Ripening agents

Ripening agents speed up the ripening process.

They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do
not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after
shipment by being gassed with ethylene.[1]

Calcium carbide is also used for ripening fruit artificially in some countries. When calcium
carbide comes in contact with moisture, it produces acetylene gas, which is quite similar in
reaction to the natural ripening agent ethylene. Acetylene acts like ethylene and accelerates the
ripening process, but is inadvisable because calcium carbide has carcinogenic properties.
[2]
 Industrial-grade calcium carbide may also contain traces of arsenic and phosphorus which
makes it a human health concern. [3] The use of this chemical for this purpose is illegal in most
countries.[4][5]

Catalytic generators are used to produce ethylene gas simply and safely. Ethylene sensors can be
used to precisely control the amount of gas.

Covered fruit ripening bowls are commercially available. The manufacturers claim the bowls
increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes
ripening.

Climacteric fruits are able to continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated
by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life
if harvested when they are ripe.

Some fruits can be ripened by placing them in a plastic bag with a ripe banana.[citation needed]

Ripening indicators

Iodine (I) can be used to determine whether fruit is ripening or rotting by showing whether
the starch in the fruit has turned into sugar. For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part
(not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is not yet present. If the iodine
is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has
begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch
is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit hasn't fully started to
ripen.

Ripening stages

Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening. The major changes include
fruit softening, sweetening and decreased bitterness, and colour change. Colour change is the
result of pigments, which were always present in the fruit, becoming visible when chlorophyll is
degraded.[6]However, additional pigments are also produced by the fruit as it ripens.[7]

In fruit, the cell walls are mainly composed of polysaccharides including pectin. During ripening,
a lot of the pectin is converted from a water insoluble form to a soluble one by certain degrading
enzymes.[8] These enzymes include polygalacturonase.[6] This means that the fruit will become
less firm as the structure of the fruit is degraded.

Enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of storage polysaccharides occurs during ripening. [6] The
main storage polysaccharides include starch.[6] These are broken down into shorter, water soluble
molecules such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. [9] During fruit ripening, gluconeogenesis also
increases.[6]
[9]
Acids are broken down in ripening fruits  and this contributes to the sweeter rather than bitter
tastes associated with unripe fruits. In some fruits such as guava, there is a steady decrease in
vitamin C as the fruit ripens.[10] This is mainly as a result of the general decrease in acid content
that occurs when a fruit ripens.[6]

Different fruit have different ripening stages. In tomatoes the ripening stages are: Green: When
the surface of the tomato is completely green Breaker: When less than 10% of the surface is red
Turning: When less than 30% of the surface is red (but no less than 10%) Pink: When less than
60% of the surface is red (but no less than 30%) Light Red: When less than 90% of the surface is
red (but no less than 60%) Red: When the surface is nearly completely red.[11]

References

1. Jump up^ Bananas
2. Jump up^ http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-calcium-carbide.html
3. Jump up^ Per, Hüseyin; Kurtoğlu, Selim; Yağmur, Fatih; Gümüş, Hakan;
Kumandaş, Sefer; Poyrazoğlu, M. Hakan (2007), "Calcium carbide poisoning via food in
childhood", The Journal of Emergency Medicine32 (2): 179–80, PMID 17307629
4. Jump up^ "Bet on it. Your mango is ripened using carbide". dnaindia.com. May
18, 2013. Retrieved 18 May 2013.
5. Jump up^ "The toxic truth about ripe mangoes". Indian Express. 18 May 2013.
Retrieved 18 May 2013.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Prasanna, V., Prabha, T. N., & Tharanathan, R. N. (2007). Fruit
ripening phenomena-an overview. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,
47(1), 1-19.
7. Jump up^ Plants in Action. 11.5.5 Colour and
flavour. http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/edition1/?q=content/11-5-5-colour-and-
flavour
8. Jump up^ Xuewu Duana, Guiping Chenga, d, En Yanga, Chun Yia, Neungnapa
Ruenroengklina, Wangjin Lub, Yunbo Luoc, Yueming Jiang (2008). Modification of
pectin polysaccharides during ripening of postharvest banana fruit. Food Chemistry.
Volume 80, Issue 4, April 2003, Pages 557–563
9. ^ Jump up to:a b Medlicott, A. P. and Thompson, A. K. (1985), Analysis of sugars and
organic acids in ripening mango fruits (Mangifera indica L. var Keitt) by high
performance liquid chromatography. J. Sci. Food Agric., 36: 561–566. doi:
10.1002/jsfa.2740360707
10. Jump up^ Bashir, H. A., & Abu-Goukh, A. A. (2003). Compositional changes
during guava fruit ripening. Food Chemistry, Vol 80, No. 4, pp 557-563.
11. Jump up^ Lagorio family companies. Guide to ripening stages.
www.lagorio.com/assets/pdf/lagorio-tomato-guide.pdf
 Fruit ripening gas - ethylene
Ethylene (C2H4, also known as ethane) is a gaseous organic compound that is the simplest of the
alkene chemical structures (alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond).  Ethylene is the most
commercially produced organic compound in the world and is used in many industrial
applications.  Ethylene is also a gaseous plant hormone.
The hormone effects of ethylene on general plant growth were first noted in 1864 when leakage
from gas street lighting systems caused stunting and deformation of nearby plants.  In 1901
Neljubow identified the active component of the gas to be ethylene but it was not until 1934 that
can identified that plants could synthesize ethylene and in 1935 Crocker proposed ethylene to be
the hormone responsible for fruit ripening and senescence of vegetative tissues.
Research has since demonstrated that ethylene has an important role in many plant development
processes, including seed germination, vegetative growth, leaf abscission, flowering, senescence
and fruit ripening.  Ethylene also plays a role in response to water stress, chilling and mechanical
injury. 
Ethylene and fruit ripening
Early examples of the human utilization of ethylene to enhance fruit ripening include the ancient
Egyptian practice of gashing figs to enhance ripening responses. The ethylene produced by the
injured fruit tissue triggers a broader ripening response.  Similarly, the ancient Chinese practice
of burning incense in closed rooms with stored pears (ethylene is released as an incense
combustion by-product) stimulates ripening of the fruit.  The idiom ‘one bad apple spoils the
barrel’ is based upon the effect of one apple ripening (or rotting) and emitting ethylene which
accelerates the ripening and senescence of apples stored with it.
Considerable research has since been conducted into the effects of ethylene on fruit ripening.
Strategies to minimize fruit exposure to external sources of ethylene and treatments for
managing the internal ethylene concentration are the key to commercial optimization of the
storage life and eating quality of many fruits.  Understanding the fundamental relationship
between ethylene and fruit respiration rates during ripening is necessary in order to manage the
harvesting, storage and distribution processes.  
Ripening and respiration
Ripening is a term applied to fruit that describes the transition from physiological maturity to
senescence (ageing and death of the plant tissues).  It is a developmental stage evolved to
facilitate reproduction by preparing the seed-bearing organ for detachment from the plant. 
Ripening is the start of significant biochemical and physiological transformations, such as
changes in skin colour, internal flesh softening, aroma development and sweetening.  Ripening
generally begins after fruit has reached maximum size and is physiologically mature.  
At physiological maturity fruit have accumulated a range of complex molecules in the form of
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and organic acids.  Once detached (harvested) from the plant the
fruit continues as a living organism but can no longer draw on water and nutrient from the plant
to supply its energy needs and complete the ripening processes.  The fruit remains metabolically
active and respiration now relies on these accumulated complex molecules.
Respiration is a process of oxidative breakdown (catabolism) of complex molecules into simpler
molecules, yielding energy, water, carbon dioxide and simpler molecules needed for other
cellular biochemical reactions required for ripening.  The respiration rate per unit of fruit weight
is (as a general rule) highest in immature fruit, with the respiration rate declining with age.  Thus
respiration rate of fruit is an indicator of overall metabolic activity level, progression of ripening
and potential storage life of the fruit (i.e. a low respiration rate means that the energy reserves
will take longer to be consumed and the fruit can be stored for longer). 
Some fruits show a significant variation to the pattern of declining respiration rate during their
ripening.  They exhibit a distinct increase in respiration rates (a respiratory climacteric) of
varying intensity and duration, commensurate with ripening.  Fruit that exhibit this
characteristic increase in respiration rate are classified as ‘climacteric’ whereas fruit that follow
the pattern of steadily declining respiration rate through ripening are classified as ‘non-
climacteric’ answers to some frequently asked questions about the ethylene - the gas used to
ripen fruit commercially to find out more simply click on the icon links on these pages or click
on the documents to download the files
 Ethylene C2H4

Commercial use of ethylene to ripen fruit

Climacteric fruits are frequently harvested at a physiological stage that is considered
‘commercial maturity’, typically in a hard green but mature stage just before ripening has
initiated.  Examples include bananas, mangoes, tomatoes and avocados.  This enables the fruit to
be harvested, cooled, stored and transported significant distances to where it will be marketed
and consumed.
Ripening can then be conducted under controlled conditions of temperature, relative humidity
and ethylene to achieve uniform appearance and quality of ripe fruit.  Fruit is placed into
specially constructed ripening rooms and brought to optimum ripening temperature and
humidity.  Ethylene is then raised to a prescribed concentration using either a "catalytic
generator" that makes ethylene gas from liquid ethanol or from commercially available gas
supplies.  Forced-air cooling systems ensure that fruit are uniformly exposed to the room
ethylene concentration.  When fruit are exposed to ethylene under these controlled conditions
they will initiate their respiratory climacteric pattern and ripen at a relatively uniform rate. 
Conditions and duration can be varied to suit customer specifications for stage of ripening and
colour development.
Ethylene effects on respiration
All fruit produce at least small quantities of ethylene during ripening and the internal ethylene
concentrations of non-climacteric fruit varies little during their growth and ripening.  Exposing
non-climacteric fruit to external concentrations of ethylene can transiently increase their
respiration rate proportionally to ethylene concentrations. This transient increase in respiration
rate may be evoked more than once but ethylene exposure hastens their senescence, shortening
their storage life and potentially causing a loss of eating quality.
Climacteric fruit produce much larger quantities of ethylene, although the internal ethylene
concentrations vary significantly between fruit types.  For most climacteric fruit a sharp increase
in internal ethylene concentration precedes or is coincident with a dramatic increase
in respiration rate.  The increasing ethylene concentration triggers the increase in respiration rate
(metabolic activity) and attendant biochemical and physiological transformations that occur
during ripening.
Ethylene production in climacteric fruit is described as an ‘autocatalytic’ process i.e. exposure to
an initial small concentration of ethylene causes the fruit to produce greater quantities of
ethylene until a peak concentration is achieved. Exposing immature climacteric fruit to ethylene
can trigger this autocatalytic response, causing premature ripening and result in fruit with poor
eating quality.
Classification of fruit according to respiratory behavior at ripening

Treatment times vary depending on conditioning and ripening stage required but once fruit has
reached the desired pulp temperature a treatment time of 24 hours with a room ethylene
concentration of 10 µL/L is sufficient to stimulate coordinated ripening for many climacteric
fruits.
As fruit respiration rates increase in response to ethylene treatment it is important to ventilate
rooms to prevent the buildup of carbon dioxide, emitted as a respiration by-product.
‘Ripe ‘n’ ready’
‘Ripe ‘n’ Ready’ is a retail strategy used for marketing climacteric fruits to consumers in a
ready-to-eat state.  Consumers are increasingly purchasing less quantity per shopping event but
shopping more often.  Traditionally consumers would need to plan ahead when purchasing
climacteric fruit in the early stages of ripening and wait for the fruit to ripen before consuming.
The Ripe ‘n’ Ready strategy is to pre-condition/ripen climacteric fruit to be able to present
consumers with a ready-to-eat product.  To achieve this requires a synchronized supply chain
that can ensure timely delivery of fruit after the ripening treatment has been applied.
‘Vine-Ripe’
Some new varieties of tomatoes are marketed as ‘vine ripened’.  These ‘truss tomatoes ‘develop
their colour and flavour while still attached to the plant.  They have been developed through
cross-breeding with non-ripening tomato varieties and are usually grown hydroponically in
greenhouses. They develop colour without softening like conventional tomatoes and remain firm
for harvest, packing and distribution. These tomato varieties do not exhibit a climacteric like
conventional tomato varieties but remain susceptible to external ethylene.
Ethylene inhibitors
1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) is a gaseous molecule that blocks the sites of ethylene binding
and action in fruit.  Marketed under the commercial name ‘Smart Fresh TM’, it is increasingly
used across a wide variety of stored products where the inhibition of ethylene effects is desired. 
Although results show a significant extension of storage life, display life and delay in softening,
there are also reports of poor aroma and flavour development in some fruits as a consequence of
1-MCP’s inhibition of the respiratory climacteric.  There are no known toxicological or
environmental impacts from its use.
Amino-ethoxy vinyl-glycine (AVG) and amino-oxy acetic acid (AOA) are compounds that
inhibit the synthesis of ethylene within the fruit.  Pre-harvest applications of these chemicals
enable fruit to reach greater maturity and colour development on the tree prior to harvest.  They
do this by inhibiting the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase enzyme.  ACC
synthase is thought to be the rate-limiting step in fruit for the production of internal ethylene -
ACC being the precursor molecule to ethylene in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway. 
Ozone generators when used in cool rooms are also alleged to react with and ‘scrub’ ethylene in
the storage atmosphere.  While ozone will destroy ethylene on contact, its use in cool rooms
carries other risks to worker safety with 0.1 µL/L ozone the limit of exposure.
Using ethylene to ripen fruit at home
Understanding the effects of ethylene on fresh produce can be helpful in ripening and storing
fresh produce in the home kitchen. Recommendations such as putting a ripening banana in a
paper bag with an unripe avocado to speed up ripening of the avocado are based on the concept
of the ripening banana emitting ethylene that will trigger the climacteric response in the
avocado.  Placing the paper bag inside a plastic bag may enhance this practice by containing
more of the ethylene gas emitted by the banana.  This strategy will work with any combination of
climacteric fruit but will work best when the ripening fruit is one that emits a high concentration
of ethylene such as apples, pears, bananas, avocados and passion fruit.  The practice is similar to
the commercial practice of using ethylene for ripening. 
Ripening for most fruit is best conducted at room temperature, around 20 oC.  Climacteric fruit
should not be cooled below their ideal storage temperature or there is a significant risk that they
may not complete their ripening processes - reducing their eating quality.  Low temperature can
inactivate essential enzymes required for full ripening to occur or cause chilling (low
temperature) injury. Refer to the temperature guidelines in the storage temperatures for fresh
produce page to check the ideal storage temperature for fresh produce types.
Many non-climacteric fresh produce types also respond to ethylene, increasing their respiration
rate and thereby reducing their storage life or quality may be reduced by exposure to ethylene.
Where possible, keep ripening climacteric fruit separate from other types of produce to minimize
loss of storage life and eating quality.
Products marketed to reduce ethylene in your refrigerator
Occasionally new consumer products are launched that claim to remove ethylene from fruit and
vegetable storage drawers in home refrigerators.  These are often based on some variation in use
of potassium permanganate which is a chemical that oxidises ethylene to carbon dioxide and
water.  These products may absorb ethylene and extend storage life to some degree but the
efficient destruction of ethylene requires large contact surface areas.
There are a number of other oxidants with higher specificity for ethylene that show potential to
be incorporated into future packaging materials as ethylene scavengers.
Food safety and ethylene
Concerns are periodically raised in mass media about fruit being ‘gassed’, implying that this
confers some residual food safety risk from the ethylene gas and that the fruit has been somehow
rendered ‘unnatural’.  The commercial use of ethylene for fruit ripening is at a low concentration
and simply initiates the respiratory climacteric.  The ethylene used commercially has the same
molecular structure.  By the time the ethylene-treated fruit reaches the consumer the climacteric
may have started, there is no trace of applied ethylene gas, any ethylene emitted by the fruit is
generated by the fruit itself and is of a much greater concentration.  
There are no food safety issues associated with the consumption of climacteric fruit.