Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

What is an Antenna?

When do structures radiate?

Magnetic vector potential

Lorentz gauge condition

Green's function

Spherical wave
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Introduction
An is transducer which converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. So, if an antenna is excited
with a voltage/current it generates electromagnetic waves, and if placed in front of an electromagnetic wave, it extracts
power from the wave and delivers to the load connected to it.

The phenomenon of electromagnetic radiation is related to the acceleration of electric charges. An accelerated charge
corresponds to the time-varying current ( a steady flow of charge gives the DC current and the AC current requires
acceleration of charges).

In principle, every time-varying current can give EM radiation no matter how small the frequency of the current is.

An antenna however is a structure which generates EM radiation with high efficiency. Also it will be seen subsequently that
the antennas do not generate EM waves uniformly in all direction. Every antenna preference for certain directions and no
preference fo other directions.

Antenna design therefore focuses on two issues

(1)
How to get highest possible radiation efficiency from an antenna
(2)
How to design antenna structure to achieve desired spatial distribution of the EM waves

1 2 3 4 5
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Let us investigate the characteristics of basic antennas.

Theory
Potential Functions
Here we solve the Maxwell's equations with electrical sources to obtain the electromagnetic fields. The four Maxwell's
equations with sources are given as

The solution of the Maxwell's equation for electric and magnetic fields is rather difficult. Instead, one can define potential
functions related to the fields and find their solution.

Eqn. is identically satisfied by a vector A defined as

Substituting in the curl equation, we get

This eqn can be identically satisfied if we define the quantity inside the bracket as the gradient of some function as

The vector A is called the magnetic vector potential and the quantity V is called the electric scalar potential.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Laurentz Gauge Condition and Wave Equation

If we substitute for B and E in the remaining two Maxwell's equations we get

The two equations are coupled equation for V and A.

The equations can be decoupled using what is called the Laurentz gauge condition given as

The decoupled equations for the electric scalar and magnetic vector potential are

Two things can be verified from these equations:

(1) For the non-time varying (static) case the equations reduce to well known Poisson's equation.
(2) For the source free case the equation reduce to the wave equation discussed earlier.

Since the magnetic vector potential and the electric scalar potential are related through the Laurentz gauge condition,
solving the wave equation for one of them is adequate.

Generally we find the solution for the magnetic vector potential.

For sinusoidal variation of the current and potential with angular frequency , the equation becomes

Noting that the quantity , the phase constant of the wave, the wave equation becomes

The equation is solved by using the Green's function technique.

1 2 3 4 5
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Green's Function Technique

The Green's function is a solution of the differential equation with the driving term replaced by the -function. The Greens
function , G therefore satisfies the equation

The Green's function essentially is the spatial impulse response of the system described by the wave equation.

The most appropriate coordinate system for analyzing EM radiation is the spherical coordinate system.

The Green's function for the -function located at the origin of the coordinate system is obtained as

It can be noted that

(1) The expression represents a traveling wave in r direction.
(2) The amplitude of the Greens function is inversely proportional to r.
(3) The constant phase surfaces for the traveling wave are spheres.
(4) The phenomenon therefore represents a outward traveling spherical wave as shown in the following Fig.

Let now the current be distributed over a volume denoted by primed quantities and let the location of the observation point
be denoted by the un-primed quantities (see Fig.)

The total magnetic vector potential due to the current distribution is then given as
Note that the integral is a convolution of the spatial impulse response (the Green's function) and the driving source function
.

So the antenna analysis problem reduces to finding the vector potential from the current distribution on an antenna. Once
the vector potential is known, the electric and magnetic fields, and subsequently the power radiated by the antenna can be
obtained in a rather straight forward manner.

Obtaining current distribution on an antenna structure is a rather complex task an is beyond the scope of this course. Here
therefore we will assume a current distribution and then proceed to find the fields radiated by it.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 47 : Introduction

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

What is an Antenna?

When do structures radiate?

Magnetic vector potential

Lorentz gauge condition

Green's function

Spherical wave
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

Hertz Dipole

Magnetic vector potential due to Hertz dipole

Fields due to Hertz Dipole

Electrostatic Induction and Radiation fields

Near and Far-fields

Power radiated by the Hertz Dipole

Radiation resistance of the Hertz Dipole

Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Hertz Diople Antenna

An infinitesimal element excited with an alternating current is called the Hertz dipole. In practice a linear antenna can be
approximated by a Hertz dipole if the linear antenna is of size much smaller the wavelength.

The analysis of Hertz dipole is important as any complicated radiating structure can be decomposed into Hertz dipoles.A
Hertz dipole is shown in Fig.

The Hertz dipole is oriented along the z-axis, has length and current .

Since the Hertz dipole is small the vector potential at point P is almost same as the Green's function multiplied by the
volume integral of the current density.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Vector potential due to the Hertz dipole

The vector potential due to the Hertz dipole is therefore given as

Note that the magnetic vector potential is in the z-direction and it has same direction every where in the space.

Since the coordinate system used for the antenna analysis is spherical, the components of the magnetic vector potential in
spherical coordinates are

Fields due to the Hertz Dipole

The vector magnetic field is

The magnetic field components can be obtained as

The Hertz component has only -component. That is, the magnetic field loops around the z-axis.

Substituting for H in the source-free Maxwell's curl equation the electric field can be obtained as
The -component of the electric field is zero.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Types of Fields
For the Hertz dipole, the magnetic field has only -component and the electric field does not have the
-component. The electric field lies in the plane.

The fields can be divided into three categories depending upon their variation as a function of distance.

The field which varies as , is called the electrostatic field. This field is dominant in the close
vicinity of the dipole since its amplitude decreases rapidly as function of distance.

The field which varies as , is called the induction field . This field extends little further than the
electrostatic field but still decays rapidly as a function of distance.

The field which varies a is called the radiation field . This is the field which extends over farthest
distance from the antenna and is responsible for the radiation of power from the antenna.

The electrostatic field is inversely proportional to the frequency. As the frequency of the current
approaches zero, this field diverges to infinity. This field is essentially due to the accumulation of charges
on the tip of the antenna. When the current flows in the dipole, the opposite charges get accumulated on
the tips of the antenna giving a dipole. With the reversal of the current (every half cycle) dipole reverses
its polarity giving an oscillating dipole. The electrostatic field is due to this oscillating dipole. As the
frequency decreases, the accumulated charge for a given current increases and therefore the
electrostatic field increases.

The Induction field is independent of frequency. This field has same behavior as the magnetic field
obtained from the Biot-Savart law, and hence the name given to the field.

The radiation field is proportional to the frequency. This field is therefore practically absent at low
frequencies. This field is essentially a high frequency phenomenon.

The electrostatic and the induction fields together are called the Near Fields, and the radiation fields are
called the Far Fields.

The three field become equal in magnitude at a distance of as shown in Fig. The
distance within is called the near-field zone and the distance is called the far-field zone.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Near Field
The electric field for the dipole is given as (only terms)

The total near field is given as

The Near field is minimum in the direction and maximum in the directions . However, along no
direction the near field is zero.

The near field essentially stores the electromagnetic energy around the dipole but does not contribute to the power flow
from the antenna.

Far Field

In the far field region only fields are the radiation fields.

The far field components of the electric and magnetic fields are given as

Important things to note about the far field (radiation field ) are,
(1) The electric and magnetic fields are in time phase and they are in phase quadrature with the current. That is, these fields
are proportional to the rate of change of current or acceleration of charges.

(2) The ratio of the electric and magnetic field at every point in space is equal to the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

(3) The wave travels in the r-direction, the electric field is in the -direction and the magnetic field is the -direction. That is,
they are perpendicular to each other. These fields therefore represent transverse electromagnetic wave albeit spherical in
 nature. (See Fig.)

(4) The fields are not uniform in all directions. The field strength is maximum along , and zero along .
The Hertz dipole hence does not have any radiation along its axis.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Power Radiated by the Hertz dipole

The power flow density in the space can be obtained by the Poynting vector.
The average Poynting vector is given by

The filed which contribute to the power flow are essentially the radiation fields. The average Poynting vector therefore is

The total power radiated by the antenna can be calculated by integrating the Poynting vector over a sphere of any radius
enclosing the antenna. The total power radiated by the antenna is

After substituting for and doing some manipulations, and noting that the intrinsic impedance of the medium =

, we get the total radiated power as

The total radiated power of the Hertz dipole is proportional to the square of the normalized length (normalized with respect
to the wavelength) of the dipole.

Longer the length more will be the radiated power for a given excitation current. Note however, that for increasing the
radiated power, the length can not be increased arbitrarily. For the Hertz dipole we should have .

Radiation Resistance

If the Hertz dipole is seen from its terminal, it appears like a resistance which consumes power. This resistance is directly
related to the power radiated by the dipole.

A hypothetical resistance which will absorb same power as that radiated by the Hertz dipole when excited with the same
peak current , is called the Radiation Resistance of the antenna.

The radiation resistance of the Hertz dipole is

For a Hertz dipole of length , the radiation resistance is about 8 ohms.

 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 48 : Hertz Dipole Antenna

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

Hertz Dipole

Magnetic vector potential due to Hertz dipole

Fields due to Hertz Dipole

Electrostatic Induction and Radiation fields

Near and Far-fields

Power radiated by the Hertz Dipole

Radiation resistance of the Hertz Dipole

Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

Radiation pattern.

E and H-plane radiation pattern.

Main beam and nulls of an antenna.

Side lobe level of antenna.

HPBW and BWFN for an antenna.

Directivity.

Gain and efficiency of an antenna.

Effective aperture of antenna.

Relative between Directivity and effective aperture.

Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

An antenna has dual nature. When seen from the space side, it has properties of electromagnetic waves like the radiation
pattern, polarization, Poynting vector etc, and when seen from the terminal side it has circuit like properties like the
impedance, bandwidth and so on.

The antenna therefore has to be characterized from circuit as well as the waves perspective. Following parameters are
used for characterizing an antenna.

Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern is one of the important characteristic of an antenna as tells the spatial relative distribution of the
electromagnetic wave generated by the antenna.

The radiation pattern is a plot of the magnitude of the radiation field as a function of direction .

The radiation pattern is essentially a 3-D surface.

Since the radiation pattern is supposed to provide relative distribution of the fields, the absolute size of the 3-D surface
does not have any significance. In practice therefore the maximum amplitude is normalized to unity.

The radiation pattern for the Hertz dipole is

The above equation when plotted in the spherical coordinate system ( with we get a three
dimensional figure as shown in Fig.

The radiation pattern of the Hertz dipole is like an apple.

At times a full 3-D description of the radiation pattern may not be needed. Invariably therefore two principal sections of the
3-D radiation patterns are given as the radiation patterns.

The two principle sections are obtained by planes one containing the electric field vector and the other containing the
magnetic field vector. Consequently, the two planar radiation patterns are called the E-plane and H-plane radiation patterns
respectively.

For the Hertz dipole any vertical plane passing through the z-axis is the E-plane and a horizontal plane passing through the
antenna is the H-plane. The two radiation patterns for the Hertz dipole are shown in Fig.

NOTE:
In a radiation pattern the physical shape and size of the antenna do not get reflected. The antenna is merely a point at the
origin of the radiation pattern
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

A typical radiation pattern for a general antenna is shown in Fig.

Direction of Maximum Radiation (Main Beam)

The direction along which the field strength is maximum is called the direction of maximum radiation. The angular zone
around the direction of maximum radiation is called the main beam of the antenna.

For the Hertz dipole, the direction of maximum radiation is for all . The maximum radiation goes in a plane
perpendicular to the dipole.

Direction of Nulls
The directions along which the field strength is zero, i.e. along which no power is radiated are called the directions of nulls.

For the Hertz dipole there are two nulls one along direction and other along direction.

Beam Width between First Nulls(BWFN)

At times the effective width of the main beam is given by the angular separation between the nulls around the direction of
the maximum radiation is called the BWFN.

For any antenna the BWFNs are to be defined in E and H-planes.

For the Hertz dipole the BWFN in the E-plane is , and the BWFN for the H-plane is not defined since there is no null
in the H-plane radiation pattern.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

Half Power Beam Width(HPBW) of an antenna

The main beam is the angular region where primarily the radiation goes. The effective width of the antenna main beam
called the HPBW is defined as the angular separation between directions where the field strength reduces to of its
maximum value.

Since the power density of a wave is proportional to the square of the electric field, when the electric field reduces to
of its maximum value, the power density reduces to of its maximum value. That is, the power density reduces
by 3-dB. The HPBW therefore is also referred to as the 3-dB Beam width.

There two HPBWs, one for the E-plane pattern and other for the H-plane pattern.

For the Hertz dipole, the E-plane HPBW is and the H-plane HPBW is not defined since the radiation pattern is constant
in the H-plane.

The HPBW is a better measure of the effective width of the main beam of the antenna compared to BWFN because
there are situations when the effective width of the antenna beam changes but the BWFN remains same.

Side-Lobe Level(SLL)

The local maxima in the radiation pattern are called the side-lobes of the radiation pattern.

Since ideally the antenna should radiate along the direction of the main beam the side-lobes essentially indicate the
leakage of power in undesired directions. The side-lobes in general is an undesirable feature in a radiation pattern.

The ratio of the main beam to the highest side-lobe is called the SSL of the radiation pattern. For a good communication
antenna the SLL lies in the range of 30-40 dB

Since the Hertz dipole has only one maximum in the radiation pattern, there are no side-lobes for the Hertz dipoles.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

Directivity of an Antenna (D)

The directivity is a parameter which quantifies the radiation focusing capability of an antenna. It is a measure of how the
antenna guides power in the desired direction compared to the other directions.

The directivity is one of the very important parameters used for comparing the performance of different antennas.

The directive gain of an antenna is defined as

Where is the radiation intensity defined as the power per unit solid angle, and is the average value the
radiation intensity over solid angle. We then have

The maximum value of the directive gain is called the directivity of an antenna. The Directivity therefore is

The directivity is parameter solely defined by the radiation pattern of an antenna.

If the radiation pattern is normalized, the maximum field strength is unity and the directivity can be written as

For the Hertz dipole the directivity is

For the large antennas with single main beam like the parabolic dishes, the main beam is very narrow and the directivity
can be approximately written as

The directivity is generally given in dB ( = 10 log D).

For an antenna with circular beam, the directivity is approximately
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

Antenna Gain
Due to Ohmic losses on the antenna surface a part of the power supplied to the antenna terminals is lost in heating of the
antenna. The full power supplied to the antenna is then not radiated. The efficiency of an antenna is

The antenna gain is

G = Directivity X Antenna efficiency

Effective Aperture
It can be shown by the reciprocity theorem that an antenna has same radiation characteristics while transmitting and
receiving. That is
(1) The direction in which an antenna radiates maximally, and the direction from which the antenna receives maximum power
are the same.

(2) The antenna does not receive any power from the radiation arriving from the direction of a null.

(3) An antenna maximally responds to that polarization which it generates while transmitting.

Effective aperture of an antenna is a parameter defined for the receiving antenna. It tells the capability of an antenna to tap
power from a radiation arriving from certain direction.

If an antenna is placed in a radiation field with power flow density S, and if the power transferred to a matched load
connected to the terminals of a receiving antenna under matched polarization condition is , the effective aperture is
given as

Effective aperture in general is direction dependent, however when there is no specific mention, it is its maximum value.

The effective aperture has dimensions of area and generally has units .

The Effective aperture and the Directivity of an antenna are related through a relation,

The effective aperture is directly proportional to the directivity. Higher the directivity higher is the effective aperture.

The effective aperture has no direct relation to the physical aperture of an antenna. However, for aperture type antenna like
horns, parabolic dishes, the effective aperture is equal to the physical aperture weighted by the aperture field distribution.

Since the directivity of the Hertz dipole is 1.5, its effective aperture is

Note that the effective aperture of a Hertz dipole is independent of its length.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 49 : Radiation Characteristics of an Antenna

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

Radiation pattern.

E and H-plane radiation pattern.

Main beam and nulls of an antenna.

Side lobe level of antenna.

HPBW and BWFN for an antenna.

Directivity.

Gain and efficiency of an antenna.

Effective aperture of antenna.

Relative between Directivity and effective aperture.

1 2 3 4 5
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

Dipole antenna.

Radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.

Input impedance of a dipole antenna.

Half-wavelength dipole antenna.

Monopole antenna.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Dipole Antenna
The Hertz dipole has a limitation that its radiation resistance is too small and consequently is not a very efficient radiator.

In practice dipole antennas of lengths comparable to the wavelength are used.

A dipole antenna of length 2H oriented in the z-direction with its center at the origin of the coordinate system is shown in Fig.

For these antennas since the length is comparable to the wavelength, the current distribution can not be uniform as we
assumed for the Hertz dipole.

However, as we mentioned, obtaining the current distribution is a difficult task and is beyond the scope of this course.

The rigorous analysis show that the current distribution on a linear dipole antenna is sinusoidal with zero current at the ends
of the antenna. The current distribution is given as

The radiation electric field due to the dipole can be obtained by dividing the dipole into small Hertz dipoles with appropriate
currents and superposing their radiation fields with proper phase.

Assuming that , the total field at a point is given as

Where we have defined

The function gives the variation of the electric field as a function of , and hence gives the E-plane radiation pattern
of the dipole.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Radiation Pattern of a Dipole Antenna

The current distribution and the radiation pattern of dipoles of different lengths are shown in Fig.

Since the electric field is independent of , the H-plane radiation pattern is a circle which is same as that of the Hertz
dipole.

The three dimensional radiation patterns for the dipole antennas of length are shown in Figs.

In general a dipole antenna has multiple beams and multiple nulls. Generally, finding the directions of the nulls is easier
compared to finding the directions of the maximum radiation. We therefore obtain the directions of the nulls and place one
maximum approximately half way between two adjacent nulls.

The directions of the nulls can be obtained by equating to zero. The directions of the nulls are

Where
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Input Impedance of a Dipole Antenna

Since the current has to be zero at the tip of the antenna, the current at the input of the antenna changes as the length of
the dipole changes.

In other words, the terminal impedance (input impedance) of the dipole is a function of length.

The input impedance of the dipole is given as

The input impedance is a function of the dipole length and can vary from to .

When . In this case the input impedance is .

When

NOTE
The input impedance of a dipole antenna is not a monotonic function of length as it was in case of the Hertz dipole.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Half Wavelength Dipole antenna

The most commonly used dipole is the half wavelength dipole ( -dipole).

This antenna offers many advantages like

(1) Reasonable size
(2) Radiation pattern with single maximum
(3) Manageable input impedance

A -dipole is shown in Fig.

For the -dipole .

The current distribution on the dipole is

The radiation electric field is given as

The radiation pattern for the dipole is shown in Fig.

The total power radiated by the -dipole is

Solving the integral numerically the total radiated power and the radiation resistance of the -dipole are

The radiation resistance of the -dipole is about 73 ohms. The dipole due to the near fields has a reactance of
about 34 ohms which can be removed by reducing the length of the dipole to about .

The -dipole dipole has an impedance which can be easily matched to 50 ohms using impedance transformers.

For the -dipole dipole we have following parameters:

Radiation pattern very similar to the Hertz dipole
BWFN = 180 deg
HPBW = 78 deg
Directivity = 1.64 = 2.15 dB
Input resistance = 73.1 ohm
Effective Aperture =
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Monopole Antenna
The monopole antennas are commonly used for the medium wave radio broadcasting. They also find application in walkie-
talkies, other hand sets and cars.

A monopole antenna is vertically mounted above the ground and is excited at the base as shown in Fig.

A monopole antenna is equivalent to a dipole as shown in the above Figure.

The radiation characteristics of a monopole antenna and a dipole of double its length are identical except the radiation
resistance and the radiated power.

Since the monopole antenna radiates only in half space (above the ground), it radiates half the power compared to the
corresponding dipole and consequently has the radiation resistance half of that of the corresponding dipole.

The monopole antennas find applications at low frequencies where the wavelengths become excessively long.

This antenna is also suited for medium wave transmission, because for that wavelength the earth behaves like a good
conductor and therefore supports only vertical polarization.

The monopole antenna naturally provides vertically polarized waves and an isotropic radiation pattern on the ground which
is most suited for broadcasting applications.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 50 : Linear Antennas

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

Dipole antenna.

Radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.

Input impedance of a dipole antenna.

Half-wavelength dipole antenna.

Monopole antenna.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

What is an antenna array?

Why antenna arrays are required?

Uniform linear array.

End fire and broadside array.

Direction main beam, directions of nulls and sidelobes.

Amplitudes of side lobes.

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW).

Directivity of a uniform array.

Grating lobe and condition for avoiding grating lobe.

Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Introduction
In the last module we discussed the principles of antenna and the linear dipole antennas.

The half-wavelength dipole antenna is the most commonly used antenna as it has good terminal characteristics. However,
the antenna has a very broad radiation pattern and consequently low directivity.

There are many applications where we need highly directive antennas and in general a much better control of the radiation
pattern. Also while doing this we wish to keep the antenna terminal characteristics more or less unaffected.

Antenna Arrays precisely is the mechanism by which we can realize complex radiation patterns without significantly altering
the antenna impedance.

Here we first discuss the principle of linear arrays. The principle can be extended to the planar and volume arrays in a rather
straight forward manner.

The problem of antenna arrays can be divided into two categories:

(1) Array Analysis: Here we investigate the radiation patterns for a given antenna array configuration.
(2) Array Synthesis: Here we design the array configurations to achieve a desired radiation pattern.

The array analysis problem is rather an academic exercise whereas the array synthesis is an engineering design problem.
For a good design of antenna arrays, the basics understanding of array analysis is essential.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51: Antenna Arrays

Uniform Linear Array

An antenna array consists of identical antenna elements with identical orientation distributed in space. The individual
antennas radiate and their radiation is coherently added in space to form the antenna beam.

For a linear array, the antennas are placed along a line called the Axis of the array. The antenna elements in general could
have arbitrary spacing between them and could be excited with different complex currents. However, here we analyze first
the uniform array.

In a uniform array the antennas are equi-spaced and are excited with uniform current with constant progressive
phase shift (phase shift between adjacent antenna elements) as shown in Fig.

Let the array have N elements and let the antennas be isotropic (this condition will be relaxed later). All the antennas are
excited with equal amplitude currents. Let us define the following for the array.

Inter-element spacing, : This the spacing between any two adjacent elements of the array.

Progressive phase-shift, : This is the phase shift between currents on any two adjacent antenna elements of the array.

The field due an antenna is proportional to its current. Also for a far away point, the fields due to individual antennas have
equal amplitude but different phases.

The phase of the field has two components:

(1) The phase due to the phase of the excitation current.
(2) The phase due to propagation. If the observation point P is in a direction which makes an angle with the array axis,
the propagation phase difference between radiation from two adjacent elements is .
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Uniform Linear Array (contd.)

The total phase difference, , between the fields due to adjacent elements is algebraic sum of the current and the
propagation phase difference.

Without losing generality, let us assume that the electric field due to individual antennas has unit amplitude at the
observation point P. Also let the first element be the reference element. Then by definition the phase of the field due to
antenna 1 is zero.

The total field at the observation point is

The RHS of the equation is a geometric series with summation given by

After some algebraic manipulation, we get the electric field at the observation point as

The maximum electric field is obtained when all the terms in the series add in phase ( i.e. for ). The maximum filed
therefore is N.

The expression gives the variation of field as a function of the direction, , and hence is the radiation pattern of the antenna
array.

The radiation pattern is generally normalized with respect to the maximum value N to get the ‘ Array Factor ' as

This is the general expression for the radiation pattern of a uniform array.

A typical radiation pattern is shown in Fig.

The range of the angle is from 0 to , and the 3-D radiation pattern is the figure of revolution of the Array Factor around
the axis of the array.

From the general array factor we can study the Direction of Maximum Radiation.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Direction of Maximum Radiation

The direction of maximum radiation (also called the direction of the main beam) is one of the important features of the
array.

The maximum radiation is obtained when . If the direction of maximum radiation is denoted by we have

The array phase in terms of the direction of main beam is written as

Two things can be noted from the equation.

(1) The direction of the maximum radiation is independent of the number of elements in the array.
(2) The direction of the main beam can be changed from 0 to by changing the progressive phase shift from
.

An array is said to be End-fire array if the main beam is along the axis of the array. An array is said to be Broadside array
if the main beam is perpendicular to the axis of the array.

There are two end-fire directions for an array but the broadside is a plane perpendicular to the array axis (see Fig below)
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Directions of Nulls

The nulls of the radiation patterns can be obtained by equating the array factor to zero.

The directions of the nulls, is given as

Which can be simplified as

For finding the directions of the nulls all possible values of have to be tested.

Directions of Side-lobes
Local maximum in the radiation pattern is called the side lobe.

There is one side lobe between two adjacent nulls except the main beam.

Whenever the numerator of the AF is maximum, there is a side-lobe in the radiation pattern.

Generally, the directions of the side-lobes are taken approximately half way between the two adjacent nulls.

The direction of a side lobe is given as

The amplitude of the side lobe is obtained by substituting the value of in the AF.

The amplitude of the side lobe is

For a large array and the side lobe amplitude is approximately

The first, second, third side lobe amplitudes are respectively.

The important thing to note: The side lobe amplitudes are independent of the array size and the direction of the main
beam.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW)

For large arrays, the HPBW is approximately taken as half of the BWFN.

For a given array the HPBW is a function of the direction of the main beam. The HPBW is minimum for a broadside direction
and maximum for the end-fire direction. The beam width monotonically increases as the main beam tilts towards the axis of
the array.

The HPBW for the broad-side array and the end-fire array are approximately given as

The HPBW is inversely related to the array length. Larger the array narrower is the beam i.e., smaller HPBW.

Directivity
The directivity of the uniform array is given by

For a large array, the integral can be approximated by the solid angle of the main beam and the directivities for the broadside
and end-fire arrays are given as

Important Observation:
The HPBW of the broadside array is less than that of the end-fire array but the directivity of the end-fire array is larger than
the broadside array.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Grating Lobe
A grating lobe or grating beam is a beam identical to the main beam but in undesired direction.

The power radiated by the array gets divided between the main beam and the grating lobe. The power efficiency in the
direction of the main beam is consequently reduced. A grating lobe should be avoided in the radiation pattern.

A grating lobe appears when

Where is an integer.

For broadside array the grating lobe appears when , and for the end-fire array it appears when . We can
conclude that to avoid grating lobe in the radiation pattern for any array the inter-element spacing should be .

Effect of Antenna radiation pattern on the array

The radiation pattern of the antenna elements used in the array is called the ‘primary pattern'.

If the array consists of non-isotropic but identical elements, the effect of the primary pattern can be accounted for very
easily.

Since the radiation due to every element is weighted by the primary pattern, the total radiation pattern of an array is the
product of the primary pattern and the AF.
Radiation pattern = Primary pattern X Array Factor

While analyzing the array of non-isotropic but identical elements therefore first find the AF assuming the elements to be
isotropic and then multiply the AF with the primary pattern to get the total radiation pattern.

Using this concept the arrays can be analyzed by dividing the array into sub-arrays.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 51 : Antenna Arrays

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

What is an antenna array?

Why antenna arrays are required?

Uniform linear array.

End fire and broadside array.

Direction main beam, directions of nulls and sidelobes.

Amplitudes of side lobes.

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW).

Directivity of a uniform array.

Grating lobe and condition for avoiding grating lobe.

Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 52 : Array Synthesis

Objectives

In this course you will learn the following

Array specified by only its nulls.

Radiation pattern of a general array.

Array synthesis.

Criterion for choosing number of elements in synthesized array.

 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 52 : Array Synthesis

In practice we need to design a variety of radiation patterns with a very tight control over the nulls and the side lobe
amplitudes. A user specifies the radiation pattern and the antenna engineer is asked to design an array which can give the
radiation pattern as close to the specified pattern as possible.

In general we have to control the complex currents of the individual elements of an antenna array to get the desired
radiation pattern.

The array synthesis problem is not a very straight forward problem as there may not be unique array for a given radiation
pattern.

Here we discuss only the synthesis of linear arrays.

Array specified by its nulls

In an interference prone environment the arrays are to be designed to suppress the effect of the interfering signals.

The interfering signals can be suppressed by placing nulls of the array factor in the directions of their arrival.

Let there be an array of elements with complex currents respectively, where (i.e. currents

are normalized with respect to )

The array phase is .

Writing , the array factor of the array is

--------------- (A)

The is a polynomial of of degree . The polynomial can be factorized in binomials as

--------------- (B)

where are roots of the polynomial.

The nulls in the radiation pattern occur for i.e. when .

The array currents can be obtained from the knowledge or the nulls of the radiation pattern i.e. an array can be
synthesized for given nulls in the radiation pattern.

Array Synthesis Procedure

(1) Given directions of nulls .

(2) Select appropriate inter-element spacing, . Generally is chosen to be .

(3) Find corresponding to nulls : where

(4) Find roots of the array factor

(5) Substitute in equation (B). Expand the polynomial.

(6) Coefficients of the polynomial give the array currents.

Note :
In this case there is no control over the direction of the main beam of the array and the array is completely defined by its
nulls.

Radiation Pattern of a General Array

Let there be an array of (2N+1) elements with conjugate excitation as shown in Fig.

The excitation currents are complex in general. The center element of the array is the reference element and its phase is
zero by definition. The elements around the center have conjugate symmetry, i.e. equal amplitudes but opposite phases.

Let us define the array phase is , and .

The array factor then can be written as

The conjugate terms can be combined to get the array factor as

Writing the complex current , and , we get

The RHS is the Fourier series expansion of the array factor in with having period .

The array synthesis problem therefore reduces to the Fourier expansion of the AF. The Fourier coefficients give the
complex currents of the array.

Note:
To represent a periodic function, in general the Fourier series has infinite terms. However, the AF is expanded with a
truncated series of N terms. Consequently, the synthesized radiation pattern is an approximation to the prescribed pattern.
Larger the array (i.e. more elements in the array) better is the approximation to the desired pattern.
Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 52 : Array Synthesis

The synthesized pattern is the least square fit to the desired radiation pattern.

The Fourier synthesis needs the radiation pattern specified in the -domain, whereas in practice the radiation pattern is
specified as a function of .

Conversion from to needs the knowledge of the inter-element spacing, d. For the Fourier synthesis, the array
designer has to select a-prior the inter-element spacing.

For the visible radiation pattern the angle , i.e. . This is called the visible range of .

The visible range of is a function of the inter-element spacing, d, whereas for the Fourier expansion the period is always
. For a unique synthesis, therefore the inter-element spacing should be equal to .

The array synthesis steps are as follows:

(1) Specify the radiation pattern for .
(2) Select the inter-element spacing, d and the number of elements N in the array.
(3) Get radiation pattern as a function of . If , there is uncovered range of within to . Chose some
arbitrary function over the uncovered range of .
(4) Find the Fourier series for the function and retain only (N+1) terms including DC.
(5) The excitation currents are the Fourier coefficients.

Some times the number of elements are not decided a-priori but the rms error between the synthesized and the desired
pattern is specified. In this case the rms deviation between the two patterns is calculated for different values of N and
satisfactory choice of N is made.
 Module 7 : Antenna

Lecture 52 : Array Synthesis

Recap

In this course you have learnt the following

Array specified by only its nulls.

Radiation pattern of a general array.

Array synthesis.

Criterion for choosing number of elements in synthesized array.