1

B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)

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ARIGNAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,

VADACHENNIMALAI, ATTUR – 636121
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
B.Sc., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL -II (17UBOP02)
PLANT ANATOMY

SIMPLE TISSUE
1.PARENCHYMA TISSUE
i. Parenchyma is a simple permanent tissue.
ii. It is also known as fundamental or ground tissue.
iii. They are living cells.
iv. Cells are thin walled and arranged with or without intercellular spaces.
v. The parenchyma cells are oval , rounded , or elongated.
vi. Parenchyma is seen in the cortex , pith , pericycle , mesophyll of the leaves , pulp of the fruits ,
endosperm Etc.,

2.COLLENCHYMA TISSUE
i. Collenchyma is a simple permanent tissue.
ii. It is found in peripheral portion of the growing stems and petioles below the epidermis.
iii. Collenchyma cells are living cells.
iv. They are elongated cells with tapering ends.
v. The cells are overlapping compactly arranged and so intercellular spaces are absent.

3.SCLERENCHYMA – FIBRES CELL

i. Sclerenchyma fibres are elongated cells with pointed ends.

ii. The cells are spindle shaped.
iii. The fibres are occur singly or in groups.
iv. The cells have thick lignified secondary wall and the lumen is very much reduced.
v. Mature fibres are dead cells.

4.SCLERENCHYMA – STONE CELL

i. Sclereids are called stone cells because of their thick and hard walls.
ii. The sclereids are dead cells and the wall is strongly thickened and lignified.
iii. The cell lumen is very small.
iv. The sclereids occur in group in the cortex and pith of the stems of gymnosperms and dicots.

COMPLEX TISSUE

5.XYLEM – TRACHIEDS

i. The xylem is complex permanent tissue.

ii. The tracheids are elongated cells.
iii. The trachieds are dead and maturity and devoid of protoplast.
iv. They are found in angiosperms , gymnosperms and pteridophytes.

6. XYLEM - VESSELS

i. Xylem vessels are multicellular elongated tubes.

ii. They are present in the xylem of the angiosperms and few gymnosperms.
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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
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iii. The vessels is formed from a row of cylindrical cells placed end to end with the end walls.
iv. The end walls are perforated and are known as perforation plates.

7.XYLEM – FIBERS

i. They are elongated and pointed at both ends.

ii. The sclerenchyma fibres are associated with xylem are known as xylem fibres or xylery fibres or
wood fibres.
iii. The cell wall of the fibres are lignified.
iv. The lumen and the pits of the xylem fibres are very much reduced.
v. They are dead cells.

8.PHLOEM TISSUE

i. Phloem is a complex permanent tissue.

ii. It is food conducting tissue of the vascular system.
iii. The phloem is meant for translocation of organic solutes.
iv. The elements of phloem originate from the procambium of apical meristem.

9.PHLOEM SIEVE CELL & COMPANION CELL

i. The sieve elements are mainly concerned with the conduction of food material in the phloem.
ii. Sieve cells are single cells.
iii. They do not unite to form multicellular tubes.
iv. The sieve cells are living cells.
v. The companion cells are also living cells.
vi. The have dense cytoplasm and aprominent nucleus.
vii. The companion cells occur along the lateral wall of the sieve tubes.

10.PHLOEM – FIBERS

i. The sclernchyma fibres are associated with phloem are called phloem fibres.
ii. They occur both in the primary and secondary phloem.
iii. The cells are pointed , elongated , and lignified.
iv. They give mechanical support to the plant.

STRUCTURE OF SECONDARY TISSUE

11.ANNUAL RING

i. The secondary xylem produced during secondary growth in one year is known as annual ring.
ii. During secondary growth the activity of cambial ring is not uniform throughout the year.
iii. The activity of cambium is periodicial.
iv. During spring season the cambium is very active and produces large amount of secondary xylem
with large pitted vessels.
v. This xylem or wood formed during spring seasons is called spring wood or early wood . During
summer season the cambium has less active and produces small amount of secondary xylem with
small vessels.
vi. This is called summer wood are late wood.
vii. The total amount of secondary xylem (spring wood & summer wood ) formed during one year is
known as annual ring or growth ring.

12. SAPWOOD AND HEART WOOD

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
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i. In old dicot stems, the central portion is very hard and black in colour. This is called heartwood or
duramens.
ii. The outer portion of the stem is light brown in colour . This is called sap wood or alburnum .
iii. The sap wood is meant for conduction and the heart wood meant for mechanical support.

13.TYLOSES

i. Tyloses are ballon - like structures of xylem parenchyma and ray parenchyma cells projecting into
the xylem vessels.
ii. Tyloses are charecterstic of secondary xylem .
iii. In many plant the xylem parenchyma and ray parenchyma cells develops ballon like structure
known as tyloses in to the nearby xylem vessels.
iv. They are usually found in the heart wood.
v. Tyloses prevent the conduction of materials through the xylem vessels.

STOMATA AND STOMATAL TYPES

14.SURFACE VIEW OF STOMATA

i. The minute openings present in the leaves are called stomata.

ii. Stomata occur in the leaves and young stem of green plants.
iii. Each stomata consists of a stomatal aperture and two guard cells.
iv. The guard cells are kidney shaped.
v. Stomata helps in respiration , transpiration and they can prepare starch by photosynthesis.

15.ANOMOCYTIC – RANUNCULACEOUS

i. The subsidiary cells are indefinite in number and it not differ from other epidermal cells.
Eg. Ranunculaceae,Cucurbitaceae.

16.ANISOCYTIC – CRUCIFEROUS

i. Usually three subsidiary cells surrounded the stomata , one cell is larger than the other two cells.
Eg. Cruciferae,Solanum,Nicotina.

17.PARACYTIC – RUBIACEOUS

i. Only or two subsisary cells are present with their longitudinal axis parallel to the guard cells.
Eg.Rubiaceae,Magnoliaceae.

18.DIACYTIC – CARYOPHYLLACEOUS

i. Two subsidiary cells enclose the stoma with their common walls at right angles to the guard cells.
Eg.Cryphyllaceae, Acanthaceae.

19.GRAMINACEOUS – MONOCOT PLANT

i. The stomatous are arranged in a leaniar manner.

ii. Stomata and subsidiary cells are alternatively arranged.
iii. It also having the cork cells.
Eg.Cyparaceae

TRICHOMES OR APPENDAGES

Some of the epidermal cells of most plants grow out in the form of hairs are called trichomes.

GLANDULAR TRICHOMES

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
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20.UNICELLULAR & MULTICELLULAR GLANDULAR TRICHOME

i. UNICELLULAR: The unicellular hairs may be unbranched or branched , and it secrate easily
evaporatable aromatic substances.
ii. MULTICELLULAR: Multicellular hairs may consist of a single row of cells or several layers, and it
secrate easily evaporatable aromatic substances. Eg. Lameaceae.

21.COLLETERS , NECTARIES & STINGING HAIRS

i. COLLETERS: Colleters are plant structures, multicellular secretory hairs , found in groups near the
base of petiole, on stipules, and sepals. It secrate sticking substances.
ii. NECTARIES: It produce sugar rich liquid called nectar to attracts pollinating animals for pollination.
Nectar is an ecologically important item, the sugar source of honey.
iii. STINGING HAIRS: It contains a poisonous liquid and consist a basal bulb like portion from which a
stiff, slandor and tapering structure is given out. The tapering structure ends in a small knob like or a
sharp point.

22.SALT AND CHALK GLANDS & DIGESTIVE GLANDS

i. SALT AND CHALK GLAND:It is a multicellular gland which secrate calcareous matter.
ii. The salt glands of some mangrove plants remove excess salt using ion transportation that help
secrate sodium chloride and calcium carbonate substances.
iii. DIGESTIVE GLANDS: Its mostly shown in carnivorous plant like as Nyctanthus, Dracaena,Nepanthus,
etc.,
it secrates mucilage substance.

NON-GLANDULAR TRICHOMES

23.UNICELLULAR , NON BRANCHED MULTICELLULAR & UNICELLULAR BRANCHED NON

GLANDULAR TRICHOME

i. Trichomes which is not secrate any synthesis is called non glandular trichomes.
ii. Its shown as unicellular,multicellular ,branched unicellular types of non glandular trichome.

24.MULTICELLULAR BRANCHED , PELTATE & VESICLE NON GLANDULAR TRICHOME

i. PELTATE: It shown with short stalk with tipped multicellular plate cells.
ii. VESICLE: It mostly shown in marshy land plants.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF A PLANT BODY

25.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF DICOT STEM

i. Epidermis is the outer layer of the stem.

ii. The cells are compactly arranged without any intercellular spaces.
iii. Epidermis covered cuticle.
iv. Epidermis contains stomata and unbranched epidermal hairs.
v. Epidermis followed by cortex and it made up of collenchyma , chlorenchyma , parenchyma cells.
vi. The pericycle lies below the endodermis of the cortex.
vii. Vascular bundles are arranged in groups.
viii. They are collateral , open , endarch . Pith is present at the center of the stem.

26.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF DICOT ROOT

i. Epiblema is the outermost layer of parenchymatous cells.

ii. Cortex is made up of parenchymatous cells.
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iii. Endodermis is single layer.

iv. Multilayer pericycle are present below the endodermis.
v. Vascular bundle are exarch.
vi. Xylem and phloem are arranged in alternative manner.
vii. Pith is reduced.

27.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF DICOT LEAF

i. Leaves are dorsi – ventral.

ii. Leaves are horizontal in position.
iii. Epidermis is the outer layer it consists of upper and lower epidermis.
iv. Epidermis covered cuticle.
v. Mesophyll cells are present upper and lower epidermis namely palisade and spongy parenchyma.
vi. Vascular bundle are present in the centre and it covered bundle sheath.
vii. Stomatas are present in the lower epidermis.

28.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MONOCOT STEM

i. The epidermis the outer layer of the stem.

ii. It made of single layer of parenchyma cells.
iii. It covered thick cuticle.
iv. Below the epidermis , hypodermis present and it made up of sclerenchymatous cells.
v. Midportion made up of parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces.
vi. Vascular bundle are scattered , bundle is conjoint collateral closed.

29. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MONOCOT ROOT

i. It consists of epiblema , cortex , pericycle , vascular bundle and pith.

ii. Epiblema is the outermost layer, it is single layer.
iii. The root hairs are unicellular.
iv. Below the epiblema cortex are present.
v. Inner most layer is called endodermis.
vi. Pericycle lies below the endodermis.
vii. Vascular bundles are tetrarch exarch.
viii. Pith present on the centre.

30. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MONOCOT LEAF

i. Epidermis is single layer , it consists upper and lower epidermis.

ii. Epidermis covered cuticle , epidermal hairs present.
iii. Bulliform cells are present in upper epidermis.
iv. Isobilateral leaf spongy cells are filled with chloroplast.
v. Vascular bundles are collateral or conjoint closed.

SECONDARY GROWTH IN PLANTS

31.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT STEM

i. The secondary tissue differentiated in to vascular tissues and cork , phelloderm.

ii. The secondary growth takes place the following formation of cambial ring , Activity of cambial ring
secondary vascular tissues formation of periderm.
iii. The cambium present in the primary vascular bundles is known as fascicular cambium it is known as
vascular cambium it is present in between xylem and phloem.
iv. The cambial ring cut off vascular tissues on either side.
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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
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B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)
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v. The secondary vascular tissues are the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem, the secondary
xylem consists of tracheids , vessels , wood fibres and wood parenchyma and then the secondary
phloem consists of sieve tubes , companion cells and phloem fibres.

32. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOT

i. Dicot vascular bundles are limited (four) in number , usually tetrarch radial and the protoxylem is
exarch.
ii. The vascular bundles are surrounded by the pericycle.
iii. Xylem and phloem of the vascular bundles are seprated by the cells of the conjunctive tissues.
iv. Secondary thickening takes place the following steps, formation of cambial ring , activity of cambial
ring , formation of periderm.
v. The conjunctive tissue that lies below the phloem becomes meristematic and forms strips of
cambium.
vi. The outer layer of the many layered pericycle function as the cork cambium or phellogen it cuts off
cells on eitherside . The phellogen produces brown coloured suberized cork cells. The phloem cork
on the outerside and the thin walled parenchymatous cells phelloderm on the innerside.

ANOMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT AND MONOCOT STEM

33. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ANAMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT STEM

(BIGNONIA)

i. The cambium ring behaves normally in the beginning cutting more secondary xylem towards
innerside and less secondary phloem on outerside sometimes the cambium at four diagonal points.
These four points lesser amount of xylem are cut off internally.
ii. The phloem masses intrude inwards forming four deep wedges of irregular with and supported by
transverse bands of cambial strip, which was performing normal activity develop unidirectional area
of cambium and starts , cutting of more phloem on outerside as compared to the innerside.
iii. This results in the formation of four or more wedges of phloem intruding in to the xylem cylinders.
The mature stem of bignonia thus has four big sized and four small sized wedges of anomalous
secondary growth of dicot stem.

34. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ANAMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT STEM

(NYCTANTHUS)

i. In the stem of nyctanthus apart from normal vascular bundles which occur in a ring in the central
region . There are four inversely orients cornered bundles found at the redges of the stem.
ii. These cortical bundles are also collateral and open.

35. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ANAMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN MONOCOT STEM

(DRACAENA)

i. Normally the vascular bundles of the monocotyledonous stems are closed ones. Thus due to
absence of cambium .
ii. But, some monocotyledons belonging to the family Liliaceae , mainly the arborescent ones like
Dracaena , Yucca , Aloe, Sansevieria and Agave.
iii. The secondary thickening in dracaena is the classical example for the anomalous secondary
thickening in monocot plants.
iv. During secondary thickening, Formation of secondary meristem or secondary cambium occurs in the
inner region of parenchymatous cortex.
v. The activity of cambium is abnormal.

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
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B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)
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vi. It produces secondary vascular bundles on its inner side only and parenchymatous cells on the outer
side.
vii. The secondary vascular bundles are amphivasal where phloem is surrounded by xylem.
viii. Later cambium produces more parenchymatous cells to the inside that pushes newly formed
vascular bundles to the centre. The activity and position of vascular bundles keep on changing and
vascular bundles are arranged in concentric rings.
ix. The second ring of the vascular bundles is alternating in the position with the first ring. The vascular
bundles in the last inner ring are embedded in a mass of lignified conjuctive tissue.
x. Cork cambium activity is normal and produces cork and secondary cortex at the outer region.

NODAL ANATOMY

36.UNILACUNAR NODE

i. The node with a single gap and single trace to a leaf is known as unilacunar.
Eg. Justicea, Calotropis, Eucalyptus, Nerium indicum.

37.TRILACUNAR NODE

i. The node with three leaf gaps and three traces is known as trilacunar.
ii. Of the three traces line is larger and medium and other two traces smaller and are lateral . Eg.
Azndiracta.

38.MULTILACUNAR NODE

i. The node with several leaf gap and traces to a leaf is known as multilacunar
Eg. Arabium Corianderum Satinum, Polygonum.,etc
ii. Multilacunar node traces , one is larger and median other traces are smaller and are lateral.

EMBROYOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS

ANTHER

39.DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSPORE

i. The pollen grains develop from the sporogenous tissue of the archesporial cells.
ii. The sporogenous cells develop into the pollen mother cells.
iii. The pollen mother cells are diploid and they undergo mitosis to increase their cell number.
iv. Then the diploid pollen mother cells undergoes meiosis.
v. The first meiotic division divides the pollen mother cell into two daughter cells called dyads.
vi. The second meiotic division divided the dyads into tetrates.
vii. The cells of the tetrades are seprated to form pollen grains.
viii. The pollen grains are haploid.

40.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF YOUNG ANTHER

i. Outer most layer is the epidermis, compactly arranged.

ii. The cells of the epidermis undergoes anticlinal division.
iii. Endothecium is the second layer of anther wall.
iv. Below the endothecium middle layer lying, it consists of 1 to 3 layers of thin walled parenchyma
cells.
v. It is also known as parietal layer.
vi. The innermost layer is tapetum . Tapetum is nutritive layer for the developing microspores.
vii. The sporogenous tissue lies within the tapetal layer.
viii. The sporogenous cells directly functions pollen mother cells.
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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
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B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)
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41.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MATURE ANTHER

i. The fully developed microsporangium consists of a haploid pollen tetrads enclosed within the
sporangial wall.
ii. On maturation of the anther , the sporangial wall consists of the epidermis and the endothecium
whereas the middle layers and the tapetum disintegrate.
iii. The partition wall between the two anther lobes of one side disintegrates and the two pollen sacs
appear as one.
iv. The mass of pollen grains exert pressure on the anther wall which burst open liberating the pollen
grains.

42.DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE

i. The pollen tube containing the male gametes is called male gametophyte.
ii. The pollen grain undergoes first mytatic division to form two unequal cells.
iii. The two cells remain in the cytoplasm of the pollen.
iv. Further development of male gametophyte occur after the pollengrains reach the stigma.
v. The intain of the pollen grain products through one of the germ pores.
vi. The vegetative and generative cells of the pollen grains migrate into the pollen tube.

CLASSIFICATION OF OVULES

43.ANATROPOUS OVULE

i. The anatropous ovule is an inverted ovule.

ii. The ovules turns at 180 degree.
iii. The micropyle comes nearer to the funicle and hilium.
iv. The chalaza is at the opposite end of the micropyle.
v. During the development , the ovule bends over and fuse along the funicle.

44.HEMI ANATROPOUS OVULE

i. This is the T shaped ovule.

ii. The ovules turn 90 degree.
iii. The micropyle and chalaza remain at right angels to the funicle.

45.ORTHOTROPOUS OVULE

i. Orthotropous ovule is an erect ovule.

ii. It is also called orthotropous ovule.
iii. The body of the ovule is upright(ortho), straight(turn).
iv. The funicle , chalaza and hilium lie on the same verticle line.
v. It is the most primitive type of ovule.

46.CIRCINOTROPOUS OVULE

i. The ovule curves one complete circle so that the micropyle turns down from upright position and
then becomes upright.
ii. The ovule turns 360 degree.
iii. In the early stage the ovule is straight orthotropous then it becomes inverted anatropous .
iv. The growth continues till the ovule once again become straight orthotropous.
v. The funicle is long.
vi. It is a peculiar type.
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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
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47.AMPHITROPOUS OVULE

i. The ovule is like a horse shoe.

ii. Both ovule and embroyo sac curve . hence the name amphitropous.
iii. It is intermediate between orthotropous and anatropous ovule.
iv. It is half turned compared to anatropous ovule.

48.CAMPHYLOTROPOUS OVULE

i. This is a curved ovule (camphyllus – curved).

ii. The ovule turns 90 degree.
iii. It is been shaped.
iv. The microphyll forces the placenta.
v. The micropyle lies near the funicle.
vi. The micropyle is not fused with the funicle.

49.DEVELOPMENT OF MEGASPORE

i. The pollen grains develop from the sporogenous tissue of the archesporial initial.
ii. The sporogenous cells develop into the pollen mother cells.
iii. The pollen mother cells are diploid and they undergoes mitosis to increase their cell number.
iv. Then the diploid pollen mother cells undergoes meiosis.
v. The first meiotic division divides the pollen mother cell into two daughter cells called dyads.
vi. The second meiotic division divided the dyads into 4 cells called tetrades.
vii. The cells of the tetrades are seprated to form pollengrains.
viii. The pollen grains are haploid.

50.FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE (POLYGONUM)

i. The ovule consists of two integuments a nucellus and an embroyo sac.

ii. The ovule is attached to the placenta of the ovary by a short stalk known as funicle.
iii. The ovule consists of a central mass homogenous tissue known as nucellus.
iv. The nucellus is surrounded by two protective coats namely the inner integuments and outer
integuments.
v. The lower portion of the ovule called chalaza.
vi. The ovule is attached to the body by stalk.

51.LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF OVULE

i. The ovule is bitegmic as it has two integuments.

ii. The ovule consists of two integuments a nucellus and an embryo sac.
iii. The ovule is attached to the placenta of the ovary by a short stalk known as funicle.
iv. The place were the ovule is attached to the funicle is called hilium.
v. The ovule has a central mass of homogenous tissue known as nucellus.
vi. The nucellus surrounded two integuments outer and inner the integuments leave a small
opening at the apex of the ovule called micropyle.
vii. Two integuments join at the base of the nucellus to form chalaza.
viii. The centre of the nucellus has an embryo sac , the embryo sac has an egg appartus at the
micropyle .

TYPES OF ENDOSPERM

52.NUCLEAR ENDOSPERM

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i. The nuclear endosperm is found in dicot plants.

ii. The nuclear endosperm is also known as non – cellular endosperm.
iii. In nucellus endosperm , the division of the primary endosperm and its further divisions are not
followed by wall formations.
iv. All the nuclear remains free in the cytoplasm of the embryo sac.

53.HELOBIAL ENDOSPERM

i. Helobial endosperm is most common in monocots.

ii. The development of helobial endosperm is inter median between nuclear and cellular types.
iii. It also produces haustoria used for absorbtion for food.

54.CELLULAR ENDOSPERM

i. The cellular endosperm is common in dicot plant.

ii. In this types the endosperm is cellular from the early development stage.
iii. Free nucellular stage is absent.
iv. Haustoria are common in cellular endosperm.

55.RUMINATE ENDOSPERM

i. Ruminate endosperm having irregular ridges and farrows of the surface called ruminate
endosperm.
ii. It is seen in Aracanut.
iii. During the endosperm is development finger like outgrowths are produced form the inner face
of the integuments into the endosperm.
iv. As a result the endosperm is irregularly ridged and farrowed.

56.LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF DICOT EMBRYO

i. A mature dicot embryo consists of an embryonal axis two cotyledons and a subsensor.
ii. The part of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is called epiayots.
iii. The part of the embryonal axis below the level of the cotyledons is hypocytic.
iv. The lower end of hypocytic is differentiated into an embryonic root called radical at the time of
germination radical gives to a primary root.

PTERIDOPHYTES

57.LYCOPODIUM – HABIT

Class : Lycopodiopsida
Order : Lycopodiales
Family : Lycopodiocea
Sub -family : Lycopodiodeae
Genus : Lycopodium

i. The sporophyte is differentiated into the stem , root, leaves.

ii. The leaves are micropyles and with a single vein.
iii. The vascular stands on steles may be protostelic ,siphonostelic or polystelic.
iv. The leaf gapes are always absent.
v. The plants are commonly known as ground pines club mosses are trilling evergreen.

58.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LYCOPODIUM CERUNUM STEM

i. The epidermis is one cell thickness and has stomata.

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
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ii. Outer wall of the epidermal cells are thick and cuticularized.
iii. The cortex is quite broad.
iv. Multilayered pericycle usually 3.6 cell in thickness.
v. The steles consist of a number of irregularly shaped.
vi. The stele is protostelic type.

59.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LYCOPODIUM ROOT

i. Humerous root hairs on single layeral epidermis.

ii. Cortex is several cells in thickness.
iii. Cortex cells covered by sclerenchyma cells.
iv. Usually one mass of phloem lies in between the protoxylem points of C shaped.
v. Xylem covered by phloem.

60.LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF LYCOPODIUM STROBILUS

i. A sporophyll produces but one sporangium.

ii. The sporangium remains adaxial in its position and formal hear the base of the sporophyll.
iii. Mature sporangium is always kidney shaped.
iv. The sporangium divides into two values which remains united at base.
v. The spores are round or tetrahedral in shape.

61.VERTICAL SECTION OF MATURE LYCOPODIUM GAMETOPHYTE

i. The prothallus may be subterrammen or sub – aerial.

ii. The prothallus are monoceius and the sex organs remembled with the axis of the prothallic.
iii. The mature antheridium consist of an out mass of antheraized mother cells.
iv. The jacket layer that surrounds the antrogonial all is thickness.
v. The mature archegonium is flask like.

62.SELAGINELLA – HABIT

Class : Lycopodiopsida
Order : Selaginellales
Family : Selaginellaceae
Genus : Sellaginella

i. The genus compries about 700 species about 58 spiced recorded in india.
ii. Many species are tropical and grow in rain forest.
iii. Some species are xerophytic and grow upon barron rocks and dry soils.
iv. Some species are quite and like as mosses.
v. Some species are protostrate and creeping.
vi. Some are sub eract and scandent.

63.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SELLAGINELLA STEM

i. The outer most layer is epidermis and its covered by thick cuticle.
ii. Cortex is made up of thin walled parenchymatous cells.
iii. The stem of most species produces starched endodermal cells having large intercellular spaces.
iv. The stem ranges form a simple protostele complex polystelic siphonostele.
v. The stele remains surrounded by trabacular endodermis.

64.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SELLAGINELLA ROOT

i. The outermost layer is epidermis , it bear root hairs.

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ii. Cortex is parenchymatous tissue.

iii. Endodermis is unconspicuons.
iv. There is one to three layered pericycle composed of parenchymatous cells.
v. The stele is monoarch.
vi. Xylem covered phloem.

65.LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SELLAGINELLA CONE

i. The elongated or oval sporangia were terminally developed at the apices of the branches of the
axial shoot . each apex bear a single sporangium.
ii. The jacket layer of the sporangium considered of several cells in thickness.
iii. The outermost cells of layer and thick walled and cuticularaized at their outerspace face.
iv. The middle layer of the sporangial wall possessed thin walled cells and innermost layer
consisted of thin walled rounded cells which formed the tapital layer.
v. The sporangium had no columella within it.
vi. The cavity contained many spores of same size.

66.EQUISETUM- HABIT

Class : Polypodiopsida
Order : Equisetales
Family : Equiisetaceae
Genus : Equisetum

i. The sporophyte is differentiated into stem , root and leaves.

ii. The genus comprise of25 species . The common Indian species are E.debile and E.arvense.
iii. Certain species grown in pond and marshy places.
iv. Some species grown in bank of river canals and pools in the Indian plains.
v. The foilage leaves are borne in transverse whorls up on stems and their branches.
vi. The vascular cyilinder is protostelic or siphonostelic.
vii. The leaf gaps are absent.

67.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF EQUISETUM STEM

i. The T.S of aerial stem passing through internode exhibits distinct ridges and forrows.
ii. The outermost layer is single layered epidermis that consists of elongated thickwalled cells . The
epidermis is impregnated with the thick layer of silica.
iii. The stomata are found to be situated in the funour.
iv. Just under the epidermis there is broad cortex and consists of mechanical and assimalatery
layer.
v. In the outer cortex there is a strand of sclerenchyma just beneath this chlorenchymatous bands
are present.
vi. Inner cortex is composed of thin walled parenchyma with well developed intercellular spaces.
vii. Endodermis is the layer of cortex.
viii. Just beneath the endodermis there is single layered pericycle.
ix. The vascular bundles are of collateral type and arranged in a ring and contains both metaxylem
and protoxylem.

68. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF EQUISETUM ROOT

i. The outermost layer is known as piliferous layer (epidermis) which bears unicellular hairs upon
it.
ii. The cortex consists of thin walled parenchyma with well developed intercellular spaces.
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iii. The endodermis is two celled in thickness , inner layer of the cells of endodermis acts as
pericycle.
iv. The casparian strips are strictly found in the outer layer of the endodermis.
v. The stele is triarch to hexarch.

69. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF EQUISETUM CONE

i. Each strobilus consists of a thick axis , bearing several whorls of densely crowded sporangia on
the underside of the peltate disc ph situated on the apex of sporangium.
ii. Sporongiophore are arranged in whorls.
iii. Each sporangium is elongated sac like and rounded at apex.
iv. The sporangium contains within it the mature spores all alike.
v. The sporonga are homosporous.

70.GLEICHENIA – HABIT

Class : Polypodiopsida
Order : Glieicheniales
Family : Gleicheniaceae
Genus : Gleichenia

i. Glichenia is a large genus and it includes about 130 species .

ii. It is distributed in the tropical and subtropical region of the world.
iii. It is a diploid sporophyte and herbaceous perennials.
iv. Sporophyte consist of a rhizome , leaf and roots.
v. Rhizome is a stem , long dichotomously branched prostrate and sub terraneam, covered with
hairs .
vi. Leaf has limited growth and me leaf is made up of only one pair of pinna.
vii. Pinna has a series at lobes called pinnulus . each pinnule is traversal veinlets.
viii. The ventral surface of pinnule contains groups of sporangia called sori.

71. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF GLEICHENIA PETIOLE

i. The petiole contains an epidermis , cortex , pericycle stele and pith.

ii. Epidermis is single layered.
iii. Cortex is made up of parenchyma cells . the inner most layer of cortex is the endodermis . It is
single layered.
iv. The pericycle is compossed of three or four layers of thin walled parenchyma cells.
v. The stele has a C shaped xylem . it surrounded by phloem.
vi. The C - shaped xylem has curved ends inwards the protoxylem occurs in the form of small
patches towards the concave side of the xylem arch.
vii. The xylem encloses a central parenchymatous region called pith.

72.VERTICAL SECTION OF GLEICHENIA SORUS

i. The sporangia occur in groups called the sori.(singular – sorus)

ii. The sori are produced in the lateral veinlets behind the vein endings or in the middle of the vein
and form two distinct rows.
iii. The mature sporangium is a pear shaped structure and may be sessile or subsessile.
iv. It consists of capsule , tapetum , and spore mothercells.
v. The capsule has a single layered wall and it called as jacket layer.
vi. Same of the cells of the jacket layer develop thick walls and form the annules.
vii. Next to the jacket layer there are 2 layers of tapetum.
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viii. The outer layer of tapetum is composed of tubular cells and the inner layer is composed of large
elongated cells .
ix. The tapetal layer encloses the spore mother cells and it is diploid.

73.ADIANTUM – HABIT

Class : Polypodiopsida
Order : Polypodiales
Family : Pteridaceae
Sub -family : Vittariodeae
Genus : Adiantum

i. This genus is quite commen in lower slopes of the hills and in the plains.
ii. The species of adiantum have a upright , creeping scaly rhizome.
iii. The leaves are arranged on the rhizome either spirally or alternately.
iv. The petiole is shining black and brittle.
v. The blade may be entire as in A. reniforme or simple or repeatelly branched.
vi. The blade are quite delicate in their texture .
vii. The forking veins transverse the blade.
viii. Usually the veins are free but in some species they are anastamosing forming the reticulam.

74. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ADIANTUM ROOT

i. The outermost layer of the T.S of root is pilliferous layer . it is single - layered and bears root
hairs.
ii. The pilliferous layer is followed by cortex that remains differentiated into two regions the outer
region consists of thin walled cells whereas the inner region consists of thick walled cells.
iii. The stele remains surrounded by a single epidermis the conspicuous casparian present on the
walls of the cells of endodermis.
iv. Pericycle is the outermost part of the stele ; it is one layered.
v. There is central core of xylem surrounded by phloem ; the xylem is with two protoxylem groups
situated at its two ends ; this way , the xylem is diarch.
vi. Outside the xylem there are phloem elements the phloem is arranged laterally to the xylem in
the form of phloem plates.

75. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ADIANTUM RHIZOME

i. T.S of rhizome is circular or gutter shaped.

ii. The epidermis is single layered and bears numerous multicellular hairs.
iii. Just beneath the epidermis there is multi layered sclerenchymatous hypodermis.
iv. The hypodermis is followed by many layered parenchymatous ground tissue.
v. The species of adiantum having an elongated rhizome may show actual solenostely . eg., in A.
pedatum, but commonly the stele is gutter shaped due to great elongation of the leaf gap.
vi. Each meristele remains surrounded by a single layered pericycle.
vii. The xylem elements remain surrounded by phloem.

76. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ADIANTUM PETIOLE

i. The epidermis is single layered and remains covered by a cuticle.

ii. The epidermis is followed by 3 – 4 layer parenchymatous hypodermis.
iii. The hypodermis is followed is followed by multilayered parenchymatous cortex.
iv. The stele is of protostelic type.
v. The endodermis is single layered and is followed by a single layered pericycle.
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77. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF ADIANTUM LEAFLET (SORUS)

i. The characterstic of adiantum is the presence of apparently marginal sori which are superficial
in orgin and covered by a sharply reflexed leaf margin which looks like an indusium its maturity
actually there is no true indusium.
ii. The sporangium are inserted upon the distal region of the veins transversing the fertile lobe.
iii. The fertile region of the blade itself becomes sharply reflexed and serves as indusium.
iv. Each such fertile lobe bears a group of sori situated up on parallel veins.
v. In certain cases the sporangium found spread on the surface of the blade in between the veins.
vi. Each sporangium is composed of a multicellular stalk and a capsule
vii. The capsule of the sporangium is the shape of biconvex lens.

78.MARSILEA – HABIT

Class : Polypodiopsida
Order : Salviniales
Family : Marsileaceae
Genus : Marsilea

i. Marsilea is commonly called water term in world wide distribution an aquatic and semi aquatic
habitats.
ii. It is a sporophytic plant and creeping plant.
iii. Plant body is differentiated into a creeping stem leaves and roots.
iv. Stem is a long slender , branched structure and capable of indefinite growth . it may cover the
area of about 25 meters diameter.
v. The stem may creep on the surface as a stolen or its below the soil surface of rhizome.
vi. The stem consists of several node and internoder , the internoder may be long or short.
vii. A single leaf arises from earlier node and stands erect.
viii. The roots are arise from the lower surface of the nodes and its adventitious.

79. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MARSELIA RHIZOME

i. The cross section of marsilea is circular in outline . it shows an outer epidermis cortex and the
central stele.
ii. Epidermis is the outermost layer and made up of a single layer of thin walled cells and stomata
are altogether absent.
iii. The cortex lies below the epidermis and differentiated inti an outer cortex a middle cortex and
an inner cortex.
iv. Cortex is made up of a parenchymatous cells but it has many air chambers and it is called
trabecula.
v. Next to the cortex there is a single layered endodermis and have pericycle.
vi. The stele is the central core of the stem and amphiphloeic siphonostele.

80. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MARSELIA PETIOLE

i.
A transverse section of petiole shows an epidermis cortex and a central scale.
ii.
The epidermis is the cortex layer and compactly arranged thin walled cells single layer.
iii.
The epidermis is lined with cuticle and stomata are absent.
iv.
Cortex is differentiated into three region viz outer cortex , middle cortex and inner cortex.
v.
Outer cortex is madeup of parenchymatous , middle cortex is made up of aerenchymatous
having air chambers . Trabecula and inner cortex is composed of thin.
vi. Walled parenchymatous cells without intercellular or spaces.
vii. Endodermis consist of single layered cells having consist of pericycle and vascular tissue.
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viii. The vascular tissue consist of v shaped xylem stands and phloem.

81. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MARSELIA LEAFLET

i. The cross section of leaflet shows epidermis mesophyll and vascular bundle.
ii. Epidermis is the outer layer and consists a single layer of thickened walls.
iii. It is differentiated into an upper epidermis and a lower epidermis.
iv. Stomata are found both in the upper and lower epidermis.
v. Mesophyll tissues lies between the upper and lower epidermis.
vi. It is composed of an upper palisade parenchyma and the lower spongy parenchyma.

82. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF MARSELIA SPOROCARP

i. This section shows epidermis , hypodermis ,gelatinous tissue anteriorly and posteriorly, and two
sori. It reveals , the exact number of rows of megasporangia and microsporangia in a sorus.
ii. This section clearly shows the point of attachment of placenta with the sporocorp wall . The
common soral bundles , placental bundles and placenta branches are clear , the receptacle
bears many megasporangia in the middle portion and microsporangia on both ends . the sorus
is covered with an indusium .

GYMNOSPERMS

83.Cycas – HABIT

Class : Cycadopsida
Order : Cycadales
Sub – order : Cycadineae
Family : Cycadaceae
Genus : Cycas

i. The cycas plant superficially resembles the date palm.

ii. It is columnor and unbranched , usually ranging 3 – 5 meters in height.
iii. The trunk is covered by an armour of persistent leaf bases.
iv. It bears a crown of leaves unipinnately compound leaves at the top.
v. Apart from the vegetative leaves , scale leaves also found in the terminal part of the stem.
vi. The young parts of plants are covered by ramentum of bicelled brown hairs.

84.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS OLD DTEM (Diagrammatic)

i. The young stem of cycas is monoxylic.

ii. It contains a single ring of vascular bundle.
iii. Old stems new cambial rings are produced outside the primary ring.
iv. Thus the old stem is polycyclic it with more than one vascular ring.
v. The secondary node is loose soft and scanty and monoxylic medullary rays are present.

85.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS CORALLOID ROOT (A Portion Enlarged)

i. The epiblema is the outer most layer , and it is single layered.

ii. Cortex is multilayered and parenchymatous.
iii. Cortex is divided into an outer cortex , a middle cortex with algal zone and inner cortex.
iv. Endodermis is the innermost layer of cortex and it is followed by many layered pericycle.
v. Vascular stele consists of radial vascular bundle xylem is triarchy and exarch.
vi. In the centre, a small pith is present.

86.TRANSVERSE SECTIN OF CYCAS RACHIS

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i. The outermost layer is the single layered epidermis covered by a thick cuticle.
ii. Epidermis followed by a hypodermis which is two or three layers in thickness.
iii. The most characterstic features of the rachis is the arrangement of vascular bundles in a
inverted omega – shaped outline.
iv. Each vascular bundle surrounded by a bundle sheath.
v. The vascular bundles are open and collateral diploxylic.
vi. Xylem is present centripetal and centrifugal.

87.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS LEAFLET

i. The outermost layer is epidermis it covered thick cuticle.

ii. Below the epidermis hypodermis layer is present it is multilayered.
iii. The mesophyll cells are differentiated into the palisade and spongy parenchyma are both rich in
chloroplast.
iv. Midrib region vascular bundles are present xylem is diploxylic centripetal and centrifugal.
v. Sunken stomata are confined in the lower epidermis.

88.CYCAS MALE CONE & TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS MALE CONE

i. Usually the male cone is about more than 50 cm in length.

ii. The sporophytes are compactly arranged.
iii. Each microphyll is a narrow below and broad above terminating into a projection called the
apophysis.
iv. The microsporangium are conifined to the abaxial surface of the microsporophyll.
v. The wall of sporangium is four to several layered.
vi. A large number of microspores are produced in each sporangium.

89.CYCAS MICROSPOROPHYLL & TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS MICROSPOROPHYLL

i. Microsporophyll are arranged spirally and compact.

ii. Each microsporophyll are attached to the cone axis.
iii. Each microsporophyll are wedge shaped structure.
iv. The sporangia may number upto one thousand incertain species.
v. They are found in definite sori each consisting of two to six sporangia.
vi. A large number of microspore are produced in each sporangium.

90.CYCAS MEGASPOROPHYLL & TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CYCAS MEGASPOROPHYLL

i. The female strobilus is made of a whorl of spirally arranged megasporophylls which remain
situated among the crown of vegetative leaves.
ii. The megasporophylls are not arranged in definite cones.
iii. The resemble the foilage leaves.
iv. Each megasporophylls is leaf like it upper portion bears pinnae while the lower part bears the
ovule.
v. Megasporoohylls remain densely covered with brown hairs.
vi. The ovules are sessile and orthotropous in their position.
vii. They are ovoid or spherical and vary in size.

91.PINUS – HABIT

Class : Pinopsida
Order : Pinales
Family : Pinaceae
Sub -family : Pinoideae
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Genus : Pinus

i. The species pinus is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

ii. They are about 75 species of this genus.
iii. About six species have been recorded from different part of india.
iv. The adult plant is a large tree giving rise to a series of wide spread branches.
v. Inmost of pine trees , a whorl branches is produced each year . the whorle are formed leaves
every year.
vi. The pine trees posses tap root.

92.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF PINUS YOUNG ROOT

i. The internal structure of root resembles to that of a dicotyledonous root.

ii. In young roots there is fungal growth of ectopytic micorrizha.
iii. Below the pilliferous layer three lies a broad cortex consisting of 4-5 layers of thin walled
parenchymatous cells.
iv. Endodermis consisting of brown suberized cells containing tannin in them.
v. Endodermis followed by multilayered pericycle and starch grains.
vi. Xylem and phloem alternatively arranged.

93. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF PINUS YOUNG STEM

i. The young stem is some what many in outline.

ii. Single layered epidermis covered thick cuticle.
iii. Epidermis followed by multilayered hypodermis consisting of lignified sclerenchymatous cells.
iv. Endodermis and pericycle also conscipicuous.
v. Vascular bundles are conjoint collateral and open forming a ring.
vi. The primary xylem groups are endarch and lie near the pith.

94. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF PINUS NEEDLE LEAF

i. The outermost layer is epidermis which consists of extremely thick walled and cuticularized.
ii. The stomata are developed all over the epidermis in these depressions.
iii. Hypodermis which is composed one or two layers of sclerenchymatous cells.
iv. The parenchymatous mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy tissues.
v. These thin walled cells have peg like infolding of cellulose projecting in their cavities.
vi. Each vascular bundle is conjoint collateral and open.

95.PINUS MALE CONE & LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF PINUS MALE CONE

i. The male cone is produced in the axial of scale leaf at the base of the current years young shoot
and thus replaces a shoot of limited growth.
ii. The cone bears 10 - 100 spirally arranged specialized leaves known as microsporophyll.
iii. Each microsporophyll bears two microsporangia or pollen sacs on its underside.

96.PINUS FEMALE CONE & LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF PINUS FEMALE CONE

i. The female cones develop laterally in the axial of scale.

ii. They are formed in clustered in place of long shoots.
iii. The young cones are dark reddish purple in colour.
iv. Each one consists of leathery while the ovulifferous scale is woody in structure.
v. The ovules are surrounded by two integument microphyle are present in the upper side.
vi. In the nucellar region their lies a small cavity just.
vii. Female gametophyte is differentiated from nucellus.
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viii. 2 – 5 archegonia are situated in this region.

97.GNETUM – A TWIG SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES (GNETUM – HABIT)

Class : Gnetopsida
Order : Gnetales
Family : Gnetaceae
Genus : Gnetum

i. Gnetum species are climbers exept few shrubs and trees.

ii. Two types of branches are present on the main stem of plant, branches of limited growth and
branches of unlimited growth.
iii. Each branch contains nodes and internodes.
iv. Stem of several species of gnetum is articulated.
v. Short shoots are generally unbranched and bear the foilage leaves.
vi. The leaves are large and oval with entire margin and reticulate venation as also seen in
dicotyledons. Some scaly leaves are also present.

98.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF GNETUM YOUNG STEM

i. The young stem transverse section is roughly circular in outline, and resembles with typical
dicotyledons stem.
ii. It remains surrounded by a single layered epidermis, thickly cuticularized.
iii. Epidermal cells show papillate outgrowths.
iv. Sunken stomatas are present.
v. Endodermis and pericycle regions are not very clearly distinguishable.
vi. Several conjoint, collateral, open and endarch vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
vii. Presence of vessels is an angiospermic character
viii. The phloem consists of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma.
ix. An extensive pith, consisting of polygonal, parenchymatous cells, is present in the centre of the
young stem.

99.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ANOMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN GNETUM STEM

i. Old stem in gnetum show secondary growth. In majority of species (G. ula , G. africanum) the
anamolous secondary growth is present.
ii. The primary cambium is ephemeral(short lived). The secondary cambium in different parts of
cortex develops in the form of successive rings, one after other.
iii. The first cambium cuts off secondary xylem towards outside. This cambium ceases to function
after sometime.
iv. Another cambium gets differentiated along the outermost secondary phloem region, and the
same process is repeated.
v. In the later stages , more secondary xylem is produced on one side and less on the otherside ,
and thus the eccentric rings of xylem and phloem are formed in the wood.
vi. The type of eecentric wood is the characterstic feature of angiospermic lianes . It also possesses
lenticles. The cortex also contains chlorenchymatous tissues along with many sclereids.
vii. In old stem the secondary wood consists of tracheids and vessels .
viii. The wood xylem and medullary rays are visible.

100.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF GNETUM YOUNG ROOT

i. Young root has several layers of starch – filled parenchymatous cortex, the cells of which are
large and polygonal in outline.
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ii. An endodermal layer is distinguishable.

iii. Casparian strips are seen in the cells of the endodermis.
iv. Roots are diarch and exarch.
v. The secondary growth is of normal type.
vi. Bars of sanio are generally absent in the vessels.
vii. Phloem consists of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma.

101.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ANOMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN GNETUM ROOT

i. The secondary growth is of normal type.

ii. A continuous zone of wood is present in the old roots.
iii. It consists of tracheids , vessels and xylem parenchyma.
iv. The tracheids have uniseriate bordered pits along with bars of Sanio.
v. Vessels have simple or small multiseriate bordered pits.
vi. Some of the xylem elements have starch grains. Bars of Sanio are generally absent in the
vessels.
vii. Phloem consists of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma.

102. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF GNETUM LEAF

i. Gnetum leaves also resemble with a dicot leaf.

ii. It is bounded by a layer of thickly cuticularized epidermis on the both surfaces.
iii. The mesophyll is differentiated generally into a single – layered palisade and a well developed
spongy parenchyma.
iv. Many stone cells and latex tubes are present in the midrib region of the leaf.

103.GNETUM – A PLANT TWIG WITH INFLORESCENCE (MALE)

i. The male flowers are arranged in definite rings.

ii. The number of rings between 3 – 6.
iii. The rings are arranged alternally.
iv. Each male flower contains two coherent bracts which form the perianth.
v. Two unilocular anthers remains attached on a short stalk enclosed within the perianth.
vi. At maturity , when the anthers are dehidcene , the stalk elongates and the anthers come out of
the perianth sheath.

104.GNETUM – PARTS OF MALE INFLORESCENCE

i. A male flower consists of two unilocular anthers on a stalk (antherophore) enclosed in a small
sheathing perianth .
ii. The stalk of the anther elongates rapidly at maturity pushing the anther beyond the collars
through a slit in the perianth.

105. GNETUM – A PLANT TWIG WITH INFLORESCENCE (FEMALE)

i. The female strobilus (inflorescence) is very much similar to that of the male strobilus in the
young stage.
ii. Like male strobilus , the female strobilus consists of an axis bearing several whorl of collars
arranged one above the other.
iii. A ring of 4-10 ovules (female flowers) is present above each collar. The male flowers are not
found in the female strobilus.

106. GNETUM – PARTS OF FEMALE INFLORESCENCE

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
 21
B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)
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i. The female cones resemble with the male cones except in some definite aspects.
ii. Only a few of the ovules develop into mature seeds.
iii. All the ovules are of the same size when young but later on a few of them enlarge and develop
into mature seeds.
iv. All the ovules never mature into seeds.

107.LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF GNETUM OVULE

i. Each ovule consists of nucellus surrounded of the three envelopes.

ii. The nucellus consists of central mass of cells.
iii. The nucellus contains the female gametophyte.
iv. There is no nuclear beak in the ovule of gnetum.
v. Stomata, sclereids and laticiferous cells are present in the two outer envelopes.

PALAEOBOTANY

108.LEPIDODENDRON – HABIT

i. The plants would grow to 164 feet (50m) and form extensive coal measures swamp forest of
the northern hemisphere during carboniferous period.
ii. Thus in successive dichotomy the size of branches decreased until the growth finally ceased
with terminally twig.
iii. Large tree (50 – 60 m tall) with prominent trunk.
iv. The branches and the foilage formed a spreading crown bearing cones at their types.

109.TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LEPIDODENDRON STEM

i. The primary xylem is situated just outside the pith comprised of metaxylem tracheids.
ii. The periderm that formed composed of secondary.
iii. The tracheids are scalariform and have delicate strands of secondary wall material.
iv. Protostele or siphonostele with exarch and polyarch protoxylem.
v. A large cortex surrounded the vascular tissue.
vi. Outer most was the periderm formed by phellogen , it consist of many elements on its inner
side forming endophelloderm than on the outer side that formed exophelloderm.

110. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF LEPIDOCARPON SEED

i. Its age is carboniferous age,and its locality great

ii. The mega sporangium is elongated and it has an elongated beak , the tip of which is split open.
iii. The megasporangium at maturity encloses a single large megaspore.
iv. The megasporophyll tissue below the sporangium has developed a false integument which is
open at the tip by a long slit forming a false micropyle.
v. There is a distinct vascularization at the base of the megasporophyll which is subtened by two
lateral parichnes , one on each side of vascular stand.

111.CALAMITES – HABIT

i. Genus calamites appeared in upper Devonian were most abundant during carboniferous and
became extinct early in the Triassic.
ii. The plant was a tall that was 20 -30 meters tall.
iii. The tree was arborescent with horizontal rhizome aerial shoots and whorls of leaves.
iv. The aerial branches were highly articulated the leaves are borne in whorls at the upper nodes.

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.
 22
B.Sc ., BOTANY MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (17UBOP02)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

v. Each node had a single whorl of leaves

vi. The leaves were lanceolate or spathulate with single vein.

112. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CALAMITES STEM

i. The petrified calamitean stem of there form genera viz.

ii. Petrified stem of calamites are frequent in the coal balls and other coniferous petrifuctions.
iii. The stem was ridged and farrowed with alternate at each successive internodes.
iv. The siphonostele with secondary xylem produced by vascular cambium.
v. There was a large hollow central pith cavity.
vi. The protoxylem was endarch.

113.WILLIAMSONIA – HABIT

i. The stem was erect cylindrical and branched.

ii. The branches were covered up by scales and also the leaf base.
iii. The pith very large dense compact mass of xylem and phloem and the cortex was
comparatively narrow.
iv. The strobilli more borne on short branched lateral shoots.

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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ARINGAR ANNA GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE, Attur – 636121. Salem Dt.