Physics task

Fluid mechanics

Group 5

David yulian h. (3315106744)

Izzah Abdullah (3315106730)

Laeli dina r. (3315106756)

Tiara arindy t. (3315106758)

Universitas negeri jakarta

1. Fluid Dynamics
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Experiments show that a fluid moving along a channel, (e.g., a pipe) can flow in parallel
paths (laminar flow) or there can be a varying amount of mixing (turbulent flow).
In the laminar flow, the fluid behaves as if it were flowing in a concentric nest of thin
cylinders one inside another. Due to fluids viscosity, the cylinder next to the wall is stationary,
while the one in the centre of the pipe is moving with the highest velocity. There is no mixing
between the layers of fluid and velocity does not pulsate. In the turbulent flow, there is random
mixing between the layers of fluid. Due to the mixing, the velocity distribution is much more
uniform across the pipe crosssection. The mixing has a positive effect on heat transfer. The
negative effect of this mixing is velocity and pressure pulsations. They can be transferred to
piping and equipment and cause vibrations.
The type of flow (laminar versus turbulent) is determined by the fluids properties
(viscosity and density), velocity and the geometry of the channel through which the fluid is
flowing. Laminar flow is promoted when:
a. Dynamic viscosity is large (frictional forces resist mixing);
b. Density is small (a given volume of fluid has less kinetic energy to overcome friction);
c. Velocity is small (less kinetic energy to overcome friction), and
d. The channel width is small (wall proximity makes mixing, i.e., movement across channel,
more difficult).
In power plants, most fluids (water, steam, and compressed gases) have low viscosities,
and they usually flow through relatively wide channels at high velocity. Also, they often change
flow direction (e.g., in a pipe elbow or around heat exchanger tubes), which promotes mixing of
layers.
For these reasons, turbulent flow is very common in power plants. Laminar flow is
extremely rare. For example, it occurs in the oil film in a plain bearing, where the tight clearance
between the shaft and the bearing surface (a few tenths of a millimetre at most) does not allow
mixing of layers. Unless otherwise noted, we will assume from this point on that the term fluid
velocity means the average velocity across the channel. If the fluid had this velocity in all the
points across the channel, the quantity of the fluid passing through the channel would be the
same as the actual total flow.
Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

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 We have already stated that fluid systems are the backbone of CANDU plants. To
characterize the fluid flow, we have to specify the quantity of the fluid flowing through a given
location in the system per unit of time. This is called the flow rate. Since fluid quantity can be
expressed as volume or mass, there are two types of flow rates: volumetric and mass.
Volumetric flow rate (V! ) is the volume of the fluid passing through a given cross
section in a unit of time.
The basic unit is m3/s. If m3/s is too large, a smaller unit dm3/s or equal litre/second (l/s)
is used.
1 m3/s = 103 dm3/s = 103 l/s
Volumetric flow rate is a function of the fluid velocity (v) and the cross section of the
channel through which the fluid is flowing, e.g., a pipe, (A).
Assuming all fluid particles move at the same velocity, we conclude that the volume of
fluid was:
V = A⋅ L
Per unit of time, it will be:
V A×L
v= =
t t
Since L/t is the average velocity of the fluid (v), the volumetric flow rate can be expressed as:
V=Axv
Mass flow rate (m) is the mass of fluid passing through a given cross section in a unit of
time. Its basic unit is kg/s.
We can derive the formula for the mass flow rate using the formula for the volumetric
flow rate and by converting volume to mass using density (ρ).
m
Since ρ= , than m = V x ρ
V
If we divide the both sides of the above equation by time, we get the flow rates.
The final formula for the mass flow rate is:
m=V⋅ρ=A⋅v⋅ρ
Although we have used a pipe to discuss the flow rates, the concepts apply equally well
to channels with cross sections of any shape, e.g., rectangular ducts. Both types of flow rates are
commonly used to characterise system conditions in our plants. In the next two sections, we will
discuss the factors that affect these flows. This knowledge will help you, in your daily work,

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foresee what happens to these flow rates when a system parameter changes or diagnose the cause
of their change.

Example
A water hose 2.50 cm in diameter is used by a gardener to fill a 30.0-L bucket. The gardener
notes that it takes 1.00 min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area
0.500 cm2 is then attached to the hose. The nozzle is held so that water is projected horizontally
from a point 1.00 m above the ground. Over what horizontal distance can the water be projected?
Solution We identify point 1 within the hose and point 2 at the exit of the nozzle. We first find
the speed of the water in the hose from the bucket-filling information. The crosssectional area of
the hose is

d2 ( 2.50 cm )2
A1=π r 2=π
4
=π ( 4 )
=4.91 cm2

According to the data given, the volume flow rate is equal to 30.0 L/min:
L 30.0× 103 cm3 cm3
A1 v 1=30.0 = =500
min 60.0 s s
cm3 cm3
500 500
s s cm m
v1 = = 2
=102 =1.02
A1 4.91 cm s s
Now we use the continuity equation for fluids to find the speed v2 = vxi with which the water
exits the nozzle. The subscript i anticipates that this will be the initial velocity component of the
water projected from the hose, and the subscript x recognizes that the initial velocity vector of
the projected water is in the horizontal direction.
A1
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2=A 2 v xi → v xi= v
A2 1
4.91cm 2 m m
v xi= 2
1.02 =10.0
0.500 cm s s

We now shift our thinking away from fluids and to projectile motion because the water is in free
fall once it exits the nozzle. A particle of the water falls through a vertical distance of 1.00 m
starting from rest, and lands on the ground at a time that

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 1
y f = y i +v yi t− g t 2
2
1 m
−1.00 m=0+ 0−
2( s )
9.80 2 t 2

2(1.00m)
t=

√ m
9.80 2
s
=0.452 s

In the horizontal direction, ax =0 to a particle of water to find the horizontal distance:

m
(
x f =xi + v xi t=0+ 10.0
s )
( 0.452 s )=4.52m

2. Continuity Equation

When a fluid is in motion, it must move in such a way that mass is conserved. To see how mass
conservation places restrictions on the velocity field, consider the steady flow of fluid through a
duct (that is, the inlet and outlet flows do not vary with time). The inflow and outflow are one-
dimensional, so that the velocity V and density \rho are constant over the area A (figure 14).

Figure 14. One-dimensional duct showing

control volume.

Now we apply the principle of mass conservation. Since there is no flow through the side walls
of the duct, what mass comes in over A_1 goes out of A_2, (the flow is steady so that there is no
mass accumulation). Over a short time interval \Delta t,

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Where:

Q = the volumetric flow rate

A = the cross sectional area of flow

V = the mean velocity  

This is a statement of the principle of mass conservation for a steady, one-dimensional flow, with
one inlet and one outlet. This equation is called the continuity equation for steady one-
dimensional flow. For a steady flow through a control volume with many inlets and outlets, the
net mass flow must be zero, where inflows are negative and outflows are positive.

Streamlines and Streamtubes

A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction (velocity is a

vector, and it has a magnitude and a direction). To visualize this in a flow, we could imagine the
motion of a small marked element of fluid. For example, we could mark a drop of water with
fluorescent dye and illuminate it using a laser so that it fluoresces. If we took a short exposure
photograph as the drop moves according to the local velocity field (where the exposure needs to
be short compared to the time it takes for the velocity to change appreciably), we would see a
short streak, with a length V \Delta t, and with a direction tangential to the instantaneous velocity
direction. If we mark many drops of water in this way, the streamlines in the flow will become
visible. Since the velocity at any point in the flow has a single value (the flow cannot go in more

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than one direction at the same time), streamlines cannot cross. except at points where the
velocity magnitude is zero, such as at a stagnation point.

There are other ways to make the flow visible. For example, we can trace out the path followed
by our fluorescent drop using a long-exposure photograph. This line is called a pathline, and it is
similar to what you see when you take a long-exposure photograph of car lights on a freeway at
night. It is possible for pathlines to cross, as you can imagine from the freeway analogy: as a car
changes lanes, the pathline traced out by its lights might cross another pathline traced out by an
adjoining vehicle at a different time.

Another way to visualize flow patterns is by streaklines. A streakline is the line traced out by all
the particles that passed through a particular point at some earlier time. For instance, if we issued
fluorescent dye continuously from a fixed point, the dye makes up a streakline as it passes
downstream. To continue the freeway analogy, it is the line made up of the lights on all the
vehicles that passed through the same toll booth. If they all follow the same path (a steady flow),
a single line results, but if they follow different paths (unsteady flow), it is possible for the line to
cross over itself. In unsteady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are all different, but in
steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are identical.

example:
1.

A water pipeline with a diameter of 10 cm, connected to a another pipe with a diameter of 5 cm.
If the rate of water flow in a pipe diameter of 5 cm = 4 m / s, what is the speed of water flow in a
pipe whose diameter is 10 cm?

2. Determine the water flow rate (v) that flows through the cross section if known cross-sectional
area A1 = 20 cm2 and the cross-sectional area A2 = 5 cm2 ... g = 10 m/s2.

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3. 10 m3/h of water flows through a pipe with 100 mm inside diameter. The pipe is reduced to an
inside dimension of 80 mm.
a) what is the velocity in the 100 mm pipe?
b) what is the velocity in the 80 mm pipe?

Application

This principle can be used to describe the drop in water surface at a culvert inlet.

1. For example, when the flow is constant and the water velocity increases due to a decrease
in roughness, such as through a culvert, the flow area must decrease. In the case of
constant cross section geometry that change in area is reflected in a change in the water
surface elevation.  Q=VA, when flow is constant, as velocity increases, the flow area
decreases and vice versa.

2. At home have a water tap right? you try to open the water tap slowly while considering
the rate of water coming out of the mouth of the faucet. After the valve can not be played
again, plug valves partly mouth with your hand. Now compare, where the water flow rate
is greater. When some faucet mouth gagged or not corked? More and more parts of the
mouth of the hose is closed, the heavy water gush out (the bigger the water flow rate).
Conversely, if the mouth tube is not closed, the flow of water into its original (less
heavy). Weird right? why is this so?
That's because the tap into a small cross-sectional area as our valve partially closed
mouth, thus increasing the water flow rate (fluid flowed freely). Similarly, in the case of
slang. But you need to know that debit alias volume flow rate is always the same in every
place along the water flow, either when some mouth closed or not our faucets. So that's
changed is the rate of fluid flow.

3. BERNOULI’S EQUATION

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 Daniel Bernoulli disclosed the equation used most frequently in engineering hydraulics in
1738. This equation relates the pressure, velocity and height in the steady motion of an ideal
fluid. The usual form is v2/2 + p/ρ + gz = constant, where v is the velocity at a point, p the
pressure, ρ the density, g the acceleration of gravity, and z the height above an arbitrary
reference level. Students apply the equation without much thought, sometimes inappropriately,
and have no clear idea of the conditions under which it is applicable. It appears on every general
engineering examination, since it is easy to trap the unwary. Actually, it is not one relation, but
three, all apparently of the same form, but applying in different situations. The three forms will
be explained in this paper.

The most powerful form of Bernoulli's Equation is

derived from the Eulerian equations of motion under rather
severe restrictions. First, the velocity must be derivable from a
velocity potential. Second, external forces must be
conservative--that is, derivable from a potential. Thirdly, the
density must either be constant, or a function of the pressure
alone. In particular, thermal differences, such as occur in
natural convection, are excluded. Here, we will assume the
fluid is incompressible for simplicity, but it is possible to write
a similar equation for compressible fluids. Vector notation is
used in the Figure to show that the gradient of a certain expression becomes zero under these
assumptions, and Bernoulli's Equation follows on integration and the introduction of the
condition of steady motion. It is probably clearer to do the derivation with rectangular
components, and to see how the condition curl v = 0 is used. The gradient of a dot product is a
rather complicated thing, incidentally.

This form of Bernoulli's Equation applies to steady irrotational flow, and the constant is
really a constant throughout the volume of irrotational flow. Nothing is said about streamlines.

The second form of Bernoulli's Equation arises from the fact that in steady flow the
particles of fluid move along fixed streamlines, as on rails, and are accelerated and decelerated
by the forces acting tangent to the sreamlines. Under the same assumptions for the external

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forces and the density, but without demanding irrotational flow, we have for an equation of
motion dv/dt = v(dv/ds) = -dΩ/ds - (1/ρ)dp/ds, where s is distance along the streamline. This
integrates immediately to v2/2 + Ω + p/ρ = c. In this case, the constant c is for the streamline
considered alone; nothing can be said about other streamlines. This form of Bernoulli's Equation
is more generally applicable, but less powerful than the preceding one. It is the form most often
applicable to typical engineering problems. The derivation is easy and straightforward, clearly
showing the hypotheses, and also that the motion is assumed frictionless.

The third form of Bernoulli's Equation is derived from the

conservation of energy. Bernoulli himself took an equivalent approach,
although the concept of energy was not well-developed in his time.
Energy balance is a favoured method of approach in engineering, and
this is the usual derivation of Bernoulli's Equation in elementary work.
By the use of energy concepts, the equation can be extended usefully to
compressible fluids and thermodynamic processes. In the Figure, an
element of fluid is transferred from one point to another in a tube with
rigid boundaries.

The equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid shows that the same volume of
fluid Q disappears at one point and reappears at another. The imaginary pistons move with the
speed of the fluid. Capital letters are used for quantities at one point, small letters for the same
quantities at the second point. The energies per unit volume, made up of kinetic, potential, and
pressure terms are equated. The pressure terms can also be handled as doing work on the element
of fluid, which is equivalent. The virtue of this derivation is that can be extended in various
directions to give important results, and that it is easily believed by students. The rigid tube can
be replaced by a surface generated by streamlines, which can be shrunk down to the
neighbourhood of a single streamline, which is just the second form of Bernoulli's Equation, but
here derived by energy instead of by dynamics.

The energy balance method can be extended to

allow for friction, by assuming a loss of energy, or 'head'
when expressed in terms of potential energy, between the

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two sections. The height of liquid in each of the vertical tubes is p/ρ, where p is the gauge
pressure. Streamlines do not run up the tubes from inside the main tubes, so they measure just
pressure, not total energy. Loss of energy is shown by the decrease in the heights, along the
hydraulic gradient, which corresponds to a loss of energy in the flow. The velocity is constant
since we have assumed a uniform pipe, so the pressure gradient is the same as the hydraulic
gradient. The loss of head per unit length is often assumed proportional to the square of the
velocity, for example as fv2/2g, where f is the friction factor, since the flow is usually turbulent.

As an example of the use of Bernoulli's Equation, the classic

problem of the velocity of efflux through a hole in the side of a tank. We
imagine a streamline beginning at the free surface, where the velocity is
zero, and extending into the jet a distance h below (dotted in the Figure).
The pressures at the two points are the same, atmospheric. From the second
(or third) form, we get gh = v2/2, or v = (2gh)1/2, which is called Torricelli's
Theorem. This does not give us the rate of efflux, however, because the area of the jet is smaller
than the area of the hole in the tank. The smallest jet area occurs when the sides of the jet are
parallel, which is just the point we used in applying Bernoulli. This point is called the vena
contracta, and has an area half, or somewhat more, of the area of the hole. For a circular hole in
a thin wall, the fraction is 0.62, and if the hole has a tube of the same diameter extending into the
tank (a Borda's mouthpiece, as shown in the Figure) the fraction is practically 0.50.

The reason for the fraction 1/2 can be seen by a nice application of the conservation of
momentum. The momentum carried away by the fluid moving through the vena contracta is
v2ρS', where S' is the area of the vena contracta, and the reaction on the container is equal and
opposite. But we can also find the force on the container from the pressure distribution over the
walls. The pressure on the hole of area S is zero, but that on an equal area on the other side of the
tank is ρghS. This must also be the reaction on the tank due to the escaping fluid. Bernoulli tells
us that v2 = 2gh, so equating these two forces, we have ρghS = 2ghρS', or S' = S/2. Borda's
mouthpiece makes the pressure the static value right up to the edge of the hole; with a plane hole,
the pressure is reduced, so S' > S/2 in this case.

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 Suppose that you have a given amount of liquid Q that you wish to discharge from a
cylindrical tank through a hole of area A at the bottom of the tank. Is there an optimum shape of
tank that will do this in a minimum time? How long would it take to empty such a tank anyway?
The behaviour of the free jet after leaving the aperture is also a subject of
interest.

The Pitot tube measures flow velocity by converting the

velocity to pressure at the stagnation point at a small entry to the
manometer tube pointing into the flow. This works for air as
well, with an appropriate pressure gauge, reminding us that air behaves as nearly
incompressible at speeds well below the speed of sound. Another important
example is the Venturi flow meter, where the fluid is made to pass through
passages of different areas. The rate of flow is determined from the difference in
pressures (heights of manometers) at the two sections. The difference in velocity is found from
continuity, and then the difference in pressure from Bernoulli. The increase in velocity in the
throat is accompanied by a decrease in pressure there. If r = A1/A2, then v1 = [2gΔh/(r2 - 1)]1/2,
where the symbols are defined in the Figure.

We have now seen the three different theorems that are included under the name of
Bernoulli's Equation. All are for steady flow of an incompressible, nonviscous fluid. The first is
valid in irrotational flow, the second along a streamline, and the third for an energy-conserving
flow in a tube. All look exactly the same when written down. They are capable of being extended
to situations different from these by suitable modifications, especially the last one.

Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many situations not just the pipe flow we
have been considering up to now. In the following sections we will see some examples of its
application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as in open channels.

1. Pitot Tube

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 If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the stream lines take a pattern
similar to this:

Streamlines around a blunt body

Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes to the tip of
the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is zero - the fluid does not
move at this one point. This point is known as the stagnation point.

From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply Bernoulli
along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is u1 and the pressure p1 to
the stagnation point of the blunt body where the velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.

This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure.

Dynamic pressure =

or converting this to head (using )

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Dynamic head =

The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)

Stagnation pressure =

or in terms of head

Stagnation head =

The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. I could be a static column
of fluid. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in
an arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube

Using the above theory, we have the equation for p2 ,

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We now have an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements and the
application of the Bernoulli equation.

2. Pitot Static Tube

The necessity of two piezometers and thus two readings make this arrangement a little
awkward. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify things but there are still
two tubes. The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they can then be easily connected to a
manometer. A Pitot static tube is shown below. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one
side of a manometer and register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the
other side of the manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).

A Pitot-static tube

Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot tube and using the
theory of the manometer,

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We know that , substituting this in to the above gives

The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the
overall discharge of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the drawback that it is
liable to block easily, particularly if there is significant debris in the flow.

3. Venturi Meter

The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a rapidly
converging section which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then
returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging 'diffuser' section. By
measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as energy loss are very small.

A Venturi meter

Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of
the Venturi meter we have

By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

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Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge
taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

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 Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or orientation (z1
or z2) of the Venturimeter. This means that the meter can be at any convenient angle to function.

The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises again to something
near to the original value before the Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6
and 8 degrees. Wider than this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased
friction and energy and pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long
and pressure losses again become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing
pressure back to the original is rarely greater than 80%.

4. Rectangular Weir

For a rectangular weir the width does not change with depth so there is no relationship
between b and depth h. We have the equation,

A rectangular weir

Substituting this into the general weir equation gives

To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge, , which

accounts for losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in the area of flow, giving

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5. Time for a Tank to Empty

6. Time for Equalisation of Levels in Two Tanks

7. Weir Assumptions

8. A General Weir Equation

9. Flow Through A Small Orifice

10. 'V' Notch Weir

EXAMPLE

1. A reservoir of water has the surface at 310m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe with diameter
15mm. What is the a) velocity, b) the discharge out of the nozzle and c) mass flow rate.
(Neglect all friction in the nozzle and the pipe).
Solution:

Volume flow rate is equal to the area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity

The density of water is so the mass flow rate is

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 2. A sea level, low-speed wind tunnel of circular cross section with a diameter upstream of
the contraction of 20 ft and a test section diameter of 10 ft. The test section is vented to
the atmosphere (sea level pressure is 2116 lb/ft2). If the working section velocity is 180
mph, calculate the following:

a). Upstream section velocity.

b). Upstream pressure.

Solution:

Lets draw a wind tunnel first.

a). From continuity equation,

Then

b). From the Bernoulli equation,

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 Note that you need to change the 180 mph to feet per second.

3. An airfoil (red shape) is moving through the air at 355 km/h at sea level. The atmospheric
pressure is 102,325 N/m2 and temperature is 27 C. At a point on the airfoil upper surface
the local velocity is 420 km/h.

a). Determine the pressure at the upper surface point.

b). If the pressure in part (a) is the average upper surface pressure, how much lift per
square meter (referred to ambient pressure) is being provided by the upper surface ?

c). If the average speed on the lower surface is 320 km/h, what is the pressure and the
average lift per square meter on the lower surface ?

d). What is the total lift per square meter of wing ?

Let's draw first the airfoil,

In the SI system, temperature must be expressed in Kelvin and velocities in m/s.

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 a). From the Bernoulli equation,

b). Lift per square meter, upper surface = 101325 - 99038 = 2287 N/m2.

c). On the lower surface,

Lower surface lift = 102397 - 101325 = 1072 N/m2.

d). Total lift per square meter = 2287 + 1072 = 3359 N/m2.

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