional exploration manager in the deepwater Gulf
of Mexico. Paul holds a BSc degree in geology from
Edinburgh University, Scotland, and a DPhil degree in
geology from the University of Oxford, England.
Supamittra Danpanich is Vice President, Petroleum
Development, Arthit Asset, PTT Exploration and
Production Public Company Limited (PTTEP). She
began her career in 1987 as a geologist in airborne
projects for the Thailand Department of Mineral
Resources and then worked for Unocal Thailand, Ltd,
until 1995. She next worked as senior geologist for
Thai Shell Exploration and Production Company Ltd.
During that time, she published articles on enhanced
oil recovery and reservoir karstification. In 2004, she
joined PTTEP as chief geologist and then worked in
Vietnam as deputy subsurface manager until 2011
when she assumed her current position; she is
based in Bangkok, Thailand. Supamittra received
a BSc degree in geology from Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok.
Saifon Daungkaew is a Schlumberger Principal
Reservoir Engineer and Reservoir Domain Champion
for Thailand and Myanmar; she is based in Bangkok,
Thailand. Prior to taking this position in 2009, she was
also a senior reservoir engineer and reservoir domain
champion for Malaysia, Brunei and the Philippines.
Saifon has a BS degree in chemical engineering from
the Prince of Songkla University, Thailand, and MS and
doctorate degrees in petroleum engineering from the
Imperial College London.
Ilaria De Santo, based in Aberdeen, is a Principal
Reservoir Engineer and a Reservoir Domain Champion
for Schlumberger Wireline in the North Sea. She
joined Schlumberger in 1998 and has worked in soft-
ware support, marketing and reservoir engineering in
Italy, France, Algeria, Nigeria and the UK. She special-
izes in advanced application of downhole fluid analysis
and its integration with pressure surveys, vertical
interference tests and interval pressure transient
tests. Ilaria obtained an MS degree in geology from the
University of Pavia, Italy, and an MS degree in petro-
leum engineering from Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, Scotland.
John R. Dribus, a Global Geology Advisor for
Schlumberger, is responsible for deepwater basins
along the Atlantic Margin; the Gulf of Mexico; the
Black, Red and Mediterranean seas; and eastern
Africa. Based in New Orleans, he is a reservoir geolo-
gist with more than 30 years of experience in the Gulf
of Mexico. His assignments have spanned all aspects of
exploration, exploitation and production geology for
Schlumberger and for a major oil and gas company,
including more than 15 years working in the deepwa-
ter Gulf of Mexico and five years as a uranium field
geologist. His areas of expertise are petroleum systems
analysis, deepwater exploration and analogs, geologic
risk analysis and geoscience training and develop-
ment. John serves on the advisory committee of the
Delta Chapter of the API and is a member of the
AAPG Imperial Barrel Award Committee. He received
BS and MS degrees in geology from Kent State
University, Ohio, USA.
Roberto Fainstein is a Geophysics Advisor to
Schlumberger in the Dhahran Carbonate Research
Center, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Beginning in 1995
when he joined Schlumberger, he designed the multi-
client seismic libraries offshore Southeast Asia and
offshore Brazil; recently, he was the UniQ* land seis-
mic system project coordinator and is currently
involved in the interpretation of complex salt tectonics
in the Red Sea. He has worked for Petrobras as chief
geophysicist for the first comprehensive survey off-
shore South America, was on the oceanography and
ocean engineering faculty at the Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, USA, and was a senior staff
geophysicist and manager of exploration teams for
Atlantic Richfield Company. Roberto holds a PhD
degree in geology from Rice University, Houston.
Nick Harvey is the 3D Modeling Team Leader at
Neftex, Abingdon, England. After joining Neftex in
2008, he built a sequence stratigraphic framework of
the South and Central American regions. His subse-
quent projects have focused on the origin of the
Caribbean Plate, the sedimentary evolution of the Gulf
of Mexico and integrated approaches to regional geo-
logical studies. Nick studied geology and oceanography
at the University of Southampton, England, and
received a master’s degree in micropaleontology from
University College London.
Greg Heath is a Petrophysicist and Operations
Geologist for Chevron Thailand Exploration and
Production Ltd in Bangkok, Thailand, and has worked
as a consulting petrophysicist in Thailand since 1997.
He began his career in 1978 with Exlog North Sea Ltd
in the UK and Norwegian North Sea before moving to
Baker Hughes in 1980, with positions in Canada, the
US, Senegal and Ghana. Greg was an independent
wellsite geologist for Décollement Consulting Inc. from
1985 to 1997 and has a BSc degree (Hons) in geology
from the University of Portsmouth, England.
Nora Herbst, based in Houston, is a Geology
Interpretation and Inversion Team Leader for
Schlumberger. Nora, who has 20 years of exploration
experience in the oil industry, joined WesternGeco in
2007. Prior to that, she worked for Repsol YPF in
Argentina and Spain and as a consultant for various
operating companies in Argentina. She focuses on the
geology of passive margin basins, mainly in deep- and
ultradeepwater offshore western Africa, East Africa
and in Libya and works on seismic interpretation and
depth imaging in salt tectonic basins. She has been a
company portfolio manager and developed play con-
cepts and risk analysis. Nora earned a degree in geol-
ogy from the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San
Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina.
Zuber A. Khan began his career with Geoservices as a
mudlogging geologist, monitoring more than 200 wells
for various multinational E&P operators. Currently a
Senior Geology Manager with Gujarat State Petroleum
Corporation Ltd in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India, he
joined the company in 2000 as an operations geologist
focused on the Krishna-Godavari offshore HPHT field.
Zuber earned a BS degree (Hons), an MS degree in geo-
sciences and a PG diploma in hydrogeology, all from
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Oilfield Review
Waranon Laprabang has been Senior Vice President,
Arthit Asset, PTT Exploration and Production Public
Company Limited (PTTEP) since 2011. He began his
career in 1980 as geologist for the Thailand
Department of Mineral Resources and Italian-Thai
Development plc, Thailand. After working for
Geoservices Eastern, Inc. in South and Southeast Asia,
he joined PTTEP as senior geologist and worked in
several exploration and new ventures. In Oman, as an
asset manager, he was responsible for oil, gas and con-
densate field discoveries and for setting up production
processing facilities and pipelines; he was also
involved in forming the first gas sale agreement
between PTTEP and the Omani government. In 2005,
he returned to Thailand as PTTEP vice president of
domestic and Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development
Area, Joint Venture Assets. Waranon has a bachelor’s
of science degree in geology from Chiang Mai
University, Thailand.
Angus McCoss is Exploration Director for Tullow Oil
plc in London. Before joining Tullow in 2006 as general
manager of exploration, he had 21 years of exploration
experience, primarily with Shell in Africa, Europe,
China, South America and the Middle East. He held a
number of Shell senior positions including Americas
regional vice president of exploration and general
manager of exploration in Nigeria. He was appointed
to the board of directors of Tullow in 2006. He is a
Nonexecutive Director of Ikon Science Limited and a
member of the advisory board of the Energy &
Geoscience Institute of the University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, USA. Angus received a BSc degree (Hons) in
geology from the University of Dundee, Scotland, and a
PhD degree in structural geology from the University
of St Andrews, Scotland.
Bernard Montaron is Director of the Schlumberger
China Petroleum Institute in Beijing. He joined
Schlumberger in 1985 and has worked in R&D and
marketing in Europe, the US and the Middle East. His
assignments included theme director for carbonates
and naturally fractured reservoirs, director of engi-
neering and general manager of R&D and manufac-
turing at Schlumberger Riboud Product Center in
Clamart, France; Oilfield Services marketing vice
president for Europe, CIS and Africa; and vice presi-
dent of marketing for Schlumberger Middle East.
Bernard obtained an MSc degree in physics from
École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie
Industrielles (ESPCI ParisTech) in Paris and a PhD
degree in mathematics from Université Pierre et
Marie Curie, Paris. He is a member of the board of
directors of ESPCI ParisTech and a member of AAPG,
SPE, SPWLA and the European Association of
Geoscientists and Engineers.
Kamal Osman is a Senior Staff Petrophysicist at
Chevron Thailand Exploration and Production Ltd and
is the Geologic Operations Team Leader in Bangkok,
Thailand. He began his career in 1980 as a develop-
ment geologist in the Sudan and has worked in
Chevron overseas operations in West Africa, Papua
New Guinea, the Middle East and Kazakhstan. Kamal,
who has coauthored several petrophysical papers and
is a member of SPE and the SPWLA, received a BS
degree (Hons) in geology from the University of
Khartoum, Sudan.
Anton Parshin is the Thermal Measurements and
Interpretation Program Manager with Schlumberger
in Moscow. His responsibilities include production log-
Autumn 2012
ging in low-rate horizontal wells and formation satura-
tion monitoring in freshwater environments. Anton
has BS and MS degrees in physics and a doctorate
degree in petroleum engineering, all from Bashkir
State University, Ufa, Russia.
Dimitri Pissarenko, based in Moscow, has been the
Schlumberger Moscow Research Director since 2007.
He focuses on the development of partnerships with
Russian academia and research institutions. Dimitri
earned a higher national diploma in electronic engi-
neering from the Moscow Power Engineering Institute,
Russia, and a doctorate degree in geophysics from the
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, France.
Yury Popov is a Scientific Advisor at the Schlumberger
Moscow Research Center. He manages the development
of advanced experimental methods in thermal petro-
physics and their implementation in the oil and gas
industry. He is the author of more than 200 publications
and holder of more than 40 patents. Prior to joining
Schlumberger, he was the head of the department of
technical physics and rock physics and was the scien-
tific leader of the research laboratory of geothermic
problems at Russian State Geological Prospecting
University, Moscow. Yury obtained a PhD degree from
the Russian Technological Institute and a doctorate
degree in physics and mathematics from the Institute of
Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences.
David Quirk is Lead Geoscientist in global play analy-
sis at Maersk Oil in Copenhagen, Denmark. He was
previously technical team leader for Maersk Brazil
exploration activities. Before joining Maersk, he
worked for Shell, Oxford Brookes University in
England, Burlington Resources and Hess Corporation.
His recent publications have focused on plate recon-
structions in the South Atlantic, salt tectonics and
analysis of risk and uncertainty in petroleum explora-
tion. David holds a PhD degree in geology from the
University of Leicester, England.
Raisa Romushkevich is a Geologist for the
Schlumberger Moscow Research Center, where she
focuses on geologic interpretation of experimental
results on the thermal properties of rocks. Before join-
ing Schlumberger, she was a geologist and head of the
laboratory of rock physics at Russian State Geological
Prospecting University, Moscow. The coauthor of more
than 50 publications, Raisa received an MSc degree
from Irkutsk State University, Russia.
Jay Russell is the Oilfield Services and Technical
Challenges Marketing Communications Manager for
Schlumberger in Houston. He began his career in 1991
as a wireline field engineer for Schlumberger in
Bakersfield, California, USA, and held various field
operations positions worldwide. He has also worked at
engineering centers and held wireline management
positions for Schlumberger. Jay has a BS degree in
mechanical engineering from Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, Massachusetts, USA, and an MS degree in
operations management from Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute in Troy, New York, USA.
Sergey Safonov is a Reservoir Physics Discipline
Manager at the Schlumberger Moscow Research
Center. He concentrates on a wide range of topics
related to measurement and interpretation of complex
fluid flows in reservoirs. Sergey earned a BS degree in
natural science and an MS degree in physics from the
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and a
postgraduate diploma in physics from the University of
Exeter, England.
Paul Sims is the South and East Africa Operations
Manager of Testing Services for Schlumberger in Dar
es Salaam, Tanzania. Prior to his current position, he
was the product champion for Testing Services in
Clamart, France, where he was responsible for new
product development and the introduction of surface
testing and memory gauge technology. He joined
Schlumberger in 2004 as a field engineer in Australia
and then became a field service manager there; he
next worked as a location manager for East Malaysia,
Brunei and the Philippines. Paul obtained bachelor’s
degrees in petroleum engineering and finance, both
from the University of Western Australia in Perth.
Miroslav Slapal, who is based in Moscow, is the Sales
and Marketing Manager for Schlumberger Wireline
Russia and Central Asia. He joined Schlumberger in
1994 as a field engineer and had assignments in the
North Sea, West Africa and Russia. During his most
recent assignment in Houston as reservoir sampling
and pressure product champion, he was involved in
the development and definition of future
Schlumberger HPHT technologies for reservoir pres-
sure and sampling. Miroslav has an MS degree in
petroleum engineering from the Technical University
of Ostrava, Czech Republic.
Mikhail Spasennykh is a Business Development
Manager with Schlumberger. He is based in Moscow.
Vladimir P. Stenin is the Head of the Geological
Prospecting and Exploration Section for Lukoil in
Moscow. His 30-year career includes positions with
Schlumberger, PetroAlliance and Orenburg Geophysical
Research Expedition. Vladimir received a PhD degree in
engineering and geophysics from Gubkin Russian State
University of Oil and Gas, Moscow.
Paul Tapponnier is Professor and Group Leader of the
Tectonics and Earthquakes Group at the Earth
Observatory of Singapore at the Nanyang Technological
University in Singapore, where he has worked since
2009. Previously, he worked at the Tectonique,
Mécanique de la Lithosphère group at the Institut de
Physique du Globe de Paris. His contributions to geol-
ogy, tectonics and geophysics span more than 40 years
and his research interests include continental dynam-
ics and tectonics, particularly in Asia and the
Mediterranean region; active faulting and seismotec-
tonics; earthquake hazard assessment; quantitative
geomorphology; rates of active deformation processes;
and rock mechanics and rock deformation physics. He
is a member of both the French and US National
Academy of Sciences and a Fellow of the American
Geophysical Union, Geological Society of America and
Geological Society of London. Paul holds an ingénieur
des mines degree from Ecole Nationale Supérieure des
Mines de Paris and a doctorat d’etat degree from
Université Montpellier 2 Sciences et Techniques,
France.
Chris Tevis, based in Sugar Land, Texas, USA, is a
Product Champion with Schlumberger at the Houston
Pressure and Sampling Product Center. Prior to his cur-
rent position, he was a field engineer, an engineer in
charge, a field service manager and quality operations
support manager and worked in China, Southeast Asia
and the US. Chris has a BS degree in mechanical engi-
neering from Columbia University, New York City, and is
pursuing an MSc degree in oil and gas industry manage-
ment from Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland.
An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
59
Coming in Oilfield Review
Well Placement and Completion
Evolution. The advent of new LWD
tools and measurements has led to
changes in the way some operators
approach drilling horizontal wells.
New tools are able to detect boundar-
ies in the formation away from the
borehole and in front of the drill bit,
resulting in an improvement in well
placement techniques. In addition,
tools have been developed that accu-
rately image borehole details and
identify naturally occurring fracture
networks. Engineers use these data
to create effective completion
designs. This article presents some of
the technologies and processes that
are making these changes possible.
Debris Removal. Small debris can
foul completions, increase operation
costs and ultimately diminish well
productivity. Engineers are designing
specialized wellbore cleaning sys-
tems capable of performing critical
debris recovery operations. Case
studies from Alaska, USA, the Gulf
of Mexico and the North Sea demon-
strate how operators are using these
new systems to reduce risks and
improve operational efficiency.
Fishing. Any object that is lost in
the hole or that impedes normal
downhole operations must be
retrieved. The concept of fishing—
the process of recovering lost items
such as tubulars, tools or completion
components from the wellbore—
requires imagination and innovation.
This article describes tools and strat-
egies developed for dealing with lost
equipment in the wellbore.
Evaluation While Drilling.
Motivated by environmental, health
and security reasons, scientists have
spent years developing alternatives
to radioisotope-based logging tools.
Through the use of pulsed-neutron
generators that have replaced chem-
ical sources in other logging tools,
engineers have developed a radio-
isotope-free gamma-gamma density
measurement. This innovation
allows operators to deploy a full
suite of LWD tools that have no
chemical sources.
60
NEW BOOKS
Waking the Giant: How a
Changing Climate Triggers
Earthquakes, Tsunamis,
and Volcanoes
Bill McGuire
Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue
New York, New York 10016 USA
2012. 320 pages. US$ 29.95
ISBN: 978-0-19-959226-5
The author describes how the Earth’s
climate has affected and caused major
geologic events through the millennia.
By looking at such trends, McGuire
contends that as our climate change
crisis emerges, the world may
experience a resulting increase in
natural disasters.
Contents:
• The Storm After the Calm
• Once and Future Climate
• Nice Day for an Eruption
• Bouncing Back
• Earth in Motion
• Water, Water, Everywhere
• Reawakening the Giant
• Selected Sources, Further
Reading, Index
McGuire . . . has written a dry but
enthralling overview of how climate
affects the geophysical world, and
vice versa. . . . He provides a solid
critical foundation for current climate
projections, noting the difference
between the scientific and popular
narratives of climate change. . . .
Despite its heavy-handed scene-
setting, the book will satisfy dooms-
day eschatologists and curious
Earth lovers interested in what the
future holds.
“Book Review,” Publishers Weekly (February 13,
2012), http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-
19-959226-5 (accessed September 6, 2012).
McGuire lays out a strong case for
the interconnectedness of Earth
systems. . . . Yet when it comes to the
most crucial question, of how future
climate change will affect the planet,
even he cannot say.
Witze A: “Book Review,” Science News 181,
no. 10 (May 19, 2012): 30.
Free Radicals: The Secret The Idea Factory: Bell Labs
Anarchy of Science and the Great Age of American
Michael Brooks Innovation
Overlook Press Jon Gertner
141 Wooster Street The Penguin Press, a division of
New York, New York 10012 USA Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
2012. 320 pages. US$ 27.95 375 Hudson Street
ISBN: 978-1-59020-854-0 New York, New York 10014 USA
2012. 432 pages. US$ 29.95
This book looks behind the formal doors ISBN: 978-1-594-20328-2
of scientific discovery to reveal the
extreme behavior some celebrated Author Jon Gertner describes the
scientists have engaged in to bring the history of the AT&T Bell Laboratories
world’s attention to their findings. and its role in one of the most produc-
Sparing no one—from Newton and tive periods in US innovation—the
Einstein to Watson and Crick—author 1920s to the 1980s. In addition to
Brooks finds fraud, deception, manipu- describing the birth of pioneering
lation and unethical experiments are
technologies such as radar, lasers, radio
just some of the behaviors that break astronomy and mobile phones, all of
the illusion of the logical and level- which were developed at Bell
headed “Scientist” front that is pre- Laboratories, Gertner explains how Bell
sented to the world. Laboratories created a culture of
creativity. The book also explores the
Contents: concept of the business of innovation.
• How It Begins: Dreams, Drugs and
Visions from God Contents:
• The Delinquents: Rules Are There • Introduction: Wicked Problems
to Be Broken • Oil Drops
• Masters of Illusion: Evidence Isn’t • West to East
Everything • System
• Playing with Fire: No Pain, No Gain • War
• Sacrilege: Breaking Taboos Is Part • Solid State
of the Game
• House of Magic
• Fight Club: There’s No Prize for the
• The Informationist
Runner-Up
• Defending the Throne: Machiavelli • Man and Machine
Would Be Proud • Formula
• In the Line of Fire: Life on the • Silicon
Barricades • Empire
• Epilogue, Notes and Sources, Index • An Instigator
‘Science is not for the meek and • On Crawford Hill
mild,’ Michael Brooks writes in this • Futures, Real and Imagined
entertaining new book. . . . ‘Free
• Mistakes
Radicals’ is an exuberant tour through
the world of scientists behaving badly. • Competition
• Apart
Bouton K: “Rebels Whose Bold Moves Set
Science Aglow,” The New York Times (May 21, • Afterlives
2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/22/ • Inheritance
science/free-radicals-book-review-rebels-
who-set-science-aglow.html?_r=1 (accessed • Echoes
May 29, 2012). • Endnotes and Amplifications,
Sources, Selected Bibli-
ography, Index
Oilfield Review
 Jon Gertner, an editor at Fast
Company magazine, has produced a
well-researched history of Bell Labs,
filled with colorful characters and
inspiring lessons. But more important,
“The Idea Factory” explores one of
the most critical issues of our time:
What causes innovation? Why does it
happen, and how might we nurture it?
Isaacson W: “Inventing the Future,” The New York
Times (April 6, 2012), http://www.nytimes.
com/2012/04/08/books/review/the-idea-factory-by-
jon-gertner.html?_r=1 (accessed April 12, 2012).
‘The Idea Factory’ is an expansive
treatment of the labs’ history. . . . The
tensions among the three nominal
inventors, Walter Brattain, John
Bardeen and William Shockley, have
been chronicled often. But Gertner’s
version is especially well told.
Yet Gertner’s focus may be too
narrow. . . . ‘The Idea Factory’ might
have benefited from a fuller discus-
sion of the fate of corporate research
in today’s world.
Hiltzik M: “‘The Idea Factory’ by Jon Gertner,”
Los Angeles Times (March 25, 2012),
http://articles.latimes.com/2012/mar/25/
entertainment/la-ca-jon-gertner-20120325
(accessed April 11, 2012).
. . . Mr. Gertner’s book offers
fascinating evidence for those seeking
to understand how a society should
best invest its research resources.
Metcalfe B: “Where the Future Came From,”
The Wall Street Journal (March 16, 2012),
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405
2970204781804577271442604380350.html
(accessed April 11, 2012).
Epigenetics in the Age of
Twitter: Pop Culture and
Modern Science
Gerald Weissmann
Bellevue Literary Press
New York University
School of Medicine
350 First Avenue OBV 612
New York, New York 10016 USA
2012. 300 pages. US$ 18.95
ISBN: 978-1- 934-13739-0
Autumn 2012
In a series of essays, the author
explores epigenetics: the concept of
how our genes respond to our environ-
ments. Biology meets pop culture in
these pages, and the author furthers the
nature versus nurture debate.
Contents:
• Walter Benjamin and Biz Stone:
The Scientific Paper in the Age
of Twitter
• Epigenetics in the Adirondacks
• A Nobel Is out of Order: “J. Lo”
vs. Hypatia of Alexandria
• Epigenetics and Alma Mahler
• Inflammation Is Complicated: From
Metchnikoff to Meryl Streep
• An Arrowsmith for the NASDAQ
Era: Extraordinary Measures
• Sarah Palin and Marie-Antoinette:
Post-Traumatic Tress Disorder
• Coca-Cola and H.G. Wells: Dietary
Supplements as Subprime Drugs
• Voodoo Economics and Voodoo
Healing: Witchcraft Persists in
Massachusetts
• Myrna Loy: Co-Principal
Investigator
• Dr. Ehrlich and Dr. Atomic: Beauty
vs. Horror in Science
• Free Radicals Can Kill You:
Lavoisier and the Oxygen
Revolution
• Experimental Errors: Paul Bert and
the Alabama Tenure Killings
• Monumental Revolutions:
Scientific, Sanitary and ’Omic
• Quorum Sensing on the Airbus
Wing
• SiCKO Statistics: Michael Moore
and L’École de Paris
• Ask Your Doctor: Justice Holmes
and the Marketplace of Ideas
• Filter the Dogs: Microbial Mishaps
in Massachusetts
• Pattern Recognition and Gestalt
Psychology: The Day Nüsslein-
Volhard Shouted “Toll!”
• Not by the Sword, but Disease:
Doctor Howe and General Shinseki
• Science as Oath and Testimony:
Joshua Lederberg
• X-Ray Politics: The Nazi War on
Röntgen and Einstein
• Wild Horses and The Doctor’s
Dilemma
• Glass Ceilings at the Nobel Prizes
• Medea and the Microtubule
• Wiki-Science and Molière’s Beast
• Arts and Science: Lewis Thomas
and F. Scott Fitzgerald
• Icarus and Fukushima Daiichi:
Human Factors in a Meltdown
(Sv=1J/kg.w)
• References, Index
Each essay provides its fair share
of wit and satire, poignantly illustrat-
ing faults or curiosities in current
scientific thought or public discourse
of the scientific realm.
Ingram MAC: “#FramingTheArtofScience,”
Science 337, no. 6096 (August 17, 2012): 801.
A crackle of erudite energy leaps
from this lively commingling of art,
culture and science. In 28 essays,
biologist Gerald Weissmann explores
the complex territory of modern
biology and epigenetics in this era of
social media. In each, Weissmann
finds links between research and
elements of history and pop culture,
which play off each other to illuminat-
ing effect.
“Books in Brief,” Nature 483, no. 155 (March 8,
2012), http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v483/n7388/full/483155a.html (accessed
September 24, 2012).
Turing’s Cathedral: The
Origins of the Digital Universe
George Dyson
Pantheon Books,
a division of Random House, Inc.
1745 Broadway
New York, New York 10019 USA
2012. 432 pages. US$ 29.95
ISNB: 978-0-375-42277-5
Through interviews, exploration of
archives and a unique personal vantage
point, George Dyson tells the story of
the people who came together at the
Institute for Advanced Study at
Princeton University, New Jersey, USA,
to create the “Turing Machine.” Though
mathematician Alan Turing lends his
name to the title, this is the story of
mathematician John von Neumann and
his team, which created the
Mathematical Analyzer, Numerical
Integrator, and Computer, or MANIAC.
Dyson argues that this early computer is
the nucleus of today’s digital universe.
Contents:
• 1953
• Olden Farm
• Veblen’s Circle
• Neumann János
• MANIAC
• Fuld 219
• 6J6
• V-40
• Cyclogenesis
• Monte Carlo
• Ulam’s Demons
• Barricelli’s Universe
• Turing’s Cathedral
• Engineer’s Dreams
• Theory of Self-Reproducing
Automata
• Mach 9
• The Tale of the Big Computer
• The Thirty-Ninth Step
• Key to Archival Sources, Notes,
Index
(Dyson’s book is worth reading
for its treatment of the institute’s early
history alone.) . . . While Dyson
doesn’t shy away from discussing
obscure technical and theoretical
aspects of Von Neumann’s computer,
he also provides ample social and
cultural context. . . . Dyson, who grew
up at the institute, where his father
Freeman Dyson was a fellow, also
brings a charming personal touch to
the narrative. . . . Turing’s Cathedral
is an engrossing and well-researched
book that recounts an important
chapter in the convoluted history of
20th-century computing.
Morozov E: “Turing’s Cathedral by George
Dyson—Review,” The Guardian (March 24,
2012), http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/
mar/25/turings-cathedral-george-dyson-review
(accessed April 10, 2012).
Mr. Dyson’s . . . determination to
keep the book accessible to the
layman means that there is not
enough for the more expert reader to
get a step-by-step sense of what the
computer did.
Modern digital computing is too
complicated a thing to be traced to a
single moment of divine conception.
But Mr. Dyson’s chronicle, if too
limited in scope to be a definitive
history of the computer, is a well-told
chapter of that larger story.
Kakaes K: “The Nucleus of the Digital Age,”
The Wall Street Journal (March 3, 2012),
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405
2970204909104577237823212651912.html
(accessed March 21, 2012).
61

Climate Matters: Ethics in a
Warming World
John Broome
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
500 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10110 USA
2012. 224 pages. US$ 23.95
ISBN: 978-0-393-06336-3
In this book from the Amnesty
International Global Ethics Series,
philosopher John Broome posits that
the principles that underlie everyday
decision making also provide simple
and effective ideas for confronting
climate change. The author explores
the moral dimensions of climate change
and discusses universal standards of
goodness and justice that both citizens
and governments must adhere to when
trying to solve this global dilemma.
Contents:
• Introduction
• Science
• Economics
• Justice and Fairness
• Private Morality
• Goodness
• Uncertainty
• The Future Versus the Present
• Lives
• Population
• Summary
• Notes, Index
By providing readers with an
overview of the science and economic
questions behind global warming,
Broome lays a solid foundation for
the . . . arguments in the book. . . .
Broome’s overall message appeals to
the moral goodness of humanity. . . .
A moral and just viewpoint on an
ever-expanding global issue.
“Book Review,” Kirkus Reviews (May 15, 2012),
https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/
john-broome/climate-matters/#review (accessed
September 4, 2012).
62
Philosopher and ‘lapsed econo-
mist’ John Broome vaults in where
policy-makers fear to tread, exploring
the moral aspects of climate choices.
In the latest installment in the
Amnesty International Global Ethics
Series, Broome argues that countries
and individuals are ethically obliged
to curb emissions. With penetrating
clarity, he uses science and economics
as a springboard to cover big issues,
from the need for action despite
uncertainty to the value of human life.
“Books in Brief,” Nature 487, no. 299 (July 19,
2012), http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v487/n7407/full/487299a.html (accessed
September 24, 2012).
Reinventing Discovery: The
New Era of Networked Science
Michael Nielsen
Princeton University Press
41 William Street
Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA
2012. 280 pages. US$ 24.95
ISBN: 978-0-691-14890-8
In this book, Michael Nielsen, a pioneer
of quantum computing, describes how
the internet is not only transforming
our collective intelligence, but also
revolutionizing scientific discovery.
Nielsen shows how online collaboration
tools, networked science and open
data policies are bringing scientists
together, expanding our problem-
solving ability and increasing our
combined brainpower.
Contents:
• Reinventing Discovery
• Part 1: Amplifying Collective
Intelligence: Online Tools Make Us
Smarter; Restructuring Expert
Attention; Patterns of Online
Collaboration; The Limits and the
Potential of Collective Intelligence
• Part 2: Networked Science: All the
World’s Knowledge; Democratizing
Science; The Challenge of Doing
Science in the Open; The Open
Science Imperative
• Appendix, Selected Sources and
Suggestions for Further Reading,
Notes, References, Index
In Reinventing Discovery,
[Nielsen’s] easy-to-read and enthusi-
astic narrative integrates a set of
ideas that could, indeed, revolutionize
knowledge creation. . . . Nielsen’s
timely volume weaves together themes
of big data, open access, gamification,
and citizen science to make bold
claims about what discovery may look
like in the 21st century.
While he should be applauded for
integrating these developments, one
wishes for a deeper analysis of
foundational issues. . . .
The social, organizational, and
computational sciences have a long
and rich history in understanding and
improving collaboration. . . . Nielsen
provides an important foundation for
moving forward.
Fiore SM: Science 336, no. 6077 (April 6, 2012):
36–37.
. . . Nielsen makes a compelling
case in this self-described manifesto.
With friendly, engaging writing, he
describes specific approaches and
characteristics that can make
collaborations truly bloom.
Ehrenberg R: “Book Reviews,” Science News 181,
no. 6 (March 24, 2012): 34.
Eruptions That Shook
the World
Clive Oppenheimer
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10013 USA
2011. 408 pages. US$ 30.00
ISBN: 978-0-521-64112-8
Volcanologist Oppenheimer takes a
forensic approach to describe some of
the largest cataclysmic volcanic events
of the past quarter of a billion years by
examining geologic, historic, archaeo-
logical and paleoenvironmental records
such as ice cores and tree rings. The
author argues that catastrophic risk
management will be an easier task if
scientists have a better understanding
of these events and how they affected
all aspects of life on Earth.
Contents:
• Fire and Brimstone: How
Volcanoes Work
• Eruption Styles, Hazards and
Ecosystem Impacts
• Volcanoes and Global
Climate Change
• Forensic Volcanology
• Relics, Myths and Chronicles
• Killer Plumes
• Human Origins
• The Ash Giant/Sulphur Dwarf
• European Volcanism in Prehistory
• The Rise of Teotihuacán
• Dark Ages: Dark Nature?
• The Haze Famine
• The Last Great Subsistence Crisis
in the Western World
• Volcanic Catastrophe Risk
• Appendices, References, Index
Oppenheimer, a reader at the
University of Cambridge, argues that
volcanoes and life have been inter-
twined throughout time. . . . [and]
uses all sorts of evidence to unravel
the stories behind some of the greatest
and most significant volcanic
cataclysms.
I recommend Eruptions That
Shook the World as motivational
reading for physics students looking
for a thesis topic in Earth or environ-
mental sciences. The book may
encourage physicists to take up the
fascinating but challenging mission of
understanding the workings of deep
Earth and the claims that are made
for it.
Anderson DL: “Book Review,” Physics Today 65,
no. 5 (May 2012): 55.
Oilfield Review
DEFINING POROSITY

How Porosity Is Measured

Tony Smithson
Editor

When it comes to evaluating conven- The most common reservoir rocks are sandstone ( ρmatrix = 2.65 g/cm3 ),
tional reservoirs, petrophysicists are Porosity Rock grain limestone ( ρmatrix = 2.71 g/cm3 ) and dolomite ( ρmatrix = 2.87 g/cm3 ). These
often concerned with three key matrix density values are used to compute density porosity. The other input,
parameters: permeability, porosity ρfluid, is usually that of water (1 g/cm3).
and the presence of hydrocarbons. Appropriate choice
Permeability is the measure of a rock’s of ρmatrix values, which
Formation
ability to allow fluids to pass through are often derived from
it. Porosity is the volumetric void other measurements,
space in the rock—the space not is crucial to the density Long-spaced
occupied by solid material (right). porosity computation. detector
Without the presence of hydrocar- An incorrect ρmatrix Short-spaced
bons, porosity—which is directly input or a mixture of detector
> Porosity. The void space in rocks
related to production potential—and rock types will yield
not occupied by solid material
permeability may be of little interest may be filled with water, oil or gas. an incorrect density
to log analysts. porosity measurement.
Although porosity is a crucial parameter for evaluating reservoirs, the The same is true for Source
first logs measured formation resistivity. Introduced in the 1920s, resistivity the ρfluid input.
tools helped identify potential hydrocarbon-bearing rocks. High resistivity is Neutron porosity > Density porosity tool. A radioactive source emits
gamma rays into the formation, where they
a characteristic of the presence of hydrocarbons and low resistivity is indic- tools emit high-energy
interact with minerals and fluids; some gamma
ative of water. However, log analysts could not differentiate between rocks fast neutrons (on the rays return to detectors where they are counted
containing hydrocarbons and those with no porosity because both exhibit order of 106 eV) from and their energy levels measured.
high resistivity. Even when hydrocarbon-bearing zones were identified using chemical or electronic
resistivity tools, the volume of hydrocarbon could not be determined with- sources (below). Neutrons, which are neutrally charged subatomic particles,
out a porosity measurement. lose energy when they collide with nuclei of formation materials. The energy
The first porosity measurements, which became available in the early loss is related to the relative mass of the particles with which the neutron
1950s, came from sonic, or acoustic, logging tools. Sonic porosity is com- collides. Hydrogen, which consists of a nucleus with a single proton, is the
puted by comparing the speed of sound through the formation to that of most effective element for slowing fast neutrons. In reservoir rocks, hydrogen
rocks with no porosity. Sound travels more slowly though fluid-filled rocks is associated with the liquids—oil or water—that fill the pore space. Gas has
than through rocks with no porosity. a much lower hydrogen density than oil and water.
Scientists have developed an assortment of porosity logging tools based
on various physical principles. Today, although sonic porosity logs are still
Borehole Electronic source
used, the two predominant porosity measurements are density porosity and Formation Chemical source
neutron porosity. Long- 10 6
spaced
Neutron energy, eV

detector
Porosity Measurements 10 4
Oilfield Review Short-
Density tools emit medium-energy gamma rays into a borehole
AUTUMN 12 wall (above spaced
detector
right). The gamma rays collide with electronsDefining
in the formation,
Porosity lose
Fig. 1energy 10 2
ORAUT
and scatter after successive collisions. The number 12-DEFPOR
of collisions 1
is related to Average thermal
Thermal
the number of electrons per unit volume—the electron density. The elec- neutron 10 0 energy 0.025 eV
Neutron
tron density for most minerals and fluids encountered in oil and gas wells is region Capture
source
directly proportional to their bulk density, ρbulk. 10 –2
10 100
The bulk density measured by the tool, ρlog , results from the combined Time, ms
effects of the fluid (porosity) and the rock (matrix) and is used to compute
density porosity (fdensity ): > Life of a fast neutron. The neutron porosity tool (left) sends out high-
Oilfield Review
energy neutrons that collide with molecules in the formation rocks and
ρmatrix – ρlog AUTUMN
φdensity = fluids, lose energy (right) and eventually reach12thermal energy level
ρmatrix – ρfluid . (0.025 eV) in a region some distanceDefining
from thePorosity Fig. 2of the thermal
source. Some
ORAUT
neutrons return to the tool where they 12-DEFPOR
are counted by the2 detectors. These
counts are converted into a hydrogen index (HI) measurement, which is
used to compute neutron porosity. Thermal neutrons are eventually captured
Oilfield Review Autumn 2012: 24, no. 3. by elements in the formation.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.

Autumn 2012 63
DEFINING POROSITY

Matrix: Sandstone Matrix: Limestone Matrix: Dolomite

Assumed Matrix Density: 2.65 g/cm3 Assumed Matrix Density: 2.71 g/cm3 Assumed Matrix Density: 2.87 g/cm3

Shale Shale effect Shale effect Shale effect

Gas Crossover Crossover Crossover

Sandstone
Formation Oil

Water
60 Porosity, % 0 60 Porosity, % 0 60 Porosity, % 0
Curves overlie 4% difference 12% difference
each other

> Lithology and fluid effects. Density porosity (red) and neutron porosity (dashed blue) are computed from
lithology-dependent relationships. Log analysts use the tools’ characteristic responses to help determine fluid
type and lithology. For example, in a sandstone formation, with porosity computed using correct parameters
(left), the curves overlie one another at the correct porosity of 30% in water, cross over somewhat in oil, cross
over a great deal in gas and separate in shales. If an incorrect matrix is used, such as limestone (middle) or
dolomite (right), the computed porosities are incorrect by 4% and 12%, respectively.

After multiple collisions, the neutrons achieve a low energy state measurements and correcting for environmental and lithologic conditions.
(0.025 eV) and are referred to as thermal neutrons. The number of thermal This total porosity includes fluids associated with shale. Because the fluids
neutrons resulting from collisions with hydrogen is proportional to the hydro- in shales cannot usually be produced, their contributions to the measure-
gen index (HI) of the formation. ment can be subtracted from the total porosity. By quantifying the shale
A conventional neutron porosity tool has two detectors located fixed dis- contribution and removing it from the total porosity measurement, log
tances from the source. The detectors count neutrons that have passed analysts are able to compute the effective porosity, which more accurately
through the formation and attained thermal energy levels. The HI is derived portrays a reservoir’s potential.
from the ratio of counts from these two detectors, and analysts apply a The gas effect results from two physical measurement principles. Gas-
lithology-dependent transform to convert HI to neutron porosity. As with the filled porosity is seen by the neutron porosity tool as low porosity. In contrast,
density porosity, obtaining accurate neutron porosity depends on using the the density porosity measurement may be higher than the true porosity. The
correct matrix. result is that the density and neutron porosity curves are neither overlying
For clean, shale-free formations, in which the porosity is filled with each other—which would indicate water- or oil-filled porosity and the correct
water or oil, the neutron log measures the fluid-filled porosity. Because gas matrix—nor separated from each other, the shale effect. Because the neutron
has a much lower hydrogen density than oil or water, gas-filled porosity porosity is lower than the density porosity, the curves cross over each other,
appears as low porosity. giving rise to the term crossover.
Several environmental factors affect neutron porosity measurements and The shale effect counteracts the crossover effect; however, petrophysicists
corrections have been developed to compensate for them. These include bore- use other measurements to correct for the shale volume and determine the
hole size, mud weight and salinity, mudcake thickness, hydrostatic pressure, effective porosity. The gas effect can also be masked by the presence of deep
formation salinity and temperature. invasion when drilling fluid filtrate displaces the original gas in place. Logging-
while-drilling (LWD) tools, which acquire data before invasion takes place,
Complementary Measurements Oilfield Review identify the presence of gas zones that are missed by wireline tools, which
may
AUTUMNof12 are run some time after drilling.
Porosity tools respond in well-defined ways to the physical attributes
fluids and rocks. As part of the log interpretation process, log Defining Porosity Other
analysts Fig. 4 measurement techniques can be used to determine porosity.
account for these different responses. Two of the most easily ORAUT 12-DEFPOR
recognized These4include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tools and core samples.
examples of tool responses are the shale effect and the neutron-density An NMR tool directly measures liquid-filled porosity. Core data provide an
gas effect (above). empirical porosity value, although damage during the core recovery process
In clean rocks filled with water, the density and neutron porosity logs may affect the measured value.
should overlie each other if the correct lithology input is applied. When shale
is present, the neutron porosity measurement is higher than the density Crucial Parameter
porosity. This results from the neutron responding to the large volume of fluid Porosity is one of the most critical parameters for quantifying hydrocarbon
adsorbed by the shale. The net effect is that, in shales, there is a separation reserves. Petrophysicists have developed numerous ways to determine
between the density and neutron porosity curves—the shale effect. porosity to make sure they have the most accurate data possible. The ulti-
The effects of shale also give rise to another term—effective porosity. mate goal is to use these data to understand a reservoir’s production poten-
Petrophysicists derive total porosity values by combining different tial and ensure that its hydrocarbons are effectively recovered.

64 Oilfield Review