subgroup of G is the kernel of a homomorphism. Combining this fact with Theorem 4.

24,
we see that the normal subgroups of G and the kernels of the homomorphisms from G to
another group are the same subgroups of G. 4.6 Quotient Groups 233
4.6 Quotient Groups -We
II ! can now prove that every homomorphic image of G is isomorphic to a quotient
Week 12
group of G.
The mapping f in Theorem 4.23 has H as its kernel, and this shows that every normal
subgroup
Theorem 4.25 ■ Homomorphicof G is the kernel
Imageof a⇒homomorphism. Combining this fact with Theorem 4.24,
Quotient Group
we see that the normal subgroups of G and the kernels of the homomorphisms from G to
another group
Let G and Gr are the same
be groups subgroups
with of G.
Gr a homomorphic image of G. Then Gr is isomorphic to a
We can
quotient now
group ofprove
G. that every homomorphic image of G is isomorphic to a quotient
group of G.
p ⇒ q Proof Let f be an epimorphism from G to Gr, and let K 5 ker f. For each aK in G>K,
Theorem 4.25 ■defineHomomorphic
u(aK) by Image ⇒ Quotient Group
u(aK) 5 f(a).
Let G and Gr be groups with Gr a homomorphic image of G. Then Gr is isomorphic to a
First we group
quotient need to
ofprove
G. that this rule defines a mapping. For any aK and bK in G>K,
aK 5 bK ⇔ b21aK 5 K
p⇒q Proof Let f be an epimorphism from G to 21
Gr, and let K 5 ker f. For each aK in G>K,
define u(aK) by ⇔ b a[K
⇔ f(b
u(aK)
21
5 f(a) a). 5 er
⇔ f(b )f(a) 5 er
21
First we need to prove that this rule defines a mapping. For any aK and bK in G>K,
⇔ 3f(b)4 21f(a) 5 er
aK 5 bK ⇔ b21aK 5 K
⇔ f(a) 5 f(b)
⇔ b21a [ K
⇔ u(aK) 5 u(bK).
⇔ f(b21a) 5 er
Thus u is a well-defined mapping from G>K 21 to Gr, and the ⇐ parts of the ⇔ statements
⇔ f(b )f(a) 5 er
show that u is one-to-one as well.
⇔ 3f(b)4
We shall show that u is an isomorphism
21
from G>K er Since
f(a)to5Gr.
⇔ f(a) 5 f(b)
u(aK ? bK) 5 u(abK)
⇔ u(aK) 5 u(bK).
5 f(ab)
Thus u is a well-defined mapping from G>K and the ⇐ parts of the ⇔ statements
to Gr,? f(b)
5 f(a)
show that u is one-to-one as well.
5 u(aK) ? u(bK),
We shall show that u is an isomorphism from G>K to Gr. Since
u is a homomorphism. To show that u is onto, let ar be arbitrary in Gr. Since f is an epi-
u(aK ? bK) 5 u(abK)
morphism, there exists an element a in G such that f(a) 5 ar. Then aK is in G>K, and
5 f(ab)
u(aK) 5 f(a) 5 ar.
5 f(a) ? f(b)
Thus every element in Gr is an image under 5u, and this
u(aK) proves that u is an isomorphism.
? u(bK),
u is a homomorphism. To show that u is onto, let ar be arbitrary in Gr. Since f is an epi-
Theorem 4.26 ■ Fundamental
morphism, Theorem
there exists ofaHomomorphisms
an element in G such that f(a) 5 ar. Then aK is in G>K, and
u(aK) 5 f(a) 5 ar.
If f is an epimorphism from the group G to the group Gr, then Gr is isomorphic to G>ker f.
Thus every element in Gr is an image under u, and this proves that u is an isomorphism.
The Fundamental Theorem follows at once from the proof of Theorem 4.25.
Theorem 4.26 ■ Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms
If f is an epimorphism from the group G to the group Gr, then Gr is isomorphic to G>ker f.

The Fundamental Theorem follows at once from the proof of Theorem 4.25.

1
n order to give nontrivial illustrations of Theorem 4.24 and 4.25, we need an example
omomorphism In that
orderis
to somewhat involved.
give nontrivial This
illustrations homomorphism
of Theorem is presented
4.24 and 4.25, in the
we need an example
of a homomorphism that is somewhat involved. This homomorphism is presented in the
xample. 4.6 Quotient Groups - II ! Week 12
next example.
Example 4
mple 3 Example
Consider the permutation
3 Consider group group
the permutation
G 5 S3 5 5(1),
G 5(1, 2, 5(1),
S3 5 3), (1,
(1, 3, 2),(1,
2, 3), (1,3,2),
2), (1, 3),(1,
(1, 2), (2,3),3)6
(2, 3)6
4.6 Quotient Groups 235
and the multiplicative
e multiplicative group group 4.6 Quotient Groups 235

Gr 5 5314, 3246 8 Z3.

and
and Gr 5 5314, 3246 8 Z3.
The mapping f: G S Gr defined
f(x)f(y) by
5 f(aib)f(a
f(x)f(y) 5 f(am ni
b )b)f(ambn)
mapping f: G S Gr defined by n
324 3242,53)324
f(1) 55f(1, 5324 n
f(1, 3, 2) 5 314
2, 2)
3)555 . 53)314
f(1) 5 f(1, 324 n11.
f(1, 3, 2)
f(1, f(1, 53)324
5n11
f(2, 5 324
Thus f(xy) 5 f(x)f(y) in all cases, and f is a homomorphism (an epimorphism, actually)
Thus
can be
from toshown
Gf(xy) f(1,
Gr. 5 by 2) 5computation
direct
f(x)f(y) inf(1, 3) 5
all cases, to f(2,
and is 3)
befan 5 324 from(an
a homomorphism
epimorphism epimorphism,
G to Gr, but actually)
■ it is tedious to
'
is an epimorphism
from
verify from G
to Gr.5 f(x)f(y)
Gf(xy) fortoallG36
. choices of the pair of factors x, y in S . As an alternative
■
3
e shown byExample
todirect computation
this chore,4 we
to be
shall obtain
To illustrate
an4.24
another
Theorems
epimorphism
description from
of f.
and 4.25, consider We G tonote
the first
groups
Gr,
G5
but
that
S3 if
itais5tedious
and
to
(1, 2, 3) and
f(xy) 5 f(x)f(y)
Gr
HW. {314,
b 5 Show for
(1, 2),324}
the all
:G36
φthe → choices
inelements
that
'
ofbethe
G ofisSexample.
previous ancan pair
written
We ofthe
as
see that
epimorphism. factors
kernel x, y inepimorphism
of the S3. As an alternative
Example 4 To illustrate 3 Theorems 4.24 and 4.25, consider the groups G 5 S3 and
chore, wef: shall
G S Grobtain another
is the normal
Gr 5 { 314 , 324 } in the description
subgroup of f. We first note that if2 aof0 5the(1,epimorphism
2, 3) and
(1)previous
5 a 0
b 0 example.
(1, 2, 3) We
5 see that
ab 0
(1, the
3, 2)kernel
5 a b
1, 2), the elements
f: Gsee
We Gr of
S that isthe
the can be
S3kernel
normal
Kwritten
5 ker
ofsubgroup
the f as
epimorphism
0 φ :G → G is the normal 2subgroup
'

(1, 2) 55a5(1),b (1, 2, (1, 3) 3,52)6

3), (1, ab (2, 3) 5 a b.
of The(1)
G.then 5 the
quotient agroup 0 0
G>K(1,
bfollowing 2,K3)
is given by55 kerab f 0
(1, 3, S2)3: 5 a2b0
We make observations concerning
5 5(1),(1, (1,
2)K62, 3), (1, 3, 2)6 2
1. (1,
Any2) 5 a0b
element of S3 can (1,
G> K3) 55
be written
5K,
in the form(2,
ab aib3)k 5 a b.
, with i [ {0, 1, 2} and k [ {0, 1}.
of G. The
where quotient group G>K is given by
en make the bai 5 a2ib.
2. following observations
(1, 2)K 5concerning
5(1,G2),
> K(2,
53),5K,
S(1,
(1, : .2)K6
33)6
3. Any x [ S3 is
The isomorphism u:
either of the form x 5 a i ork of the form x 5 aib.
G>K S Gr has values
i
ny element
whereof S3 can be written in the form a b , with i [ {0, 1, 2} and k [ {0, 1}.
Routine calculations willu(K) confirm
5 f(1) that
5 our
314 mapping f can be described by the rule
ai 5 a2ib. (1, 2)K 5 5(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)6 .
u((1, 2)K)r 5k f(1, 2) k5 324. ■
f(a ib ) 5 324 for any integerir.
ny x [ S3The
is either of theu:form
isomorphism G>K xS5 Gr ahasor of the form x 5 a b.
values
Usingmade
Having the results
theseofobservations,
this section, wewe cancan
systematically
now verify find
theallequation
of the homomorphic
f(x)f(y) 5 f(xy) with a
images of a group G. We now know that
ne calculations will
reasonable confirm
amount that
of work. our u(K) the 5
For mapping f(1)
homomorphic
arbitrary x f 5
andcan314
images of G are the same (in the i
y inbeS3,described
we write either by the
x 5rule
a or x 5 aib,
sense of isomorphism) as the quotient groups of G.
and y 5 ambn wherer mk [ {0, u((1, 1, k2} 2)K)
and n5 [f(1, {0, 1}.2) 5 324. ■
i f(a b ) 5 324 for any integer r.
ExampleIf x 55 aLet , weG5 have
S3, the symmetric group on three elements. In order to find all the
Using the
homomorphic results
images of G,ofwethis
needsection, we
only find iall can systematically
mof nthe normal i1m subgroups find
H ofnGall
andof the homomorphic
form
g made these
images
all
observations,
of quotient
possible a groupgroups we
G. WeG>H. can
f(xy)
nowAs now
5
know f(a
we saw
verify
a
thatintheb ) the
5 equation
f(a
homomorphic
Section
b n
)
4.4, a complete
5 324
f(x)f(y)
images
list ofofthe
5
G are f(xy) with a
sub-the same (in the
i i
nable amount
and ofof
sense
groups ofwork. For arbitrary
Gisomorphism)
is x and ygroups
as the quotient in S3of , we G. write either x 5 a or x 5 a b ,
5 ambn where m [ {0,
H1 1, 2} and n [ H{0,
5 5(1)6 4 5 1}.
i5(1), (2, 3)6
i Example 5 HLet f(x)f(y) 5 f(a )f(ambn) 5 324 0 324 n 5 324 n.
x 5 a , we have 2 5G 5(1), S3,2)6
5 (1, the symmetric
H5 5 5(1),group on(1,three
(1, 2, 3), 3, 2)6elements. In order to find all the
If x 5 aib, weimages
homomorphic Hhave of (1,
3 5 5(1), we need
G,3)6 H6 only
5 S3.find all of the normal subgroups H of G and form
i m n i1m n n
allthese,
Of possible f(xy)
H1, H quotient5 groups
f(a a G>H. b ) As
5, and H6 are the only normal
5subgroups.
f(a
we saw iin
The )m 5n 324
b possible
Section 4.4, a complete
homomorphic images list of the sub-
f(xy) 5 f(a ba b )
groups
of ofare
G, then, G is
5 f(aia2mbbn)
>
G H1 5 5H H11, (1,
5 2)H 1, (1, 3)H1, (2, 3)H
5(1)6 H14, (1, 2, , (1, 3, 2)H16
3)H1(2,
5(1),
5i2m n11 3)6
i m n 5 f(a
(1, 2)H56 )f(a b ) 5 324 324 5 0 b n ) n
G> H5 5 5H5,5
f(x)f(y) H2 5f(a 5(1), (1, 2)6 H5 5 5(1), (1, 2, 3243),. (1, 3, 2)6
n11
G> G 5 5G6. 5 324
aib , we have H3 5 5(1), (1, 3)6 H6 5 S3.
Thus any homomorphic image of S3 is isomorphic to S3, to a cyclic group of order 2, or to
aOf these,
group 1, Hthe
withHonly 5, and H6 are
identity the only normal
element. i m subgroups.
n The possible homomorphic
■ images
of G, then, are f(xy) 5 f(a ba b )
i 2m n
G> H1 5 5H1, (1, 5
2)Hf(a a bb )
1, (1, 3)H1, (2, 3)H1, (1, 2, 3)H1, (1, 3, 2)H1 6
2
i2m n11
G> H5 5 5H5, (1, 5
2)Hf(a
56 b )
G> G 5 5G6. n11