JET Manual 17

Introduction to
Nitrogen Operations
Version 1.0
JET Manual 17 Introduction to Nitrogen Operations
InTouch Content ID# 4221751
Version: 1.0
Release Date: February 10, 2007
Owner: Well Services Training & Development, IPC

Schlumberger private

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 Table of Contents

1.0  Introduction 5
1.1 Scope  5
1.2 Overview of training  5
1.3 Nitrogen manufacturing (air separation) 6
1.3.1 Nitrogen versus carbon dioxide 6
2.0  Safety Considerations 9
3.0  Job Information and Design 11
3.1 Job information 11
3.2 Job design 11
4.0  Equipment Selection 13
4.1 Rate capabilities 13
4.2 Pressure capabilities 13
4.3 Storage capacities 14
4.4 Nonconventional equipment 14
4.4.1 Types of nonconventional equipment 14
4.4.2 PSA units 15
4.4.3 Nitrogen membrane units 16
5.0  Preparation for the Job 17
5.1 Equipment  17
5.2 Product availability 18
5.3 Maintenance status 19
5.4 Personnel training  19
5.5 Journey assessment and approval form 19
6.0  Personnel Qualifications  21
6.1 Specific training on cryogenic equipment 21
6.2 Understanding pumping nitrogen vs. liquids 21
6.3 Specific safety gear for handling LN 2 21
7.0  Characteristics of Liquid and Gaseous Nitrogen 23
7.1 Properties of liquid and gaseous nitrogen 23
7.2 Conversion factors 23
7.3 Safety aspects 23
7.4 Effects of pressure and temperature on GN 2 24
7.5 Compression and expansion of GN 2 25

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  iii

 7.6 Volume factors for GN 2 26
8.0  Using the Nitrogen Engineering Handbook 31
8.1 Section 100: Introduction to Nitrogen 31
8.2 Section 200: Displacement with Nitrogen  31
8.3 Section 300: Technical Information 32
9.0  Job Calculations 33
9.1 Displacements 33
9.1.1 Tubing displacement 34
9.1.2 Tubing and casing displacement 35
9.2 Well flowback using nitrified fluids 36
9.3 Fluid removal from the well 37
9.4 Sand cleanouts 39
9.5 Foam fracturing 41
9.6 Total nitrogen requirements 44
10.0  References 47
11.0  Check Your Understanding 49

iv  |  Table of Contents


There are numerous wells that do not have the
necessary bottomhole pressure to produce the
injected fluids out of the formation and back to
the surface when treated. In cases like this, the
well needs assistance in removing the fluids
after the treatment is completed. One of the
methods used to help remove the fluids from
the well is to inject gaseous nitrogen with the
fluids at the time of the treatment. This process
is generally referred to as artificial energizing.
Some nitrogen treatments are a mixture of gas
and liquid to clean sand out of the wellbore.
Others are structured to control the ratio of
gaseous nitrogen to liquid, as in the case of a
foam fracture.
Executing a nitrogen treatment requires an
understanding of equipment, the properties
of liquid nitrogen and gaseous nitrogen, and
downhole conditions. All of these play a role in
the successful completion of the treatment.
The objective of this job execution training
manual (JET) is to explain the characteristics
of nitrogen and the calculations necessary to
design a job. The information included enables
the field specialist on location to understand the
downhole dynamics and present a professional
image to the client.
Nitrogen, in its most common form, is
approximately 78% of the air you breathe.
The nitrogen that is handled and pumped is
99.999% pure after being separated from the
other components of the atmosphere. Gaseous
nitrogen is often referred to as GN2, and liquid
nitrogen as LN2.
1.0  Introduction
1.1 Scope
This JET is intended to train field specialists.
When you have completed this JET manual,
you should have the necessary information for
the following:
• required well information for successful job
execution
• equipment selection
• understanding of the fluid being pumped
• understanding of the reaction of the gas to
temperature and pressure
• use of available data for design and
execution of the job
• calculations
• job preparation.
1.2 Overview of training
This training takes the student from receiving
the initial client request through executing the
job.
Note:
It is essential to understand the
relationship between the initial
information gathered from the client
and the success of the final job
execution.
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  
1.3 Nitrogen manufacturing (air
separation)
Liquid nitrogen is one product of air separation.
Figure 1-1 shows an air separation plant.
The containers constructed to hold cryogenic
liquids can best be described as a thermos
bottle. For additional information on cryogenic
containers, how they are used, and how they
are constructed, please see JET 11: Nitrogen
Transport and Storage Equipment (InTouch
Content ID# 4221680).

1.3.1 Nitrogen versus carbon dioxide

Nitrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the most
commonly used as gases to stimulate oil and
gas wells. Figure 1-2 shows a nitrogen and CO2
transport.

Figure 1-1. Air Separation Plant

Air separation is the process of compressing

and condensing air that we breathe until the
various components separate by specific weight
as liquids and are extracted through the use Figure 1-2. Loading a Transport
of a separation tower. The typical results of air
separation, in percents by volume, are: Although at first glance it seems as if both
gases function the same, there are differences
• nitrogen 78% on how they react with well fluids and how
they function in the well. Table 1-1 explains the
• oxygen 21% differences.
• argon 0.93%
• carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.038%
• helium 0.0005%
• hydrogen 0.00005%

Because the various fluids are extremely

cold after separation, they must be stored in
cryogenically constructed vessels.

  |  Introduction
Table 1-1. Physical Differences Between Nitrogen and CO2
Characteristics Nitrogen CO2

Weight 6.74 lbm/galUS 8.51 lbm/galUS

Liquid temperature -320 degF -69 degF

Type pump required Cryogenic Conventional

Critical temperature -232 degF 87.8 degF

Solubility in oil Moderate High

Solubility in water Moderate Moderate

Hydrostatic head Lighter than Heavier than

with gas water nitrified fluids
Pumped in the well Gas† Liquid††
as:
† Because of low solubility in liquids and critical temperature, nitrogen is
always present as a gas in the well or commingled with fluids.

†† CO2 is pumped as a fluid, has a relatively high critical temperature, and,

because it is highly soluble in water and oil, will act more like a fluid than a
gas in the formation well. As the fluid commingled with C0 2 comes back up
the wellbore, the gas comes out of solution and functions more like a free
gas to assist in clean up.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  

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  |  Introduction
 2.0  Safety Considerations

The Well Services Field Safety Handbook is the

authority for any questions regarding safety and
location rig-up. The applicable standards for the
majority of nitrogen treatments are Standard 5
and Standard 11.

Management at the district level should be

contacted if there is any question about safety
on location. If time allows and further support
is needed, Operations Support in Sugar Land
should be contacted through InTouch.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  | 

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10  |  Safety Considerations

 3.0  Job Information and Design

In many cases, Schlumberger engineers

and the client agree to the job design well
in advance of the actual treatment. In these
cases, many of the details have been
defined before you receive the job. However,
sometimes certain parameters of the well
may have changed. These changes could
dramatically affect the successful execution of
the treatment.

Note:
When the client calls to set a time
for the treatment, it is imperative Figure 3-1. Nitrogen Equipment
that all the well data be reviewed
and confirmed. Table 3-1. Nitrogen Required to Fill Barrel of Space
Pressure (psi) Quantity of Nitrogen (scf)

100 35
3.1 Job information 1,500 525
When dealing with a gas such as nitrogen (see 3,000 1,025
Fig. 3-1), the space that a given volume of gas
(measured in standard cubic feet, scf) occupies
can change substantially with pressure and
temperature; see Table 3-1. If well conditions 3.2 Job design
have changed since the treatment design was The job design is one of the most important
finalized, the nitrogen pump rate could change aspects of a successful treatment. The
significantly. combination of well data and job design allows
the following:
Similarly, any changes in tubing or casing sizes
can affect the volume of nitrogen required or • appropriate pumper selection
the friction pressures that are produced while
pumping. • appropriate size and number of transports
(see Fig. 1-2)
• planning for additional location equipment.
For example, you may need a tree saver,
shown in Fig. 3-2.
• comparison of wellhead pressure limits to
anticipated treatment pressures.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  11

Figure 3-2. Tree Saver
In the early days of nitrogen pumping, the
treatment design was done by hand. Today,
jobs are designed by the computer and can
be adjusted during the treatment as required if
conditions change at the wellsite.

It is important not only to understand how to

use the software to design a nitrogen treatment,
but also to have a working understanding of
what is taking place downhole. Visualizing the
dynamic situation allows the field specialist
to make better decisions during the job and
provide the client with a quality treatment.

12  |  Job Information and Design JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  12

 4.0  Equipment Selection

Equipment selection is important for any type of that the equipment has sufficient pumping
treatment being performed. A variety of factors capacity to meet the requirements of the
must be considered when selecting equipment treatment as designed. For more information,
for the job. see JET 29, Nitrogen Pumping Equipment,
InTouch Content ID# 4221766.
• road worthiness—Check the standard
equipment maintenance form (STEM 1,
available at InTouch Content ID# 2024129,
attachment Inspec(ALA).xls).
• mechanical status
• maximum rate capability
• maximum pressure
• pumping unit nitrogen storage
• loose equipment necessary to complete
the connect to the well, for example, a ball Figure 4-1. Cold Ends
injector.
In many cases, the equipment has been 4.2 Pressure capabilities
selected by the dispatcher or field service
Usually, the pressure limit of a nitrogen
manager (FSM) before the field specialist is
pumping unit is controlled by the maximum
assigned. Nevertheless, it is very important
pressure limit of the vaporizer. Most of the
for the field specialist to review the design,
units in the field today are rated for a maximum
equipment selection, and loading tickets before
working pressure of 10,000 psi because of the
leaving the district.
working pressure of the vaporizer.

4.1 Rate capabilities Some cold ends have a maximum working

The rate capabilities of a nitrogen pumping unit
are controlled by two things: the size of the
vaporizer and the diameter and stroke of the
cold ends (see Fig. 4-1).
pressure of greater than 10,000 psi. The unit
will still be limited to 10,000 psi because of the
limits on the vaporizer.

Usually the vaporizer is sized to handle the

pumping capacity of the largest cold end that
the pump (warm end) can drive. A pump that
has been equipped with smaller cold ends
(1 5/8 in) for use with coiled tubing can be
refitted with larger cold ends (2 7/8 in) for a
higher rate treatment. It is important to ensure

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  13


Note:
It is company policy that all nitrogen
units be limited to 10,000 psi.
Anyone wanting an exception to
the Schlumberger pressure limit
policy must obtain it through the
Operations Support in Sugar Land,
Texas.
4.3 Storage capacities
Currently, a wide variety of storage units are
available. The suppliers of storage equipment
have expanded the types and sizes of
equipment that is available for use in the field.
Not only has the size of the storage units gotten
bigger, but the ability to unload at higher rates
has also increased.
When reviewing storage requirements for a
treatment, always consider not only the amount
of liquid required but the rate at which it must
be delivered as well.
also requires that a source of cryogenic liquid
be available. In many parts of the world,
liquid nitrogen—if it is available at all—is
very expensive, and liquid is always lost to
evaporation when it is stored.
There are alternatives to the standard
cryogenic pumping method that do not require
the use of liquid nitrogen. This equipment
separates the nitrogen from the other gases in
the atmosphere by filtration. The discharged
nitrogen from the filtration unit is in a gaseous
state and uses downstream air compressors
to boost the gaseous nitrogen to a pressure
sufficient for injection into the well.
Note:
This nonconventional equipment is
seldom encountered. It is included
here so that you will know it does
exist and recognize it if you should
encounter it.

See Section 10.6, Total nitrogen requirements, 4.4.1 Types of nonconventional equipment
of this document to ensure that enough liquid
The two most common types of
nitrogen is available to perform the job.
nonconventional nitrogen pumping units are
For further information on storage, see JET 11,
• pressure swing adsorption (PSA) unit (see
Nitrogen Transport and Storage Equipment,
Fig. 4-2)
InTouch Content ID# 4221680.
• membrane unit (see Fig. 4-3).
The advantages of PSA or membrane units are
4.4 Nonconventional equipment
as follows:
The conventional equipment used for pumping
nitrogen pumps the liquid with a positive • No cryogenic equipment is required for
displacement pump and then moves it to a pumping.
vaporizer (heat exchanger), where the liquid
is transformed from a liquid into a gas. • No special equipment is needed to handle
The gas is then discharged from the unit. liquid nitrogen.
Because this process entails the handling of
cryogenic liquids, the unit is more complex
than a unit handling gas alone, and the
cryogenic components make it expensive.
The conventional cryogenic pumping unit

14  |  Equipment Selection


Figure 4-2. PSA Unit
Figure 4-3. Membrane Unit
• No losses of product from evaporation oc-
cur.
• No onsite storage of product is necessary.
• The typical safety concerns of handling LN2
are absent.
The disadvantages of PSA/membrane systems
are as follows:
• The system has a limited maximum well
injection pressure of 2,500 to 3,000 psi,
depending on the system.
• The membrane and PSA sieve material
must be replaced periodically.
• Two air compressors are required (one for
input to the membrane and one for dis-
charge to the well).
• Both systems have limited applications
because of the low maximum discharge
pressure.
4.4.2 PSA units
The PSA unit is made of two large receivers
filled with carbon molecular sieve (CMS)
capable of producing gaseous nitrogen. The
two receivers are alternately filled with air from
the atmosphere. Each receiver goes through
the following process that allows gaseous
nitrogen to be released to a surge tank. The
process is a physical process, not a chemical
process.
1. The CMS is porous, somewhat like
pumice or a sponge. The holes in the
CMS are small enough to allow the
larger nitrogen molecules to remain
free in the sieve tank, while the oxygen
and other gaseous molecules can go
through them. After the separation
process goes on for about 60 sec,
the retained nitrogen molecules are
released out of the vessel at low
pressure to a surge tank. In the surge
tank, the gaseous nitrogen is collected
for use in the well.
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  15
 2. When the nitrogen has been drawn The holes in the wall of the hollow fiber are
out of the sieve tank, the pressure small enough that CO, CO2, and O2 will exit
in it is released quickly, allowing the through them under pressure. These same
other trapped gas molecules to escape holes are too small for GN2 to go through;
back to the atmosphere, cleansing the therefore, it is trapped.
CMS for the next cycle. The process
continues to cycle between tanks to
feed gaseous nitrogen to the surge
tank.

3. Gaseous nitrogen from the surge tank

then feeds the suction side of another
compressor, which prepares the
gaseous nitrogen for injection into the
well. Discharge pressures for typical
PSA systems are 2,500 to 3,000 psi.
Units with higher pressure capabilities
have been built, but only on special
request.

Because of the size of a PSA unit, the

maintenance required, and the low maximum
pressure, it is not usually the preferred Figure 4-4. Membrane Canister
equipment.

4.4.3 Nitrogen membrane units

The use of membrane technology is somewhat
similar to that of the PSA unit in that it uses the
size of the nitrogen molecule to separate it from
the other components of air.

Unlike the PSA system, however, the

membrane system provides continuous flow.
There is no switching back and forth between
vessels containing CMS.

Membrane canisters, shown in Fig. 4-4, are a

series of hollow fibers that have holes in the
walls. Compressed air is forced through these
hollow fibers. Usually, the air is heated in the
membrane to excite the molecules in the hollow
fiber and increase the chance that they will
permeate the holes.

16  |  Equipment Selection

 5.0  Preparation for the Job
Several factors can lead to the safe and
successful completion of the treatment and the
satisfaction of the client. The field specialist
should be prepared to complete the treatment
as designed, while considering reasonable
extenuating circumstances. Some unexpected
circumstances or conditions that could affect
the outcome of the treatment are
• multiple cooldowns caused by well
problems
• change in nitrogen flow rate
• change in wellhead pressure
• change in condition of location
• change in road conditions
• change in total nitrogen required
○ if the bottomhole injection pressure
changes
○ if sand continues to flow into the well
bore during cleanout
• change in bottomhole injection pressure
• change in friction pressures.
Any of these or other factors that are not listed
can impact the treatment and ultimately the
client’s satisfaction. While field specialists
do not have complete freedom to cover all
eventualities, they can plan ahead and think
through possible options. These actions convey
an air of experience and professionalism to the
customer and can help prepare for unplanned
occurrences on the job.
When preparing for a job, the field specialist will
usually work from a treatment design that the
client has agreed to. It is the field specialist’s
responsibility to perform the treatment with the
proper equipment and personnel to provide
the client with the highest possible satisfaction
according to the treatment design. The
following items should be carefully considered
in preparation for the treatment.
5.1 Equipment
When determining the type of nitrogen unit to
be used on a given treatment, consider the
vaporizer capacity as well as the cold-end
pumping capacity. Always ensure that the
cold-end pumping capacity and the vaporizer
capacity are compatible and sufficient for the
requirements of the job.
Also, ensure that the cold-end pressure rating
is sufficient to handle the anticipated pressure
requirements at the well.
When selecting the pumping equipment, use
the following guidelines:
• Ideally, the expected treatment pump rate
should be between 50 and 75% of the
maximum pumping capacity of the unit.
• When multiple pumpers are required, select
equipment that will provide approximately
25% excess capacity. See Fig. 5-1 for an
example of multiple pumps.
• Do not use a high-rate unit (5,000 scf/ min
or higher) for low-rate pumping
requirements. That is, avoid using a unit
outfitted with higher-volume cold ends.
The temperature of the discharge gas is
difficult to control, and the returned liquid to
the tank on a long pumping job will make it
difficult to keep prime.
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  17
Figure 5-1. Multiple Pumps
• If possible, select the pumping unit that
can carry all the liquid nitrogen required for
the job. Reducing the number of units on
location eliminates the need for transferring
liquid and reduces liquid losses. Also,
reducing the number of units and personnel
on location reduces the capital investment
required to perform the treatment.
5.2 Product availability
In determining the amount of liquid nitrogen
to be taken to location, some considerations
may not be tied directly to the amount of
product used on location. When loading for a
job (see Fig. 5-2), it is usually better to fill the
transporting equipment completely even though
the quantity might be well in excess of the
nitrogen required on location.
When transferring from district storage, a
certain amount of liquid nitrogen is required to
cool down the transfer pump and associated
pipe whether 1,000 or 5,000 galUS is moved.
Thus, when in an active nitrogen district, it is
far better to fill the unit completely each time
the transfer equipment is cooled down. This
practice reduces inventory losses and the cost
of managing the inventory.
18  |  Preparation for the Job
Figure 5-2. Loading a Transport
The field specialist must also anticipate
pumping situations on location. With experience
in certain types of treatments, client techniques,
or geographical locations, the field specialist
quite often decides to bring additional liquid.
The following are some reasons why additional
liquid would be required on location:
• The well could be a problem well that will
require multiple, unanticipated cooldowns.
• The type of treatment calls for multiple
stages; therefore, multiple cooldowns will
be required.
• Transfers on location will cause losses.
• It is not possible to pump all the liquid N2
out of the tanks, leaving some quantity in
the bottom of the transport.
• There may be a long standby time on
location, with the accompanying liquid
losses because the pumps must partially
recirculate back to the supply tank.
• The job could be a low pumping rate coil
tubing job, where partial recirculation back
to the supply tank increases losses.
Other situations may require nitrogen in
addition to what is called for in the job design.
For example, the distance between the supplier
and the district or wellsite might be so great that
there will be considerable losses along the way.
It is up to the field specialist to closely examine
the potential for additional nitrogen and plan
accordingly. It is much better to take too much
nitrogen to the job than it is to run short in the
middle of the job.
5.3 Maintenance status
While a field specialist is not directly
responsible for equipment maintenance, he or
she should constantly monitor the condition of
equipment that is used on assigned treatments.
In many cases, the field specialist uses the
same piece of equipment on future jobs, so it
could save time and trouble to be aware of the
condition of the equipment.
It is a field specialist’s responsibility to ensure
that the operator notifies maintenance
through the posttrip process (STEM 1 form
available at InTouch Content ID# 2024129,
attachment Inspec(ALA).xls) of any problems
with a given piece of equipment. It is also
the field specialist’s responsibility to notify
line management when a required piece of
equipment may not be in acceptable condition
to successfully complete the treatment.
Note:
Remember that how the equipment
and personnel perform directly
reflects on the Schlumberger
image.
5.4 Personnel training
Equipment performance and personnel
training are two of Schlumberger’s most
valuable assets. It goes without saying that
well-maintained, properly operating equipment
greatly contributes to the success of any job
and the client’s impression of the results.
However, the best-maintained equipment
cannot perform its intended task unless the
personnel operating it are adequately trained
and qualified.
When pumping nitrogen, it is not only the
physical pumping of the product but also the
understanding of how gaseous nitrogen reacts
in the well that helps a treatment field specialist
provide the client with expected results and
increased production. To competently perform
treatments that require the pumping and
transport of nitrogen, at a minimum, the person
running a unit, pumper, or transport must have
training on that piece of equipment. He or
she should also be trained according to the
following JET manuals, in addition to this JET
manual.
• JET 11: Nitrogen Storage and Transport
Equipment, InTouch Content ID# 4221680
• JET 29: Nitrogen Pumping, InTouch
Content ID# 4221766
Any training that an operator or field specialist
receives always references the Schlumberger
Well Services (WS) Safety Standards. Anyone
operating or supervising a nitrogen pumping
job must be familiar with and understand WS
Standard 5: Pressure Pumping and Location
Safety, and WS Standard 11: Pumping
Nitrogen.
5.5 Journey assessment and approval
form
Before departing from the district, the job
field specialist must complete the Journey
Assessment and Approval form (available from
InTouch Content ID# 3498095). The evaluation
of the risk must be completed and appropriate
approval must be obtained. A copy of this form
can be found at InTouch Content ID# 4195154.
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  19
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20  |  Preparation for the Job

 6.0  Personnel Qualifications

It is essential that personnel on location 6.3 Specific safety gear for handling LN2
performing the treatment have the necessary
qualifications or be under the supervision When operating a nitrogen pumper or a
of someone capable of training them on the nitrogen transport, the operator must have
equipment in question. available and use the safety equipment and
personal protective equipment (PPE) listed
in WS Safety Standard 11. It is the location
6.1 Specific training on cryogenic supervisor’s responsibility to ensure that all of
the necessary safety equipment is used during
equipment
the treatment.
Training related to nitrogen services and
equipment can be found in the Learning
Management System (LMS). For available
courses, location, and timing, access the LMS
Web site at https://lms.slb.com/SabaWeb. The
WS Hub page, http://training.wellservices.
oilfield.slb.com, also has information.

6.2 Understanding pumping nitrogen vs.

liquids
To operate a nitrogen pump properly, you must
clearly understand that pumping liquid nitrogen
is significantly different from pumping typical
water-based fluids. If operators have not been
properly trained in and clearly understand the
differences in pumping a cryogenic fluid, they
should not be pumping nitrogen without proper
supervision.

Many operators learn to operate a unit

through OJT (on-the-job training). The person
conducting the OJT must clearly demonstrate
that he or she has the knowledge and
experience necessary to train the new operator.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  21

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22  |  Personnel Qualifications

 7.0  Characteristics of Liquid
and Gaseous Nitrogen
In performing nitrogen pumping services, the
field specialist and operator must deal with
both liquid and gaseous nitrogen. The liquid
nitrogen is primarily handled during the storage,
transport, and pumping. The gaseous nitrogen
is handled after the liquid converts to gas after
passing through the vaporizer.
The piping and pumps must be able to handle
cryogenic temperatures. After the nitrogen has
passed through the vaporizer and is gaseous,
the operator must understand and deal with
the nitrogen as a gas. Understanding how the
gas performs under pressure and temperature
improves the potential success of the treatment,
as well as the safety of all concerned.
7.1 Properties of liquid and gaseous
nitrogen
As described in the Matheson Gas Data Book,
nitrogen at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure is a colorless, odorless, nontoxic,
nonflammable gas. The following provides
some information about the characteristics of
nitrogen.
• chemical symbol: N2
• temperature of liquid: –320.4 degF
(‑195.8 degC)
• percent of atmosphere: 78% by volume
• volume (scf) in 1 gal GN2: 93.05 scf at
1 atm (be sure to check the latest version
of the Data Book for these numbers)
• percent oxygen causing noticeable effects:
10 to 14% by volume. (Percent shown is
remaining O2 caused by displacement by
another gas. The normal percentage of O2
is 20.9%)
• exposure of the skin to LN2: can cause
severe burns
• exposure of mild steel to LN2: will cause
distortion, cracking and ultimate failure of
structural member
• critical temperature: –232.6 degF
• boiling point: –320 degF
7.2 Conversion factors
The following provide some basic conversion
facts about N2:
• liquid volume per pound: 13.8 scf/lbm of
LN2
• gaseous volume per pound: 93.05 scf at
1 atm
• weight: 6.74 lbm/galUS
• pressure gradient for any fluid: .052 x
weight (lbm/galUS) of the fluid in question.
7.3 Safety aspects
Because the nitrogen is injected into the well as
a gas under pressure, it has very high potential
energy. The illustration used in the safety film
”There are still no clowns” (this film can be
ordered from http://www.orcamedia.com/slb.
htm) is the best example of the kind of potential
energy available from compressed gaseous
nitrogen.
If you think that you may have liquid nitrogen
in the treating lines, it is important that
you be sure of exactly what is occurring.
A misdiagnosed situation could cause
overreaction and concern on the client’s part.
The critical temperature of liquid nitrogen is
–232 degF. By definition, nitrogen at its critical
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  23
temperature or above cannot be returned to
a liquid solely by increasing the pressure.
Therefore, the odds of actually having liquid
nitrogen in the treating lines are quite low.
However, the treating pipe can still be filled with
very cold gas and eventually the temperature
can be lowered to unacceptable levels. The
treating pipe used in Schlumberger is only
designed for use at temperatures as low as
–20 degF.
Usually, the most noticeable indication that the
treating lines are exposed to low temperatures
is a frost forming on the outside surface.
Moisture in the atmosphere will collect on any
surface colder than the atmosphere. As the
temperature of the treating pipe goes below
32 degF, the collected moisture begins to
freeze. As mentioned above, the field specialist
and operator should not overreact, but take the
required corrective actions.
Step 01 Slow the liquid pump down to
allow the vaporizer to catch up.
step 02 Increase fuel flow to the vaporizer.
This increased flow creates more heat.
step 03 Completely shut the pumps down
until the frost is gone.
step 04 Shut the pumps down until any
problems with the vaporizer are corrected.
7.4 Effects of pressure and temperature
on GN2
With the exception of nitrogen, all other
services pumped by Schlumberger are
introduced into the well as a fluid. Examples
of some of the more common ones are acid,
fracture fluids, and cement. Even CO2 is
pumped into the well as a fluid.
24  |  Characteristics of Liquid and Gaseous Nitrogen
All of these are mixtures of various base fluids
plus additives. With none of these mixtures is it
necessary to consider the effects of pressure or
temperature, either at the surface or in the well.
Gaseous nitrogen is different; the effects of
pressure and temperature must be considered.
The standard unit of measure for nitrogen is a
standard cubic foot (scf), which is the volume
the gas occupies at a temperature of 60 degF
under 1 atm of pressure.
The relative volume of a standard cubic foot
of gas that is being introduced into the well or
other fluid is a direct function of the injection
pressure. The higher the pressure is, the
smaller the space is that a given amount of
nitrogen occupies.
The gaseous nitrogen is also influenced by
the temperature at which it is pumped or the
temperature of the environment into which
it is pumped. The effects of the temperature
relative to the space occupied is not as heavily
influenced by temperature as pressure, but
it is still a factor. Volume factors are selected
at a temperature of 100 degF as a standard
for calculations. Unless the gas temperature
is discharged at a temperature higher than
100 degF, the 100-degF column is used in all
calculations.
An example of the influence of pressure and
temperature is shown in Table 7-1.
Table 7-1. Influence of Pressure and Temperature on N2
Pressure Standard cubic feet of nitrogen
(psi) required to fill one barrel of space at
temperature
80 degF 100 degF 120 degF
1,500 549 526 505
5,000 1,544 1,482 1,430
8,000 2,076 2,006 1,947

Note:
The pressures and volumes
shown in Table 7-1 can be used as
convenient estimates when having
general discussions with the client
with no handbook or computer
available.
For all calculations and treatments, the
temperature will be assumed to be 100 degF,
unless otherwise stated.
Note:
Information related to volume
factors can be found in the online
I-Handbook (InTouch Content
ID# 3874787) or from one of the
nitrogen field handbooks, such as
the Nitrogen Engineering Handbook
(InTouch Content ID# 3016873).
7.5 Compression and expansion of GN2
Gaseous nitrogen has no particular shape
when commingled with other liquids. It is a
random collection of differently sized bubbles
dispersed throughout the fluid to which it is
added. The nitrogen injected into the fluid
occupies a given amount of space (volume)
within the fluid, based on the pressure to which
it is exposed.
To understand the relationship between the
pressure and the volume a standard cubic
foot (scf) of nitrogen occupies, imagine 1 scf
of nitrogen as a balloon filled with GN2. As
the nitrogen is discharged from the unit, it is
exposed to the pressure in the treating line.
The balloon expands or contracts according
to the pressure that is exerted on it. This initial
pressure will determine the relative volume the
gaseous nitrogen occupies (see Fig. 7‑1) for an
illustration.
Each balloon contains 1 scf of nitrogen gas.
GN 2
GN 2
GN 2
1,500 psi 5,000 psi 8,000 psi
External pressure on the outside surface of the balloons
As the pressure increases, the volume (space) occupied by 1 scf
of nitrogen decreases.
Figure 7-1. Volume of Nitrogen at Varying Temperatures
Straight gaseous nitrogen fills all of the space
into which it is injected. This space includes the
treating lines, wellhead, and all downhole tubing
and casing goods. The pressure required to
occupy the space determines the extent to
which each standard cubic foot is compressed,
and therefore the number of standard cubic
feet it takes to fill a barrel of space. The higher
the pressure is, the more standard cubic feet
of nitrogen are required to occupy a barrel of
space.
The reverse is true as well. As gaseous
nitrogen that is mixed with fluid is exposed to
less pressure, the ratio of the nitrogen to the
fluid increases. As a nitrified fluid comes up the
hole, the gas expands, increasing the amount
of nitrogen relative to fluid in any given barrel
of space. The net effect is that the nitrified fluid
occupying that barrel of space now weighs less
and generates less hydrostatic head. This is a
valuable function when kicking off a well.
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  25
 Note:
Nitrogen gas generates hydrostatic
head just as a liquid does. The
main difference between nitrogen
gas and a liquid is that the pressure
generated by 1 scf of gaseous
nitrogen increases as the well gets
deeper. The density of the gas
increases with every foot of depth
because of the hydrostatic head
of the gas column above it. Other
fluids, such as water and acid, do
not behave the same way. Because
they are noncompressible fluids,
their pressure gradient (psi/ft) does
not change with depth.

7.6 Volume factors for GN2

In designing and performing nitrogen
treatments, it is necessary to understand the
relationship between the volume of nitrogen
pumped and the volume of liquid pumped. The
rate at which the nitrogen is pumped in relation
to the rate of the liquid is vital in many designs
involving nitrogen. A foam fracture is probably
the best example of this.

The relation between the gaseous nitrogen

rate converted to barrels and the liquid rate
in barrels is determined by using the nitrogen
volume factor.

For example, looking at the Nitrogen

Engineering Handbook (see Fig. 7-2), if the
discharge pressure is 100 psi and the gaseous
temperature is 100 degF, it would take 35
balloons filled with one standard cubic foot
of gaseous nitrogen each to fill one barrel of
space. The number of scf/bbl, 35 in this case,
is referred to as the nitrogen volume factor. See
Fig. 7-3 for an illustration of the nitrogen barrel
factor.

26  |  Characteristics of Liquid and Gaseous Nitrogen

Figure 7-2. Nitrogen Volume Factor for 100 psi
Surface

2 3/8-in tubing

5.5-in casing

If the average pressure

in this part of the tubing
was 1,500 psi it would ft Length
take 525 scf to fill this of tubing
space that holds
one barrel

End of tubing

Zone of
Bottom of the well interest
Figure 7-3. Nitrogen bbl Factor

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  27

Now, increase the pressure on the balloon to
1,500 psi (see Fig. 7-4). It now requires 525 of
these balloons to fill a barrel of space. If the
nitrogen unit were pumping 525 scf/min, then
effectively the nitrogen pump rate would be
1 bbl/min at the surface.
As demonstrated in Fig. 7-2, the higher the
pressure is, the more standard cubic feet are
required to equal a barrel in volume.
When the gaseous nitrogen is mixed with
another fluid that is being injected into the
well, the relative volume of the fluid must be
considered when determining the total volume
injected into the tubing or the rate at which the
combination is pumped.
As an example, if the nitrogen pumper were
pumping 525 scf/min (standard cubic feet per
minute) at 1,500 psi and 100 degF, and a fluid
pump were injecting 1 bbl/min of acid, the total
injection rate at the surface would be 2 bbl/min.
(see Fig. 7-5).
Note:
It is very important to understand
that in this example, the injection
rate will decrease on the bottom
because of the increased
hydrostatic head resulting from the
column of nitrogen and acid.
In this example, the ratio of nitrogen to liquid is
50/50 on the surface. At bottomhole conditions,
the ratio has changed to 34/66.
It is very important to understand this concept.
The ratio of nitrogen to liquid and how it is
affected by pressure and temperature is the key
to understanding what is going on downhole
and to properly design a job.

Figure 7-4. Nitrogen Volume Factor for 1,500 psi

28  |  Characteristics of Liquid and Gaseous Nitrogen

 525 scf GN 2 1 bbl/min Acid
(one bbl/min
at 1,500 psi) Surface
Well pressure of 1,500 psi

2 3/8-in tubing

5.5-in casing

Combined rate is
1.5 bbl/min
(1/2 bbl/min N 2 and
Bottomhole pressure 1 bbl/min acid)
is 3,000 psi

Zone of
Bottom of the well interest
Figure 7-5. Combined Rates

One of the best examples of the importance of

keeping the effect of temperature and pressure
on the nitrogen in mind is when maintaining
the ratio of nitrogen to liquid during a foam
fracturing job. If the ratio is not adjusted for
variables such as sand, temperature, and
pressure, the quality of the foam changes and
the quality of the job could be affected.

Note:
Remember that volume of the
sand being added to the fluid must
be taken into consideration when
determining the ratio of fluid to
nitrogen.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  29

 This page left intentionally blank

30  |  Characteristics of Liquid and Gaseous Nitrogen

 8.0  Using the Nitrogen
Engineering Handbook

Nitrogen conversion information tables are 8.1 Section 100: Introduction to Nitrogen
available in hardcopy and electronically. A
variety of nitrogen engineering handbooks are This section is a general introduction to nitrogen
in use in the field. The information in these with calculation examples for various types of
is essentially the same. Some are formatted nitrogen jobs. Some of the information found in
differently, depending on the version being this JET can also be found in the handbook.
used. Some can be accessed through InTouch.
The two most important documents that This section of the handbook also provides
are available in InTouch are the i-Handbook conversion data. The matrix in Table 9-1
(InTouch Contend ID# 3874787) and the provides necessary conversion factors for
Nitrogen Engineering Handbook InTouch converting nitrogen to various units of measure.
content ID# 3016873.
8.2 Section 200: Displacement with
The Nitrogen Engineering Handbook is
used for data in the calculations in this JET. Nitrogen
Each section of the handbook has examples The displacement tables provide a quick
demonstrating the use of the information in that reference for determining the nitrogen gas
section. displacement volume needed for various
pressures, depth, and sizes of well tubular
goods. In many cases, you must interpolate to
get the exact nitrogen volume.
Table 8-1. Conversion Data for Nitrogen
Weight Weight Volume Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid
(lbm) (US ton) (SCF) Volume Volume Volume (L) Volume
(galUS) (ft 3 ) (m3 )
1 lb 1.0000 0.0005000 13.80 0.14830 0.019820 0.56130 0.000561

1 ton 2000.0000 10000000 27600.00 296.60000 39.650000 1122.60000 1.122612

1 scf gas 0.0724 0.0000362 1.00 0.01075 0.001436 0.04068 0.0000507

1 gal liquid 6.7430 0.0033720 93.05 1.00000 0.133700 3.78500 0.003785

1 ft3 liquid 50.4500 0.0252200 696.10 7.48100 1.000000 28.32000 0.0353107

1 l liquid 1.7820 0.0008908 24.58 0.26420 0.035310 1.00000 0.001

1 m3 liquid 1781.5600 0.8907530 19708.00 264.20080 0.028320 1000.00000 1

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  31

Section 200 provides the following information:
• displacement techniques and calculations
• displacement estimating tables
○ given nitrogen wellhead pressure and
depth or bottomhole pressure
○ given fluid density in wellbore and depth
○ U-tubing down tubing
○ U-tubing down casing
Note:
The tables in the Nitrogen
Engineering Handbook are very
helpful in performing calculations.
It is important to understand the
features of the tables.
The following features of the tables in this
section must be understood.
The following must be understood to properly
use these tables.
• The wellhead pressure given assumes that
the well is completely displaced with GN2.
• The bhp (bottomhole pressure) is actually
the bhp when the displacement is complete
and there is a column of GN2. It can be
used as the static bottomhole pressure of
the well.
• The tables can be used to determine the
hydrostatic head of gaseous nitrogen.
8.3 Section 300: Technical Information
This section provides information that allows
the user to determine the quantity of gaseous
nitrogen to occupy a barrel of space, the
hydrostatic head of a column of nitrogen, and
the hydrostatic head of a column of nitrified
fluid.
32  |  Using the Nitrogen Engineering Handbook
Section 300 provides the following information:
• nitrogen volume factors (BN2, which means
the amount of nitrogen required to fill a
barrel at a given pressure)
• nitrogen requirements for foamed fluids
• gaseous nitrogen column–bottomhole
pressure
• hydrostatic pressure of a nitrified fluid
• bottomhole or wellhead pressure of an
energized fluid
• average density of a nitrified mud
• nitrogen-liquid flowback tables
• miscellaneous technical information
• pipeline capacities.
• For the best selection of the standard
cubic foot GN2/bbl volume factor, the most
representative pressure and temperature of
the well should be used.
• The tables provide the following data,
among many others:
○ amount of nitrogen required per barrel
per minute fluid rate to produce a given
foam quality
○ bottomhole pressure due to a column of
gaseous nitrogen
○ hydrostatic pressures produced by
various nitrified fluid based on the ratio
of nitrogen to fluid
○ The amount of nitrogen required to
flow back a given density of fluid with a
known bottomhole producing pressure
○ The amount of nitrogen required to fill a
pipeline at various pressures.

Calculations for nitrogen treatments are
much like those in other designs. The overall
approach to calculating acid and fracture
treatments is the same in that the designer
must know surface and downhole pressures
and rates.
The primary difference is that the nitrogen,
when injected into the well as a gas, does not
occupy the same space at all combinations
of pressure and temperature. Because of the
compressibility of the gaseous nitrogen, the
designer must be constantly aware that the
volume of the nitrogen relative to the other
fluids being pumped is changing with pressure.
The illustration in Fig. 8-3 is a very good
example of how the volume of a standard cubic
foot of nitrogen changes with pressure.
Remember the following factors when doing
calculations involving nitrogen.
• The pressure at which the nitrogen leaves
the unit determines the initial space a
standard cubic foot of nitrogen occupies, in
units of barrels.
• As pressure increases, more gaseous
nitrogen is required to fill a barrel in
volume.
• At a given pressure, an increase in nitrogen
rate in scf/min also increases the nitrogen
rate in bbl/min.
• If the pressure drops, the nitrogen rate in
bbl/min increases.
• If the pressure rises, the nitrogen rate in
bbl/min decreases.
9.0  Job Calculations
• If the pressure increases and the nitrogen
and liquid rate is set, the quality (ratio) of a
foam decreases.
• If the pressure decreases and the nitrogen
and liquid rate is set, the quality (ratio) of a
foam increases.
Temperature swings of the nitrogen can
technically affect the expansion and
contraction of a standard cubic foot. Unless the
temperature variation is more than ±30 degrees
from 100 degrees to significantly affect the
volume factor.
Note:
As a standard, the nitrogen is
pumped at 100 degF.
9.1 Displacements
The displacement of the well is a very common
service provided by nitrogen pumping. It is very
common to use nitrogen as the displacement
fluid when the final hydrostatic pressure at the
perforations is critical.
To understand the calculations of a
displacement, the main point to realize is that
pressures used in the final determination of the
nitrogen required are those present when the
well is full of nitrogen gas. Remember that the
average pressure is determined based on the
well having a column on nitrogen gas.
If it is necessary to remove all fluids from the
well, tubing and annular space, displacement
tables providing the needed information
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  33
can be found in Section 200 of the Nitrogen • casing: 5 ½ in
Engineering Handbook.
• wellhead pressure (WHP)
with 9.5 lbm/galUS fluid = 500 psi
To make a displacement calculation, the
approach is similar to calculating the • top of perforation: 8,500 ft
displacement of the tubing with fluid. Additional • Tsurface = 80 degF (geothermal gradient of 1
steps convert the tubing volume in barrels to degF/100 ft)
standard cubic feet of nitrogen at an average
pressure.
9.1.1 Tubing displacement
If required, additional nitrogen volume can Question: What volume of nitrogen (how many
be calculated for the annular space between tanks) must be at the wellsite to completely
the tubing and the casing. The following displace the tubing?
demonstrates the calculations. See Fig. 9-1 for
a schematic of the well used in the following
examples.
Step 01 Calculate volume to displace the
tubing:

3,161-psi wellhead pressure = (8,000 ft x 0.0058 bbl/ft)

with tubing filled with GN2 = 46.4 bbl (tubing volume)

Step 02 Calculate the average pressure

5.5-in casing
between the BHP and the WHP when the well
2 7/8-in tubing
is filled with nitrogen (WHPN from the Nitrogen
Handbook, pg 315.05, Gaseous Nitrogen
Column-Bottomhole pressures):

BHP = pressure of column of oil + WHP

46.4 bbl = (8,000 ft x 9.5 ppg x 0.052) + 500 psi
= 4,452 psi BHP

WHP = (Nitrogen Handbook value)

Pressure at = 3,600 psi
end of tubing
- 4452 psi
Pavg = (4,452 psi BHP + 3,600 psi WHP)/2
8,500 ft = 4,000 psi
BHSP= 4699 psi
8,000 ft
Producing
12.2 bbl
Step 03 Calculate the average
zone
temperature between the surface temperature
Figure 9-1. Displacement of Nitrogen Under Pressure and the bottomhole static temperature (BHST):

Well Data BHST = 80 + 8,000 x 1 degF/100 ft

= 160 degF
• tubing: 2 7/8 in (6.5 lb/ft)
• end of tubing: 8,000 ft Tavg = (80 degF + 160 degF)/2
= 120 degF
• produced oil weight: 9.5 lbm/galUS fluid

34  |  Job Calculations

Step 04 Now the nitrogen volume step 01 Well volume = (tubing volume to
factor can be determined from the Nitrogen 8000 ft + casing volume to 8500 ft).
Engineering Handbook (pg 305.03). Using the
Pavg = 4,000 psi and the Tavg = 120 degF, then Volume to displace the tubing:
the nitrogen will be 1,236 scf/bbl. = 8000 ft x 0.0058 bbl/ft
= 46.4 bbl
Step 05 Total gaseous volume of nitrogen
Volume of casing
can be determined by applying the nitrogen
= (8500 ft - 8000 ft) x 0.0244 bbl/ft
volume factor to the tubing volume displaced:
= 12.2 bbl
GN2 = NVF x Vtubing
= 1,236 scf/bbl x 46.4 bbl Well Volume
= 57,350 scf GN2 = 12.2 bbl + 46.4 bbl
= 58.6 bbl

Step 06 Add 10,000 scf for the cool-down

(rule of thumb) and then 10% for losses: step 02 Calculate the average pressure
between the BHP and the WHP when the
= (57,350 scf + 10,000 scf) x 1.1 well is filled with nitrogen (WHPN), using the
= 74,085 scf Nitrogen handbook 315.05 (Gaseous Nitrogen
Column-Bottom hole pressures):
Step 07 Convert gaseous nitrogen to liquid BHP = pressure column of oil + WHP
nitrogen: = (8,500 ft x 9.5 ppg x 0.052)+ 500 psi
= 4,700 psi BHP
= GN2 / 93.12 scf/gal
= 74,085 scf/93.12 scf/gal WHPN (Nitrogen handbook p 315.05)
= 800 gal LN2 = 3,750 psi WHP

Step 08 Determine how many tanks of Pavg = (4,700 psi + 3,750 psi)/2
2,000 gal each are needed at the wellsite: = 4,225 psi

1 LN2 tank
step 03 Calculate the average
temperature between the surface temperature
9.1.2 Tubing and casing displacement and the BHST:
Question: What volume of nitrogen (how many TSurface = 80 degF
tanks) are needed at the wellsite to completely BHST = 80+ 8500 x 1 (0 degF/100 ft)
displace the well down to the perforations? = 165 degF
Tavg = (80 degF + 165 degF)/2
= 122 degF

step 04 Now the nitrogen volume factor

(NVF) can be determined from the Nitrogen
Engineering Handbook (305.03). With the Pavg
(4225 psi) and the Tavg (1220F), therefore the
NVF = 1,280 scf/bbl.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  35

step 05 The total gaseous volume of
nitrogen can be determined by applying the
NVF to the tubing volume displaced:
GN2 = NVF x Vtubing
= 1,280 scf/bbl x 58.6 bbl
= 75,000 scf
Step 06 Add 10,000 scf for the cooldown
(rule of thumb) and 10% for losses:
= (75,000 scf + 10,000 scf) x 1.1
= 93,500 scf
Step 07 Convert gaseous nitrogen to liquid
nitrogen:
LN2 = 93,500/93/12
= 1,000 gal LN2
step 08 Determine how many 2,000 gal
tanks are needed at the wellsite.
One will suffice.
9.2 Well flowback using nitrified fluids
Wells often do not have sufficient bottomhole
producing pressure to keep the well unloaded
and producing. Some of these wells have the
necessary producing pressure to produce
hydrocarbons but not water-based fluids. The
hydrostatic pressure of the column of water is
too great.
Another common situation is that when fluids
with high hydrostatic heads are used to kill
the well or are injected into the formation, it is
necessary to retrieve the fluids.
The technique for solving either problem is
to introduce gaseous nitrogen to reduce the
hydrostatic head of the wellbore fluid. This
procedure is commonly referred to as well
flowback using nitrified fluids. The technique
is simple: nitrogen is introduced in sufficient
36  |  Job Calculations
amounts to lighten the column of fluid in the
well enough that the bottomhole producing
pressure unloads the well. An extension of the
concept is applied to the fluid that is actually
injected into the well. The theory is that enough
of the nitrogen commingled with the fluid
remains with the fluid when it returns to the
wellbore to keep the hydrostatic head below the
bottomhole producing pressure.
Fluid flowback is addressed in the Nitrogen
Engineering Handbook. The handbook is
careful to explain that liquid flowback is not
an exact science. The handbook states “The
volumes given are very idealistic and are given
for various weight fluids for ideal conditions.
Field experience has shown that for effective
cleanup the design will probably increase the
SCF shown in the table and charts.”
Factors that should be taken into consideration
when designing a flowback treatment are
• the size of the tubing or casing in the well
• the velocity at which the fluids in the tubing
flow
• porosity of the formation
• type of fluids produced by the zone.
The following is an example of the calculations
to design a flowback treatment. See Fig. 9-2 for
a schematic of the well.
Well Data
• well depth: 7,000 ft
• bottomhole static pressure: 3,000 psi
• tubing: 2 3/8 in
• fluid injected S.G.: 1.1 (9.17 lbm/galUS)
• casing: 4 1/2 in
• produced oil weight: 7.0 lbm/galUS
Step 01 Determine the bottomhole The nitrogen required per barrel of fluid injected
producing pressure if it is not available from the is 800 scf.
client.
As mentioned in the Handbook, the required
BHSP x 50% for oil nitrogen is a conservative estimate. Experience
ebhpp = in a given field should always be factored in
wells
when finalizing the design.
= 3,000 psi x 0.5
x = 1,500 psi As it turns out, this well will not flow with a
column of oil in the wellbore. If the client wanted
to continue with the unloading of the well when
oil came to the surface, nitrogen would still be
required to reduce the hydrostatic head of the
column of oil.

2 3/8 in Tubing
4.5 in Casing
9.3 Fluid removal from the well
Fluid removal from the well can involve a
variation of techniques used in displacements
or well flowback, depending on what is to be
accomplished.

When the objective is to remove all fluids from

Producing
zone
bhsp 3,000 psi bhhp 1,500 psi
Figure 9-2. Well Schematic for Flowback Example
Step 02 Using the table on page 215.03
of the Handbook, determine the nitrogen
necessary for flowback of the 1.1 S.G fluid.
Using the left-hand column of the same table,
find the depth of 7000 ft. Follow across to the
column that corresponds to bhpp of 1,500 psi.
the wellbore, the method used for calculations
would be very similar to that used for a
displacement. If the treatment is more of a well
kickoff using coiled tubing in the hole, then the
calculations and design are similar to those
used in fluid flowback treatments.
In the example shown here, fluid removal will
be defined as removing all fluids from the well.
Depending on the well setup and the desires
of the client, the fluids can be removed by
introducing the displacement nitrogen through
the tubing or through the casing. Functionally,
either way works. Economically, in terms of
time and money, it is cheaper for the client
to introduce nitrogen down the tubing and
wellbore fluids out the casing side.
In the nitrogen displacement calculations, the
nitrogen volume factor was selected from the
Handbook based on the calculated average
pressure in the tubing. The same applies
if a volume factor is selected for a casing
displacement. The major difference is that the

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  37

annular volume in barrels, between the tubing 3,585-psi wellhead pres-
and casing, is generally larger than the volume sure with a column of
in barrels in the tubing. Therefore, the quantity
of nitrogen required to displace the annular Surface
space is greater than that required to displace
the tubular space. 2 3/8-in tubing
5.5-in casing

After the nitrogen has reached the bottom

and is returning to the surface through the
tubing or casing, depending on the injection
point, pumping can soon cease. When the
pressure at the interface of the nitrogen and
the fluid being removed is equal to or greater
than the that of the remaining fluid column,
the well will effectively unload the remaining
Tubing to
fluid. Therefore, the nitrogen volumes given 10,000 ft
in the handbook as required never equals the
combined volume of the tubing and casing.
4,680 psi at
end of tubing
The following calculation demonstrates the
difference in nitrogen volumes required when
choosing to go down the tubing or casing. See
Fig. 9-3 for a schematic of the well.

From the Handbook, page 300.09, determine Zone of

the well pressure to support a column of 9
lbm/galUS mud with a column of nitrogen. Well
Data
• well depth: 10,000 ft
• tubing: 2 3/8 in
• casing 5 1/2 in
• wellbore fluid: mud
• fluid weight: 9 lbm/galUS
• hydrostatic gradient
of mud: 0.486 psi/ft
• pressure at 10,000 ft 4,680 psi
Using the depth of 10,000 ft in the left column,
follow the table across until a pressure of
4,680 psi is found. It may be necessary to
interpolate.
interest
Figure 9-3. Well Schematic for Fluid Removal Example
The results will be a wellhead pressure of
3,585 psi to displace the tubing with nitrogen
and provide a pressure at the end of the tubing
of 4,680 psi.
For purposes of determining the appropriate
nitrogen volume factor the average pressure is
as follows:
= 3,585 psi + 4,680 psi
= 8,265 psi / 2
= 4,132 psi average pressure
From page 300.04, the interpolated nitrogen
volume factor is
1,299 scf/bbl (at 4,132 psi and 100 degF)

38  |  Job Calculations

Tubing capacity to the end of the tubing is
0.00387 x 10,000 = 38.7 bbl
The casing capacity to the end of the tubing
= 0.0189 x 10,000 ft
= 189 bbl
As a comparison, calculate the nitrogen
required to unload the well pumping via the
casing or the tubing.
Casing volume (scf):
= 1,299 scf/bbl x 189 bbl
= 245,511 scf
Tubing volume (scf):
= 1,229 scf/bbl x 38.7 bbl
= 50,273 scf
Total volume of the well in scf
= 295,784 scf
The same information can be obtained from the
handbook on pages 200.20 and 200.21.
It is obvious from the information above that it
would require approximately 5 times as much
nitrogen by going down the casing than by
going down the tubing. This is the nitrogen
required to turn the corner and start back up
the well only. Additional nitrogen should be
pumped to ensure the remainer of the fluid is
removed.
In using the tables in the handbook, it is found
that the total nitrogen calculated to unload
the well is substantially less than the totals
calculated here. As mentioned in the text, after
the nitrogen has turned the corner at the end
of the tubing, the column of fluid is no longer
heavy enough to control expansion of the
nitrogen gas. At this stage, the gas expands in
either the tubing or casing and unloads the well
without further pumping.
In comparing the numbers, approximately 20%
for the tubing volume or 30% for the casing
volume is the additional nitrogen required once
the corner has been turned.
Therefore, if going down the casing, add 20%
of the tubing volume to the casing volume to
unload the well. If going down the tubing, add
30% of the casing volume.
9.4 Sand cleanouts
A common problem in wells is the production of
formation sand into the wellbore. Ultimately, the
sand production covers the perforations and
production from the well stops.
The client generally uses a combination of
coiled tubing and nitrified or foamed fluids to
clean the sand out of the wellbore. The most
common approach is to pump a light foam
that can carry small amounts of sand from the
bottom of the well to the surface.
The foams that are used in well cleanouts are
generally a low quality (low ratio of gas to liquid)
and are regulated by the field specialist in
response to indicators on location. The factors
that the field specialist monitors while cleaning
out a well are as follows:
• maximum wellhead pressure when the
foam reach bottom
• weight indicator on the coil tubing
• pressure on the return side of the well
going to the disposal pit
• velocity of fluids flowing to the pit
• too high a nitrogen-to-fluid ratio (high
quality) that limit the foams’ ability to carry
sand to the surface
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  39
 • any condition allowing sand to fall down the
hole and stick the coiled tubing or tubing
packer
• too low a nitrogen-to-fluid ratio (low quality)
such that insufficient velocity is available to
move sand up the hole
• the downward speed of the coiled tubing.
It is important to ensure that the cleanout
fluid is not overburdened with too much
sand, but it is also important to make the
best sand cleanout as is practical.
From the list of factors to monitor, it is apparent
that the initial approach to sand cleanout design
can be set, but from that point on the field
specialist must adjust the design to conditions
at hand in close coordination with the coiled
tubing crew.
To start, the field specialist must ensure that the
following are addressed.
• All of the applicable well bore information is
available.
• The rig-up allows nitrogen and fluid to be
pumped down the coiled tubing.
• The flow and pressure of the returned well
fluids are controllable.
• The tank or pit to which the returned well
fluids is directed is, first of all, present,
and if present, is suitable for the type and
quantities expected.
• Pump-in and return pressures are
monitored at all times.
The generic approach for sand removal can be
described as follows:
step 01 Establish pumping communication
through the coiled tubing up and out of the line,
returning fluids to the pit. If the hole cannot
withstand a full column of fluid, a lightly nitrified
fluid should be pumped until circulation is
clearly established.
40  |  Job Calculations
step 02 If necessary, tag the top of the sand
with the coiled tubing. Generally, the customer
has already done this with a slick line unit. If so,
the coiled tubing should be used to verify the
location of the sand.
step 03 Start the nitrogen and fluid
combination with the nitrogen rate set between
200 and 300 scf/min. Continue pumping until
the nitrogen/fluid combination arrives at the
surface on the return side.
step 04 When a steady fluid flow is
established, lower the coiled tubing into the
top of the sand bridge. The jetting action of
the combination of nitrogen and fluid out of the
coiled tubing will agitate the sand and mix it in
the foam. The sand-laden foam will travel back
to the surface and to the return tank or pit (Fig.
9-4).
When the first of the sand and foam have
reached the return pit, nitrogen-fluid ratio
adjustments and coiled tubing injection rates
can be modified to give the most efficient sand
cleanout rate. This decision is made based
on the well conditions and the desires of the
client.When making adjustments, consider the
following:
• A decreased nitrogen pump rate may
provide a low-quality foam at bottomhole
conditions and reduce its capability to carry
sand.
• Too much nitrogen also affects the foam
quality and may reduce the sand-carrying
capability.
Allowing the coiled tubing to travel into the
sand plug too quickly can create slugging of the
sand, which can cause problems as the slugs
travel to the surface.
 1 3/4-in
coiled
tubing

Fluid and
nitrogen
Return tank

Surface

2 7/8-in
tubing
5.5-in casing

Tubing to
6,000 ft

Sand bridge in the casing

Zone of interest

Figure 9-4. Sand Cleanout

9.5 Foam fracturing bubbles are trapped in a lattice work of fluid

Schlumberger performs fracturing to introduce shells. See Fig. 9-5 for an example.
high-permeability sand into a formation. The
objective is to create a highly conductive path
for the hydrocarbons from the recesses of the
formation to the wellbore.

A number of different types of fluids are used

to convey the sand down the well and into
the formation. The fluid described here as an
example is referred to as foam fracturing. The
fluid is a combination of gaseous nitrogen
and one of the variations of ClearFRAC*. The
ratio of nitrogen to water is generally between
70 to 80%. The resulting combination is best
described as a foam, where the nitrogen gas
Figure 9-5. Foam

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  41

The foam’s ability to convey the sand relies (add generic well head)
Surface
on the sand being trapped in the fluid in the
interstitial sites of the foam. The control of the
foam quality is critical to its ability to penetrate 2 7/8-in tubing
the formation and carry the sand. Figure 9-6 5.5-in casing
illustrates sand in foam.

Clear FRAC Sand grains

water phase
Foam fracturing
from surface to the
perforations
during the PAD

Nitrogen gas

Tubing to
Figure 9-6. Sand in Foam 8,000 ft

Within Schlumberger, software is available

70% quality
to calculate all the information necessary to 8,600 ft foam
perform a foam fracture. In reality, FracCADE
(InTouch Content ID# 38566337) will be used to
design the fracturing treatment.
Bottomhole fracturing
pressure = 4,988 psi
However, the field specialist must understand
the calculations in this example so that the
Figure 9-7. Foam Fracturing Example
design provided by FracCADE has meaning
and if necessary, appropriate steps can be
taken during a treatment. The following is an
example of the calculations for a foam fracture
treatment. See Fig. 9-7 for a schematic of the
well.

42  |  Job Calculations

Well Data:
• tubing depth: 8,000 ft
• hydrostatic gradient of mud: 0.447 This can also be calculated by using
• tubing: 2 7/8 in
• BHSP: 4,844 psi
• casing: 5 1/2 in
• static wellhead pressure: 1,000 psi
• wellbore fluid: brine
• fracture gradient: 0.58 psi/ft
• fluid weight: 8.75 lbm/galUs
• backside fluid: 9 lbm/galUS mud
• center of perforation: 8,600 ft
• desired foam quality: 70%
• max sand concentration: 4 lbm/galUS
• pump rate: 15 bbl/min.
Note:
FracCADE calculates all of the
necessary information to design
a foam fracture. This calculation
is presented to allow the student
to understand the dynamics in the
well during the treatment.
With the information that the desired bottom
hole foam quality is 70% (nitrogen to liquid), we
will start the calculations at bottomhole
conditions.
Bottomhole injection rate is 15 bbl/min total:
Nitrogen 10.5 bbl/min 70%
Liquid 4.5 bbl/min 30%
From the handbook, page 305.07, the nitrogen
volume factor is 1,481 scf/bbl at 5,000 psi and
100 degF.
= 1,481 scf/bbl x 10.5 bbl/min
= 15,550 scf/min
information from the handbook on page 310.05:
= 3,464 scf/bbl of liquid x 4.5 bbl/m fluid
= 15,588 scf/min
The combination of the two pump rates at the
surface will provide a 70% quality foam at the
bottomhole injection pressure of 4,988 psi.
Nitrogen 10.5 bbl/min 15,550 scf/min 70%
Liquid 4.5 bbl/min 4.5 bbl/min 30%
To determine the wellhead treating pressure,
the hydrostatic pressure of the column of foam
is needed. Likewise, the friction pressure of the
foam at 15 bbl/min down 2 7/8-in tubing will also
be needed.
From page 320.12 of the Handbook, the
hydrostatic pressure 70% foam at 8,600 ft is
1,100 psi.
From the Fracturing Engineering Manual
- CleanFRAC Service (InTouch Content
ID# 3012433) and the Fracturing Engineering
Manual - Foam Fracturing (InTouch Content ID#
3015576) the friction pressure
= 70% foam at 15 bbl/min down 8,000 ft of
2 7/8 in tubing
= 5,600 psi
The wellhead treating pressure, once the foam
starts into the formation is
= 4,988 bottom hole injection - 1,110 psi
hydrostatic of the foam
= 3,939 psi
= 3,939 psi + foam friction pressure
= 3,939 psi + 5,600 psi
= 9,539 psi
JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  43

Note:
The foam quality at the surface
during the PAD stage of the
treatment is 61%.
It is important to understand that as sand is
added, it occupies liquid space in each barrel. If
the liquid or nitrogen rates are not adjusted to
compensate for the sand added, the quality of
the foam will continue to change.
Schlumberger policy calls for adherence to the
FracCADE design by adjusting the nitrogen and
fluid rates to maintain the foam fracture rate at
the perforations. Options in FracCADE, when
chosen, calculate the necessary changes in
rate.
9.6 Total nitrogen requirements
Regardless of the type of nitrogen treatment
being performed, having the right amount of
liquid nitrogen on location is essential. It is
not always obvious to a field specialist new to
nitrogen treatments where all of the sources of
nitrogen losses might be. Typically provisions
should be made for at least the following
conditions.
• pumped nitrogen—The most obvious and
generally the largest requirement for liquid
nitrogen is that amount actually pumped
during the treatment. The field specialist
should always doublecheck the calculations
for the amount of liquid to be used in
performing the treatment ok.
• cool-down nitrogen—The amount of
nitrogen used to cool down the nitrogen
pumping unit is another bulk requirement
that must be carefully considered. In jobs
where the unit is cooled down once, the
impact of the total volumes required may
not be critical. During services associated
with coiled tubing, it is very possible that
44  |  Job Calculations
cooldown might be required multiple times.
In this instance, the volume required for
cooldowns might be a significant part of the
total volume pumped.
• nitrogen left in tanks—Nitrogen treatments
will not be significantly different from
standard treatments in that there will
always be some liquid left in the bottom
of all tanks and transports. It will be
the same with nitrogen transports and
pumpers. Allowances should be made for
leaving approximately 10 in of liquid in all
nitrogen storage containers on location. If
high-rate nitrogen pumping is required, it
may be necessary to make provisions for
10 to 15 in of liquid in the pumper tanks.
High-rate pumping requires good net
positive suction head on the input line to
the boost centrifugal. If this suction head
is not available, there is the possibility of
cavitating and losing prime on the cold
ends.
• miscellaneous losses—During all nitrogen
treatments, not all liquid nitrogen going
through the pumps is going downhole.
Depending on how much pressure is being
applied to the suction of the cold ends and
the downhole nitrogen pump rate, there
is always some liquid nitrogen returned to
the tank through the return to tank line off
the cold ends. The liquid that is returned
is constantly picking up heat from the
atmosphere through the walls of the return
piping. On short pumping jobs, the hot
liquid returned to the tank has negligible
effects. On long pumping jobs, such as
pumping down coiled tubing all day or for
multiple days, the loss of liquid nitrogen to
heating needs to be factored in.
• cool-down
○ transports
○ pumpers
○ transfer piping
○ multiple cool downs, if required.
 • LN2 loss
○ bleedoff from tanks to condition LN2
○ evaporation loss from tanks if the tanks
are on location for a long period of time
(off shore)
• pressure test
○ nitrogen required to pressure test lines
and equipment
○ extra nitrogen if multiple pressure tests
required
• treatment nitrogen
○ nitrogen required for the fluids injected
into the formation
○ nitrogen required for performance of
the job if fluids are not injected into the
formation (sand cleanout)
• nitrogen for displacement of well tubulars
• nitrogen required in bottom of tanks to
prevent the loss of prime on the cryogenic
pumps.
These are the most common requirements that
need to be considered when finalizing the total
nitrogen required on location.

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  45

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46  |  Job Calculations

 10.0  References

Well Services (WS) Safety Standard 5, InTouch

Content ID# 3313681

WS Safety Standard 9, InTouch Content ID#

3283959

WS Safety Standard 11, InTouch Content ID#

3283975

FracCADE, InTouch Content ID# 3278776

JET 29: Nitrogen Pumping Equipment, InTouch

Content ID# 4221766

Journey Assessment Form, InTouch Content

ID# 4195154

Online I-Handbook, InTouch ID# 3874787

Nitrogen Engineering Handbook, InTouch

Content ID# 3016873

JET 11: Nitrogen Transport and Storage

Equipment, InTouch Content ID# 4221680

JET 17 - Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  47

 This page left intentionally blank

48  |  References
 11.0  Check Your Understanding

1. One pound of liquid nitrogen has 6. Gaseous nitrogen is what percentage of

a. 93.05 scf the air people breathe?
b. 13.8 scf a. 15%
c. 6.74 scf b. 78%
c. 75%
2. A gallon of liquid nitrogen, compared with
a gallon of CO2, weighs _________ . 7. When you fill a tank during a pumping
a. more operation, enter the tank through
_________ .
b. less
a. the top
c. about the same
b. the bottom
c. anywhere
3. The volume occupied by a standard cubic
foot of gaseous nitrogen _________ .
a. increases as the pressure increases 8. A benefit of a PSA nitrogen unit is that
_________ .
b. stays the same regardless of the
pressure a. it produces gaseous nitrogen without
cryogenics
c. decreases as the pressure increases
b. no cryogenic pump is required
c. both a and b
4. The vaporizer on a nitrogen unit has a
pressure limit of _________ .
a. 12,500 psi 9. The liquid nitrogen can be conditioned by
_________ .
b. 10,000 psi
a. applying more pressure to the top of
c. 15,000 psi the tank
b. bleeding pressure off the tank and
5. At one atmosphere, the number of removing the heat
standard cubic feet in one gallon of liquid
c. filling the tank with fresh fluid
nitrogen is _________ .
a. 100 scf
10. When hand calculating a displacement
b. 93.11 scf with gaseous nitrogen, what pressure
c. 93.05 scf must be known?
a. the bottomhole pressure
b. the wellhead pressure
c. the average pressure in the tubing

JET 17- Introduction to Nitrogen Operations  |  49

11. In the design of a 70-30 foam frac, what
does the 70% represent?
a. the water phase
b. the nitrogen phase
c. a combination of both
12. The temperature of liquid nitrogen is
a. –183 degF
b. –232.6 degF
c. –320 degF
13. The nitrogen volume factor is _________ .
a. the amount of nitrogen required on
location
b. the amount of nitrogen needed for
cooldown
c. the number of standard cubic feet of
gaseous nitrogen to occupy a barrel of
volume at a given pressure
14. To determine the hydrostatic head
produced by a column of gaseous
nitrogen, do which of the following?
a. Multiply the depth by the hydrostatic
gradient for nitrogen at the discharge
temperature.
b. Divide the surface injection pressure by
2.
c. Use the hydrostatic tables in the
Schlumberger Nitrogen Handbook.
15. Provisions should be made for additional
nitrogen because of
a. cooldown
b. nitrogen left in the tank
c. both a and b
50  |  Check Your Understanding
16. The addition of sand to the foam frac fluid
will
a. not affect the fluid ratio
b. take up liquid space in the foam
c. take up nitrogen space in the foam
17. As a general rule, select a pumper that is
capable of
a. approximately 70% to 75% of the
required rate
b. approximately 85% of the required rate
c. The percentage is not important.
18. A standard cubic foot of nitrogen is
measured at
a. 1 atm
b. 1 atm and 60 degF
c. 1 1/2 atm and 60 degF
19. Frost will be seen on the outside of the
treating line only when there is liquid
nitrogen inside.
a. true
b. false
c. depends on the pressure
20. When you arrive on location, you must
double-check the well information because
_________ .
a. wellbore conditions and equipment can
change
b. you must make sure the supervisor
and client are working with the same
information
c. both a and b