GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

CHAPTER 1. Celsius to Kelvin. K = °C + 273.15

SI UNITS, CONVERSION, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, IMPORTANT Volume 1cm3 = 1mL
CONCEPTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1000cm3 = 1000mL = 1L
Avogadro’s 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 units
Seven Base Units in SI system Derived SI units Number
Quantity SI Unit Quantity SI Unit
name name Rules in Counting Significant Figures
Mass Kilogram (kg) Frequency Hertz (Hz) 1. Non-zero digits are always significant.
Time Seconds (s) Force Newton (N) 2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
Length Meters (m) Energy Joule (J) 3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY
Current Ampere (A) Power Watt (W) are significant.
Temperature Kelvin (K) Charge Coulomb (C) 4. Trailing zeros in a whole number may or may not be
Amount of Mole (mol) Electric Volt (V) significant.
substance Potential
Luminous Candela (cd) Electric Ohm (Ω) Rules in writing in Scientific Notation
intensity resistance 1. Base is always 10
Pressure Pascal (Pa) 2. The exponent is a non- zero integer (+ or -).
SI Units 3. Absolute value of coefficient is greater than or equal
to 1 and strictly less than 10.
SI Prefix 4. The digits in the right side of the decimal place
(mantissa) carries the rest of the significant digits
Factor Name Factor Name
1012 Tera (T) 10-1 Deci (d)
The exponent of 10 is the number of places the decimal
109 Giga (G) 10-2 Centi (c)
point must be shifted to give the number in long form.
106 Mega (M) 10-3 Milli (m)
A positive exponent shows that the decimal point is
103 Kilo (k) 10-6 Micro (µ)
shifted that number of places to the right. A
102 Hecto (h) 10-9 Nano (n) negative exponent shows that the decimal point is shifted
101 Deka (Da) 10-12 Pico (p) that number of places to the left.

Common Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis
Temperature Celsius to Fahrenheit. °F = (°C × 9/5) +
32
Fahrenheit to Celsius. °C = (°F − 32) x
5/9
Rules in Rounding off in Significant Figures
1. If it is less than 5, drop it and all the figures to the right
of it.
 Example: Round 62.5347 to four significant figures.
Look at the fifth figure. It is a 4, a number less than 5.
Therefore, you will simply drop every figure after the
fourth, and the original number rounds off to 62.53.
2. If it is more than 5, increase by 1 the number to be
rounded, that is, the preceeding figure.
Rules in Multiplying and Dividing Significant Figures
1. The LEAST number of significant figures in any number of
the problem determines the number of significant figures
in the answer.
2. This means you MUST know how to recognize significant
figures in order to use this rule.

Example: Round 3.78721 to three significant figures. Accuracy vs Precision

Look at the fourth figure. It is 7, a number greater
than 5, so you round the original number up to 3.79. Accuracy. refers to how close a measurement is to its
standard or known value. True value can be estimated
3. If it is 5, round the number so that it will be even. Keep using the mean of the measured values.
in mind that zero is considered to be even when Precision. refers to how close two or more measurements
rounding off. Last number should always be even. are to each other.
Precision is determined by a statistical method called a
Example: Round 726.835 to five significant figures. standard deviation.
Look at the sixth figure. It is a 5, so now you must look
at the fifth figure also. That is a 3, which is an odd
number, so you round the original number up to
726.84.

Example: Round 24.8514 to three significant figures.

Look at the fourth figure. It is a 5, so now you must
also look at the third figure. It is 8, an even number, so
you simply drop the 5 and the figures that follow it.
The original number becomes 24.8.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Rules in Adding and Subtracting Significant Figures 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =  
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

1. Count the number of significant figures in the right of |𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆  𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍  𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|
%  𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 =   𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
the decimal point of each number in the problem. |𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆  𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|
2. Add or subtract in the normal fashion.
3. Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in
the decimal portion of any number in the problem.
 CHAPTER 2. Mass Related Properties
STATES OF MATTER, GENERAL PROPERTIES AND Extensive Property. Property that depends on the
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER, CHANGES IN MATTER amount of matter.
Example: mass, volume
Intermolecular force (IMF). is the force that exists Intensive Property. Property that does not depend on
between molecules of matter. General properties of the amount of matter.
matter are highly dependent on the intermolecular Example: density, specific gravity, boiling point,
forces. freezing point

Strong IMF means stronger bonds between Identity Related Properties

molecules, which generally causes the matter to Physical Property. property that can be determined
have a more rigid property. Solid has the strongest without changing the substance’s chemical identity.
intermolecular forces while gas has the weakest. Example: color, density, boiling point, freezing point

Chemical property: property that can be determined

Property Solid Liquid Gas only by changing a substance’s molecular structure.
Intermolecular strong Moderate Weak Can only be determined by undergoing a chemical
force reaction.
Molecular Tightly Free/ has the Free/ has Example: flammability, heat of combustion, chemical
arrangement packed ability to the ability stability
flow to flow
Changes in Matter
Kinetic energy Very Low Moderate High
Physical changes. only change the appearance of a
Rate of Very slow Moderate Fast
substance, not its chemical composition. Reversible.
dissolution
Diffusion Very slow Moderate Easily
Chemical changes. cause a substance to change into
Shape Definite Not definite Not definite
an entirely new substance with a new chemical
Volume Definite Definite Not definite,
formula. Can be done by means of chemical
negligible
reactions.
Density High High Low
Motion of Vibration Can move Can freely
particles move
Compressibility difficult Moderately Easy
difficult
Classification of Matter
Suspension. Particles are too large and too
Pure Substance. Made of only one kind of substance. heavy to be carried by the particles they are
suspended in, causing them to settle after
Elements. Made of only one kind of atom some time.

Non- metals. Accepts electron during ionic Colloid. Suspended particles are small and
bonding. Forms anion when ionized light enough to be carried by the movement
of the particles in which they are suspended
Metals. Donates electrons during ionic in.
bonding. Forms cations when ionized
Matter  
Metalloids. Can act as metal or non metal
depending on conditions
Pure  Substace   Mixture  

Compound. Made up of only one type of molecule

(two or more atoms that are chemically bonded) Element   Compound   Homogenous   Heterogenous  

Ionic compound. metal + non metal

metal   non  metal   ionic   covalent   Solution   Suspension  

Covalent compound. non metal + non metal

metalloid   metallic   Colloid  

Metallic compound. metal + metal

Mixtures. Made up of two or more different kinds of

Brownian Motion. Movement of particles in a substance
substances. Can be physically created.
Tyndall effect. Scattering of light as it passes through a
Homogenous mixture. One phase is discernible;
colloid.
specific example is solution.

Components of a solution: Solute vs Solvent.

Solvent is the component that has the greater
amount in the solution.

Heterogenous mixture. Mixtures wherein two or

more distinct phases are discernible.
 CHAPTER 3A. with different energy
ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS levels; theory is based
on the behavior of
History of the atom and the discovery of its subatomic hydrogen atom
particles

Scientist Work/ Theory Discovery Model James Beryllium bombarded Neutron

Democritus Greek philosopher Chadwick with alpha particles,
who proposed that proving the existence
anything is composed of an electrically
of tiny indestructible neutral particle;
particles called based on the mass of
atomos (indivisible). helium atom

John Dalton Dalton’s atomic Atom Billiard Ball Erwin describes the wave- Electron Schroding
theory Model Schrodinger like properties of the cloud er’s
quantum particles model /
JJ Cathode Ray Tube Electron Plum that make up atoms quantum
Thompson experiment Pudding better, specifically model
Model the behavior and
Robert Oil Drop experiment Mass of properties of
Millikan electron electrons orbiting the
Ernest Gold foil experiment; Nucleus, Rutherfor atom.
Rutherford concluded that most Proton d’s
of the atom is an planetary
empty space and model Dalton’s Atomic Theory
that the positive 1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
charges are all called atoms.
concentrated in the 2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having
nucleus, a dense the same size, mass, and chemical properties. The
central core within atoms of one element are different from the atoms
the atom. of other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than
Neils Bohr Proposes that Quantize Bohr’s one element. In any compound, the ratio of the
electrons revolve d energy planetary number of atoms of any two of the elements
around the nucleus in level of model present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
definite circular orbits electron
 4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, History of the Periodic Table of Elements
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; does not
result in creation or destruction. Scientist Work
Antoine de Lavoisier Published Traitè Èlèmentaire de
Joseph Proust’s Law of Definite Proportions. Chimie (Elementary Treatise of
“different samples of the same compound always contain Chemistry) where list of all known
its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass”. elements were present.

Law of Multiple Proportions. atoms combine in multiple Johann Wolfgang Elemental Triad Cl,Br,I ; Li,Na,K
proportions of small whole numbers. Dobereiner

Antoine Lavoisier’s Law of Conservation of Mass. Matter Alexandre-Émile Telluric Helix. First attempt to
can be neither created nor destroyed. The total mass of Béguyer de arrange in increasing periodicity of
the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. Chancourtois the elements

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes John Newlands Law of Octaves. Classified
elements according to physical
Atomic Number (Z). number of protons in an atom. Can properties, noticed that there is a
be found in the periodic table. difference of multiples of eights in
the atomic weight
Mass Number (A). total number of neutrons and protons
present in an atom. Dmitri Mendeleev Published first periodic table.
mass number = # of protons + #neutrons ; A = Z + number Arranged in increasing atomic
of neutrons weight leaving spaces for
undiscovered elements
Isotopes. Atoms of the same element but do not have the
same mass. Same atomic number but different mass William Ramsey Included the noble gases
number.
mass number
238   Henry Moseley Rearranged according to
92   U increasing atomic number
atomic number
 

Glenn Seaborg Introduced Actinide Series

Ionization Energy (IE). Energy required to remove
electrons from outermost energy level of an atom.
Electronegativity (EN). Relative tendency of an atom to
attract an electron when it is bonded to another atom.
 CHAPTER 3B. Quantum Number (l) sublevel where electron
VALENCE ELECTRONS, CHARGE, ELECTRON moves
CONFIGURATION AND NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION, Rule: l = 0 to n-1 If l is:
QUANTUM NUMBERS 0 = s- sublevel
1 = p- sublevel
Valence Electron. Number of electrons in the outermost 2= d- sublevel
shell 3= f- sublevel

Electron Configuration. Way in which electrons are Magnetic Quantum Number Indicates the orientation of
distributed in the various orbitals of an atom (ml) an orbital about the three
axes of space
Orbital Diagram. Diagram showing distribution of electrons Rule: ml = -l to l
in an orbital It follows the following principles: Spin Quantum Number (ms) Indicates the spin of the
Aufbau Principle. “building up” where electrons enter the electron
orbitals in increasing order of energy. Rule: Either +1/2 or -1/2 only
Pauli Exclusion Principle. Maximum of two electrons can
occupy an orbital at the same time; Electron spin in Sublevel Value of (l) Number of Maximum
opposite directions because of mutual repulsion. orbitals number of
Hund’s Rule. Electron entering orbitals of equal energy (# of ml) electrons
tend to fill out empty orbitals first before pairing up in one s 0 1 2
orbital p 1 3 6
d 2 5 10
Quantum Numbers. Numbers that specify the properties of f 3 7 14
atomic orbitals and of their electrons.

Quantum Number Definition

Principal Quantum Number Indicates the highest

(n) energy level of the electron;
also indicates the average
Rule: n is always greater distance of the electron
than zero from the nucleus of an
atom or the main energy
level

Angular Momentum Indicates the energy

 CHAPTER 4A. Please memorize: Common polyatomic ions
IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS, CHEMICAL Cation Formul Anion Formula
NOMECLATURE, OXIDATION STATES, LEWIS STRUCTURE a
ammonium NH4+ sulfate SO42-
Octet Rule. States that atoms will seek to acquire noble hydronium H3 O + hydrogen sulfate HSO4-
gas configuration. sulfite SO32-
In order to do so, (1) metals will give up valence electrons Anion hydrogen sulfite HSO3-
while non-metals will grab available valence electrons to hydroxide OH - phosphate PO43-
have eight valence electrons. (2) Non- metals will form carbonate CO3 2- hydrogen HPO42-
bonds by sharing electrons in order to achieve the octet phosphate
rule. hydrogen HCO32 phosphite PO33-
carbonate -
Exceptions to the Octet Rule: (1) Lithium, Beryllium and nitrate NO3- hydrogen HPO32-
Hydrogen as they follow the duet rule. (2) Sulfur, phosphite
Phosphorus and Xenon as they can achieve expanded nitrite NO2 - acetate CH3COO
octet. -

Ionic Compounds. Made up of cation and anion. Metal +

non metal.
Involves transfer of electrons between two species.
Rules in Naming Ionic Compounds:
For Binary Compounds. Made up of two elements
1. First element (metal cation) + rootword of
second element
(non metal) + -ide
For Ternary Compounds. Made up of three elements
1. In case of transition metals with different
charges, name the metal + (roman
numeral of charge) + rootword of non
metal + -ide
2. In case of having a polyatomic ion, name
the polyatomic cation then/or anion.
Lewis Structure. Representations of an atom where its
valence electrons are drawn as dots surrounding the
symbol of an element.
Rules in Writing the Lewis Structure of Ionic Compounds
1. Write Lewis structure of metal
2. Write Lewis structure of non-metal
3. Transfer the dots from the metal to the non metal in
order to follow the octet rule. Put a positive charge
on the cation to indicate the loss of electron. Write
the complete eight dots around the non- metal in a
bracket with the negative charge to indicate the
number of electrons gained. Write coefficients if
necessary.
Covalent Compounds. Made up of two or more non- Oxidation State. The charge of an atom in a compound;
metals sharing electrons among each other in order to charge of an element when ionized.
achieve the octet rule. Bonds may form as single bonds
(weakest, highest bond length), double bonds and triple Rules in determining oxidation states:
bonds (strongest, lowest bond length). 1. ON of an uncombined element is zero.
2. ON of an monoatomic ion is its charge.
Rules in Naming Covalent Compounds: 3. Hydrogen usually has ON of +1, except in hydrides.
1. greek prefix (except mono) + first element + greek 4. Oxygen usually has ON of -2, except in peroxide
prefix + second element root word + -ide where ON is -1.
1. mono 6. hexa 5. Charge of compound is sum of ON of the atoms
2. di 7. hepta making it.
3. tri 8. octa
4. tetra 9. nona
5. penta 10. deca

Rules in Writing the Lewis Structure of Covalent

Compounds
1. Arrange the atoms to show specific connections.
Identify central atom.
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons in
the molecule or ion
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each
pair of adjacent atoms to give a single bond
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough
electrons to each atom to give each atom an
octet (two for hydrogen).
5. If any electrons are left over, place them on the
central atom.
6. If the central atom has fewer electrons than an
octet, use lone pairs from terminal atoms to form
multiple (double or triple) bonds to the central atom
to achieve an octet.
 CHAPTER 4B.
BOND POLARITY, MOLECULAR POLARITY, BASIC
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Bond Polarity. Existence of dipoles in covalently- bonded

atoms based on the
difference of electronegativities of two atoms.

Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond

(ΔEN)
0.0 ≤ ΔEN < 0.5 Non polar covalent
0.5 ≤ ΔEN < 2.0 Polar covalent
2.0 ≤ ΔEN Ionic

Molecular Polarity. molecules can be classified as either

polar or non polar.
Non Polar Molecules. Molecules where electrons
are equally shared by two nuclei (diatomic
molecules). Symmetrical molecules also exhibit
behaviors of non polar molecules.
Polar Molecules. Molecules with partial positive
charge at one end and partial negative charge at
another. Asymmetrical molecules also exhibit
behaviors of polar molecules. SNAP*

VSEPR Theory. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

Theory. Electrons tend to repel to other electrons because
they have like charges. Thus, electron pairs around an
atom will be spaced as far as possible. Electron pairs
orient themselves so that repulsive forces between
electron pairs are minimized.
 Intermolecular forces vs. Intramolecular forces

Forces  

Intramolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces

Non polar covalent Polar covalent London Dispersion Dipole- Dipole

Intermolecular Forces. Forces of attraction between two
or more molecules.
Ionic Hydrogen Bond Ionic
London Dispersion Forces. Weakest type of intermolecular
force. Attractive forces that exist between group of
molecules or atoms due to distortion of symmetric
structure. Exists in non polar molecules. Stronger IMF, Higher boiling point and melting point.

Dipole- Dipole Forces. Attractive forces that exist among Viscosity. Liquid’s ability to resist flow. Stronger IMF, more
polar molecules. viscous

Hydrogen Bond. Special type of bond that exists between Surface Tension. Total inward pull on the surface of a liquid
hydrogen and highly electronegative elements such as . Stronger IMF, greater surface tension.
fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen. Strongest type of attraction.
(H-FON)
 CHAPTER 5A. Types of Chemical Reactions:
MOLECULAR AND EMPIRICAL FORMULA, TYPES OF Synthesis/Combination. Two substance combine to form a
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND PREDICTING PRODUCTS new compound. A + B → AB

Molecular formula. Represents the actual number of Metal + nonmetal →  binary compound
atoms in a compound. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
Nonmetal + oxygen →  nonmetal oxide
Empirical Formula. A formula that gives the simplest C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. Ionic Metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide
compounds has the same molecular and empirical CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
formula most of the time. Nonmetal oxide + water →   oxoacid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) →  H2SO3(aq)
Steps in Identifying Empirical Formula Metal oxide + nonmetal oxide →  salt
1. Assume 100 g of substance. Get the mass of each CaO(s) + SO2(g) →   CaSO3(s)
element.
2. Convert mass of each element to moles Decomposition. Breakdown of a compound to produce
3. Divide moles of each element with the smallest two or more substances. AB → A + B
mole obtained
4. Express the empirical formula by using the whole Single Displacement. A more reactive element displaces
number quotient obtained. another from a compound (refer to activity series). AB + C
5. Calculate the formula mass based on the EF → AC + B
6. Divide the actual molar mass by the obtained
formula mass Double Displacement. Two compounds exchange
corresponding ions or elements to form new compounds.
Chemical Equation. Shorthand for writing statements of AB + CD → AC + BD
chemical reactions.
Complete Combustion. Reaction of a combustible
Symbol Meaning substance with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and
(s), (l), (g), (aq) Solid, liquid, gas, dissolved water.
in water
→          ,        ↔ Direction of the reaction, Incomplete combustion. Reaction of a combustible
reversibility of reaction substance with insufficient oxygen, producing carbon
*something is above the catalyst;  Δ    if heat is catalyst monoxide and water.
arrow*
 CHAPTER 5B
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS, BASIC
STOICHIOMETRY: MOLE, AVOGADROS NUMBER, PERCENT
COMPOSITION, LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANT,
THEORETICAL YIELD, PERCENT YIELD
Balancing Chemical Equations. Same number of atoms in
each element in the reactant and product side of the
equation. Can be done by adjusting the stoichiometric
coefficients. It always obeys the Law of Conservation of
Mass.
Mole. Amount of a given substance
Avogadro’s number. 6.02 x 1023 ; the number of particles
(atoms, molecules, ions) in one mole of substance. 12
grams of carbon atom contains 1 mole of carbon and
therefore has an Avogadro’s number of carbon- 12 atoms.
Formula mass/ Molar mass. Sum of all atomic masses in
the chemical formula of a compound. mass of one mole
of as substance. Called molecular mass in covalent
compounds. (can be obtained by using a periodic table)
Stoichiometric calculations. Involves dimensional analysis
with the molar mass and/or Avogadro’s number as
conversion factors; if a chemical equation is given, the
coefficients of the balanced chemical equation relates
the number of moles of the substance.
Using the chemical equation, the following could be
solved:
1. mole to mole
2. mole to mass
3. mass to mass
4. mass to number of molecules
Percent Composition. Composition of each compound
expressed in percentage by mass; mass percent of each
element in any substance. In computing for the percent
composition, always assume 100g of substance.
Limiting Reactant. Reactant that is totally consumed after
reaction takes place. Determines and limits the amount of
products formed.
Excess Reactant. Reactant that is not completely
consumed in the reaction.
Theoretical Yield. amount of product expected to be
produced based on stoichiometric calculations.
Actual Yield. amount of product produced during an
experiment. Always lower than theoretical yield due to
experimental errors.
Percent Yield. measures the efficiency of a chemical
reaction.
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍  𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
𝒙  𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍  𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
 CHAPTER 6.
GASES, GAS LAWS, IDEAL GAS LAW, GAS STOICHIOMETRY, Charles’ Law. Volume- Temperature Relationship.
KINETIC MOLECULAR THOERY, IDEAL VS REAL GASES States that the volume of a fixed amount of gas
maintained at constant pressure is directly
Substances that exist as Gases. H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, He, Ne, proportional to the absolute temperature of the
Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn gas.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=  
Physical Properties of Gases 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
1. Assume the volume and shape of their containers.
2. Most compressible of the states of matter. Gay-Lussac’s Law. Pressure – Temperature
3. Will mix evenly and completely when confined to Relationship. States that the pressure of a fixed
the same container. amount of gas maintained at constant volume is
4. Lower densities than liquids and solids. directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
=  
Pressure. Force per unit area exerted by gas on a 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
container.
SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) ; Stadard unit: atm Avogadro’s Law. Volume – Amount Relationship.
Atmospheric pressure. Pressure exerted by earth’s States that at constant pressure and temperature,
atmosphere; the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
1 atm = 101325 Pa; 1 atm = 760 mmHg; 1mmHg = 1 number of moles of the gas present.
torr 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=  
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
Volume. Amount of space occupied by the gas. Standard
unit: L Combined Gas Laws.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=  
Gas Laws. 𝑻𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝒏𝟐
Boyle’s Law. Pressure- Volume Relationship.
States that the pressure of a fixed amount of
gas at a constant temperature is inversely
proportional to the volume of the gas.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Ideal Gas Equation. Describes the relationship of all the pressures that each gas would exert if it were present
gas laws. An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose alone.
pressure-volume-temperature behavior can be 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍   =   𝑷𝟏 +   𝑷𝟐 + ⋯
completely accounted for an ideal gas equation. Real
Gas behaves like an ideal gas at 0oC (273K) and 1 atm Mole Fraction. Dimensionless quantity that expresses the
(standard temperature and pressure STP). 1 mole of ideal ration of the number of moles of one component to the
gas occupy 22.4 L at STP. number of moles of all component present.
𝒏
𝓧𝟏 =   𝒏 𝟏 𝑷𝟏 =   𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑿𝟏
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
1 Boyle
𝑉   ∝   Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases.
𝑃
𝑉   ∝  𝑇 Charles 1. A gas is composed of molecules that are separated
𝑃   ∝  𝑇 Gay- Lussac from each other by great distances. Thus, they possess
𝑉   ∝  𝑛 Avogadro mass but have negligible volume.
𝑛𝑇 2. Gas molecules are in constant motion in random
𝑉   ∝  
𝑃 directions, and they frequently collide with one
𝑛𝑇 another. Collisions among molecules are perfectly
𝑉 =  𝑅
𝑃 elastic. There is no loss of energy after collision.
𝑷𝑽 =  𝒏𝑹𝑻 Ideal Gas 3. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive
Equation forces on one another.
4. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is
proportional to the temperature in Kelvins.
Other equations involving gases:
Root- Mean- Square Speed of Gases. Measures the
𝒎 𝑷𝓜 Molar mass: estimated molecular speed of gases. Higher molar mass,
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =   =   𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝒅𝑹𝑻
𝑽 𝑹𝑻 slower the speed of gas molecule.
where m is mass and ℳ 𝓜 =   =  
𝑽𝑷 𝑷
is molar mass Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion. Under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure, rate of diffusion
for gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of
Gas Stoichiometry. When the reactant and/or products their molar mases. Higher mass, slower rate of diffusion.
are gases, we can use the coefficients in the balanced 𝒓𝟏 𝓜𝟐
chemical equation as relationships between the amounts   =      
𝒓𝟐 𝓜𝟏
(moles) and volumes (V) of gases involved.
Under what conditions will gases most likely exhibit non-
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures. States that the total ideal behavior? High Pressure (greater than 5 atm) and
pressure of a mixture of gases is just the sum of the lower temperature.
 CHAPTER 7. Internal Energy (E). Energy of molecules and atoms;
BASIC THERMOCHEMISTRY change in internal energy is given by:

Thermochemistry. Study of heat change in a chemical △ 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 −   𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

reaction.
First Law of Thermodynamics. States that the change in
Energy. Capacity to do work or to cause changes in the internal energy of a system is equal to the work done on it
system. plus the heat it absorbs:
Unit: Joule
Work (w). Directed energy change resulting from a △𝑬=𝒒+𝒘
process.
𝒘 =   −𝑷𝚫𝑽 When △ 𝐸 > 0, the system gained energy from its
Heat (q). Transfer of thermal energy between two bodies surroundings. When △ 𝐸 < 0, then it lost energy to its
at different temperatures. surroundings.

Positive (+) Negative (-)

Work Done to the system Done by the system Enthalpy (H). heat flow of the system under constant
Heat Absorbed by the Released by the pressure.
system system △ 𝑯 = 𝑯𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 −   𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

System. The specific portion of the universe subjected to When △ 𝐻 > 0, the system gained heat from its
study. surroundings, therefore endothermic. When △ 𝐻 < 0, then it
Surrounding. Everything else that is not part of the system. lost heat to its surroundings, therefore exothermic.

Open System. allows transfer mass and energy to the
surroundings.
Closed System. allows transfer energy but not mass to the
surroundings.
Isolated System. Does not allow transfer both mass and
energy to the surroundings.
Endothermic Process. Heat has to be supplied to the
system for it to take place.
Exothermic Process. Heat has to be released by the
system for it to proceed.
Thermochemical equation. Chemical Equation
associated with enthalpy change.
1. Enthalpy is an extensive property. It means that the
amount is proportional to the amount of reactants.
2. For a reversible process, the enthalpy change is equal
in magnitude but opposite in sign for forward and
reverse processes.
3. Enthalpy change for a reaction depends on the state
of the reactants and products, implying that the solid,
liquid, or gas phases of one substance has specific △ 𝐻
values.
Calorimetry. Measurement of heat changes.

Specific Heat (s). amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius. Intensive Property
𝑱
𝒔= 𝒐
𝒈 𝑪

Heat Capacity (C). amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of a given quantity of substance by one
degree Celsius. Extensive Property
𝑱
𝑪 = 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆  𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝑪 = 𝒎𝒔

Relationship between heat, specific heat, temperature

and mass were given by the following formula:
𝒒 = 𝒎𝒔∆𝒕

Entropy (S). Measure of randomness or disorder of a

system. Disorder can be considered in terms of the
following: increase in gas molecules formed, increase in
temperature, implying that heat is given off to the
surroundings.

If △ 𝑆 > 0, the substances in a reaction has increased

randomness or “mobility”, which is associated with phase
change:
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑   ⟶ 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑, 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑   ⟶ 𝑔𝑎𝑠
 CHAPTER 8. Types of Solution Equilibrium.
SOLUTIONS: TYPES OF SOLUTION, SOLUBILITY OF SOLID, Saturated. Solution that has the maximum amount
LIQUID AND GASES, SOLUBILITY CURVE, CONCENTRATION of solute that can be dissolved by a given amount
UNITS, DILUTION, BASIC COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES, COLLOID of solvent.
Unsaturated. Solution that has lesser amount of
Solution. A homogenous mixture. Two parts: solvent solute than what the given solvent can dissolve.
(greater quantity, dissolving medium) and solute (smaller Supersaturated. Solution that contains more solute
quantity, dissolved particles). than the maximum amount given a solvent can
Solution Solute Solvent Example dissolve.
Gas Gas Gas Air
Liquid Gas Liquid Softdrinks Rate of Dissolution. How fast the solute gets dissolved.
Liquid Liquid Liquid Wine Factors Affecting Dissolution Rate
Liquid Solid Liquid Saltwater Temperature. Higher temperature, faster the
Solid Solid Solid steel dissolution.
Surface Area. Larger the exposed area, the
Solubility. Measures the maximum amount of solute that greater the solubility
can be dissolved in a certain amount of solvent. Process Agitation. Increase in collisions, faster the
of dissolving is called solvation. dissolution

Factors affecting Solubility Solubility Curve. Graph that shows the maximum mass of
Temperature. a solute that can dissolve in water at a particular
Solid and Liquid. Increase temperature, temperature.
increase solubility
Gas. Increase temperature, decrease
solubility
Pressure.
Increase pressure, increase solubility
“Like Dissolves like”.
Polar and ionic dissolves in polar solvent.
Non-polar dissolves in non-polar solvent.
Concentration. Amount of solute present in a given Vapor Pressure Lowering. More dissolved
amount of solution. solute, less vapor escaping the solution, less
vapor pressure
Types of Concentration Units. Boiling Point. Temperature at which vapor pressure
𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕  𝒃𝒚  𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔  (% 𝒘) =   𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆!𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕    𝒙  𝟏𝟎𝟎% equals atmospheric pressure.
Boiling Point Elevation. More molecules mean
lower vapor pressure. Low vapor pressure
𝒗 mean more amount of heat needed to boil
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕  𝒃𝒚  𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆  (% ) solution.
𝒗
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 Freezing Point Depression. More molecules in
=    𝒙  𝟏𝟎𝟎% system requires ore kinetic energy to be
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕  
removed, thus more heat is removed,
𝒘 therefore lowering freezing point.
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕  𝒃𝒚  𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔/𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆(% )
𝒗
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 Colloids. Mixtures with particles have intermediate size
=    𝒙  𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏   between solution and suspension. Large particles but not
too large to be suspended in a system.
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆  𝒐𝒇𝑨
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆  𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏  (𝑿) =   𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆  𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍  
Property Solution Colloid Suspension
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 Particle Type Ions, atoms, Large Larger
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚  (𝑴) =     small molecules or particles or
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏  
molecules particles aggregates
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 Particle size small large larger
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚  (𝒎) =   Effect of light No Tyndall Tyndall
𝒌𝒈  𝒐𝒇  𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕  
scattering effect effect
Dilution. Reducing the concentration of a solution by Effect of stable stable Sediment
adding more solvent. Number of moles does not change. gravity forms
𝑀! 𝑉! =   𝑀! 𝑉!
Tyndall Effect. Scattering of light caused by suspended
Colligative Properties of Solutions. Properties that are particles.
dependent by the number of solutes present in a solution. Brownian motion. Constant bombardment of particles
Vapor pressure. Pressure exerted by a vapor that is due to repulsion. Continuous motion of particles that block
in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid in a closed passage of light.
system. Adsorption. Adherence of particles on the surface of
colloidal particles.