NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE IN

STRUCTURES

ABSTRACT

The basic method of verifying whether concrete complies with

specification is to test its strength using cubes or cylinders made from
samples of fresh concrete. It must be noted that non-compliance by a
single test specimen or even by group, does not necessarily mean that
the concrete from which the test specimens have been made is inferior to
that specified; the engineer’s reaction should be to investigate the
concrete further. This necessitates Non-Destructive tests on the concrete
in the structure. Nondestructive testing methods have been
used on civil engineering structures such as dams and bridges since the
1960’s. In NDT, the development has taken place to such an extent that
it is now considered as a powerful method for evaluating existing
concrete structure with regard to their strength, durability, investigation
of crack depth, micro cracks and progressive deterioration are also
studied by this method.
The aim of the present paper is to describe, how the NDT is done using
ultrasonic pulse velocity for assessing concrete strength that are widely
used in structural field. The main purpose of this test is to detect and
identify defects in materials, measure its dimension and estimate its
strength as well as to decide whether it is to be accepted or rejected.

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1 INTRODUCTION

The testing of hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and confirming the
quality of cement concrete used at site has developed the required strength. The quality of
the product was checked and evaluated by NDT methods. Most material in building,
bridges, dams, tunnethrrt are world lotds of theorem and herare contentand anotherare world
alk was the ls, etc., are made of concrete. This construction requires concrete of high quality
in terms of strength and durability. NDT has the ability to determine the strength and
durability of critical construction without damaging them and the test can be carried on site
(Bungey, 1989).
To monitor the service behavior of concrete structure over a long period, it was imperative that
tests be nondestructive. There are several NDT methods applicable to concrete structures. The
importance of NDT is checking certain properties according to the type of structure. The NDT
methods applicable for concrete inspection include ultrasonic, rebound hammer and cover meter
tests. It is clear that ultrasonic method has a superior capability in the sense that it is capable of
providing more information on concrete parameters as compared with other methods.
The main advantage of non destructive method is that the strength and durability and other
factors such as corrosion of bars, number of bars, bar spacing, quality of concrete, etc. can be
easily determined, without damaging the concrete structure. All these factors are determined with
less time and less cost by this method. In other words, we can get complete information of the
old and the newly constructed concrete structure.

2 NEED FOR TESTING

The need for testing may arise from a variety of causes, which include (Chapman and Hall);
1. Proposed change of usage or extension of a structure.
2. Acceptability of a structure for purchase or insurance.
3. Assessment of structural integrity or safety following material deterioration or structural
damage such as caused by fire, blast, fatigue or overload.
4. Serviceability or adequacy of members known or suspected to contain material that does
not meet specifications or with design faults.
5. Assessment of cause and extent of deterioration as a preliminary to the design of repair or
remedial schemes.
6. Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork stripping, curing,
Prestressing or load application.
7. Monitoring long-term changes in materials properties and structural performance.

3 METHODOLOGY

IS: 13311 (part I) specifies non-destructive testing method using ultrasonic pulse velocity and
part II specifies rebound hammer method. But the test selection procedure will be based on a

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combination of factors such as non-destructiveness, cost, speed and reliability, and may
conveniently follow a procedure such as that shown in Table1.

Table1 Test selection procedure

Inspection schedule Methods

First survey History of structure
Visual inspection
Second survey Ultrasonic testing
Rebound hammer
Cover test
Arrangement of bars
Other NDT (if necessary)
Third survey Core test
Vibration test
Displacement test

4 NDT METHODS

4.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Fig.1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment

It was found that the velocity depended primarily upon the elastic properties of the material and
was almost independent of geometry.
Portable ultrasonic non-destructive digital indicative technique (PUNDIT) is an apparatus for
non destructive evaluation of concrete quality by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurement
method. The equipment consists of a pair of transducers (probes) of different frequencies,
electrical pulse generator, and electrical timing device and cables (Fig.1). It is used to measure

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the transmission time of ultrasonic pulses in the test specimen by placing transducers, from
which the velocity can be computed. A set of UPV readings can be used for further
interpretations of structural concrete. The equipment is designed to comply with the
recommendations of IS-13311 (Part I) 1992.
Three types of waves are generated by an impulse applied to a solid mass. Surface waves having
an elliptical particle displacement are the lowest, whereas shear or transverse waves with
particles displacement at right angles to the direction of travel are faster. Longitudinal waves
with particle displacement in the direction of travel (some times known as compression waves)
are the most important since these are the fastest and provide more useful information. Electro-
acoustical transducers produce waves primarily of this type; other type generally cause little
interference because of their lower speed.
As we said earlier that velocity depends upon the elastic properties and mass of the medium, and
hence if the mass and velocity of wave propagation are known it is possible to assess the elastic
properties.
Transducers with natural frequencies between 20 kHz and 150 kHz are the most suitable for use
with concrete, and these may be of any type, although the piezo-electric crystal is most popular.
An alternative form is the exponential probe transducer, which makes a point contact, and offers
operating advantages over flat transducers on rough or curved surfaces. The time delay
adjustment must be used to set the zero reading for the equipment before use, and this should
also be regularly checked during and at the end of each period of use.

4.1.1 Methods of testing

There are three methods of testing generally adopted at site depending on the accessibility of
structural members (Shetty, 2002).

1. Direct transmission
2. Indirect transmission and
3. Semi-direct transmission

concrete concrete concrete

Direct Semi-direct Indirect

Fig.2 Types of transmittions

In direct transmission method pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing transducers
across the member exactly opposite to each other. Since the maximum pulse energy is
transmitted at right angles to the face of the transmitter, the direct method is the most reliable
from the point of view of transit time measurement. Also, the path is clearly defined and can be
measured accurately, and this approach should be used wherever possible for assessing concrete

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quality.
In indirect transmission method pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing
transducers on the same plane of members. This method is definitely the least satisfactory, since
the received signal amplitude may be less than 3% of that for a comparable direct transmission.
The received signal is dependent upon scattering of the pulse by discontinuities and is thus
highly subjected to errors. The surface zone concrete, which may not be representative of the
body, and the exact path length is uncertain will predominantly influence the pulse velocity. A
special procedure is necessary to account for this lack of precision of path length, requiring a
series of readings with the transmitter fixed and the receiver located at a series of fixed
incremental points along a chosen radial line. This is the least reliable method of testing to
ascertain the quality or strength of concrete. This method will be adopted only when there is no
other option.
In semi-direct transmission method pulse velocity will be measured in concrete by placing
transducers intermediate between those of the other two methods. This method is sometimes be
used satisfactorily if the angle between the transducers is not too great, and if the path length is
not large. The sensitivity will be smaller, and if these requirements are not met it is possible that
no clear signal will be received because of attenuation of the transmitted pulse. The path length
is also less clearly defined due to the finite transducer size, but it is generally regarded as
adequate to take this from center to center of transducer faces. This is a moderately reliable
method of testing to ascertain the quality or strength of concrete.

4.1.2 How PUNDIT works?

Concrete is a multi-phase material. Speed of sound in concrete depends on the relative

concentration of its constituent materials, degree of compacting, moisture content, and the
amount of discontinuities present. The instrument generates pulses of ultrasonic frequency,
which are coupled into the concrete specimen under test by the transmitting transducer. The
receiving transducer is used to detect these pulses and to convert them back into electrical pulses.
Suitable coupling media are used to minimize losses due to acoustic mismatch at the transducer-
specimen interfaces. A 10 MHz quartz time base ensures accurate measurement of pulse transit
time (T) with a resolution of 0.1 microseconds. The path length (L) can be measured with a tape
and hence the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) in the specimen under test can be computed as
V=L/T
Pulse Velocity in concrete will be represented in km/Sec.
Appropriate correction factors to be applied depending on site condition and factors influencing
velocity of pulse. There are many factors relating to measurements made on in-situ concrete.
which may further influence result.

1. Temperature
2. Stress history
3. Path length
4. Moisture conditions
5. Reinforcement

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Table2 Acceptance criteria

Pulse Velocity (km/sec) Concrete Quality Grading (as per

IS:13311 (Part-1)-1992)
Above 4.5 Excellent
3.5 to 4.5 Good
3.1 to 3.5 Poor
below 3.0 Very poor

To evaluate strength of concrete based on the pulse velocity an appropriate calibration chart can
be established based on the laboratory tests. The equipment is used for estimation of properties
of concrete such as strength, uniformity, crack depths, etc. This is the most appropriate and
reliable method of testing to ascertain the quality or strength of concrete.

4.1.3 Reliability and limitation

Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement has been found to be a valuable and reliable method of
examining the interior of a body of concrete in a truly non-destructive manner. Even though this
test method has limitations, UPV method of test is generally preferred to assess the strength /
quality of concrete in structural members. The method provides the only readily available
method of determining the extent of cracking within concrete; however, the use for detection of
flaws within the concrete is not reliable when the concrete is wet.

4.1.4 Applications
The applications of pulse velocity measurements are so wide-ranging that it would be impossible
to list or describe them all. The principal applications are outlined below-the method can be used
both in the laboratory and on site with equal success.

1. Laboratory applications
2. In-situ applications
 Measurement of concrete uniformity
 Detection of cracking and honeycombing
 Strength estimation
 Assessment of concrete deterioration
 Measurement of layer thickness
 Measurement of elastic modulus
 Strength development monitoring.

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4.2 Rebound Hammer Technique

Fig.3 Rebound hammer

One of many factors connected with the quality of concrete is its hardness. The Schmidt rebound
hammer is basically a surface hardness test with little apparent theoretical relationship between
the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer. The only known instrument to
make use of the rebound (impact) principle for concrete testing is the Schmidt hammer, which
weighs about 1.8 kg and is suitable for both laboratory and field work. It consists of a spring-
controlled hammer mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The plunger retracts
against a spring when pressed against the concrete surface and this spring is automatically
released when fully tensioned, causing the hammer mass to impact against the concrete through
the plunger. When the spring-controlled mass rebounds, it takes with it a rider, which slides
along a scale and is visible through a small window in the side of the casing. The rider can be
held in position on the scale by depressing the locking button. The equipment is simple to use,
and may be operated either horizontally or vertically. The plunger is pressed strongly and
steadily against the concrete at right angles to its surface, until the spring-loaded mass is
triggered from its locked position. After the impact, the scale index is read while the hammer is
still in the test position. The scale reading is known as the rebound number, and is an arbitrary
measure since it depends on the energy stored in the given spring and on the mass used. This
equipment is most suitable for concretes in the 20-60 Mpa strength range.The reading is very
sensitive to local variations in the concrete, especially to aggregate particles near to the surface.
It is therefore necessary to take several readings at each test location, and to find their average.
IS: 13311 recommends 15 readings taken over an area not exceeding 300mm square, with the
impact points not less than 20mm from each other or from an edge. The use of a grid to locate
these points reduces operator bias. The surface must be smooth, clean and dry, and should
preferably be formed, but if trowelled surfaces are unavoidable they should be rubbed smooth
with the carborundum stone usually provided with the equipment. Loose material can be ground
off, but areas, which are rough from poor compaction, grout loss, spalling or tooling, must be
avoided since the results will be unreliable.
The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of

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the surface upon which it impinges, and in this case will provide information about a surface
layer of the concrete defined as no more than 30mm deep. The results give a measure of the
relative hardness of this zone, and this cannot be directly related to any other property of the
concrete. Many factors influence results but must all are considered if rebound number is to be
empirically related to strength.

Fig.4 Testing by rebound hammer

The hammer is forced against the surface of the concrete by the spring and the distance of
rebound is measured on a scale. The test surface can be horizontal, vertical or at any angle but
the instrument must be calibrated in this position.

4.2.1 Factors influencing test results

Results are significantly influenced by all the following factors.
1. Mix characteristics
Cement type
Cement content
Coarse aggregate type.
2. Member characteristics
Mass
Compaction
Surface type
Age, rate of hardening and curing type
Surface carbonation
Moisture condition
Stress state and temperature.

4.2.2 Advantages
The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an
indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of ±15 to ±20 percent is possible only for specimens
cast cured and tested under conditions for which calibration curves have been established.

4.2.3 Applications

The useful application of surface hardness measurements can be divided into four categories.
1. Checking the uniformity of concrete quality.

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 2. Comparing a given concrete with a specified requirement
3. Approximate estimation of strength
4. Abrasion resistance classification.

4.2.4 Limitation of rebound hammers

Whatever the application, it is essential that the factors influencing test results are
standardized or allowed for, and it should be remembered that results relate only to the surface
zone of the concrete under test. A further overriding limitation related to testing at early ages or
low strengths, because the rebound numbers may be too low for accurate reading and the impact
may also cause damage to the surface. It is therefore not recommended that the method is used
for concrete which has a cube strength of less than 10Mpa or which is less than 7 days old,
unless of high strength.
It has serious limitations and these must be recognized (Shetty, 2002). The results are affected
by:
1. Size, shape and rigidity of the specimen.
2. Age of specimen.
3. Surface and internal moisture condition of the concrete.
4. Carbonation of concrete surface.

4.3 Cover Meter Test

Fig.5 Profometer

The fig.5 shows the locating the reinforcing bars in side the concrete with the help of profometer,
which is advance instrument. Diameter and position of reinforcement in concrete structure are
important parameters for evaluation of the durability and the stability of structure.
The profometer locates reinforcing bars, spacing of bars, diameter of the bar and measures
concrete cover – quickly, simply and with complete accuracy. It also helps in preparing structural
drawing or mapping of structural members in the absence of details about the building. The
identified concrete surface will be cleaned such that it is free from dust, oil and any surface
defects to facilitate for scanning. This instrument, when moved on the concrete member in a
structure, it produce a sound when it comes near the reinforcement bar and in the details of the
member is appears on the profometer screen.

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The profometer reinforcement locator is a lightweight, compact unit. It works with non-
destructive pulse-induction that is largely insensitive to external interference i.e., electromagnetic
principle. Also before using the instrument it should be calibrated with the help of the standard
given steel rod, which is 20cm long, and 10mm in diameter (Malhotra, 1986).

Limitations of the equipment

1. Only peripheral rebars can be detected.

2. Second layer (if any) of rebars cannot be detected.
3. The accuracy of the diameter of rebar will vary generally in the range of 10 to 20%.
4. The actual numbers and position of rebars cannot be located if the rebars are closely
spaced in one location.
5. If the depth of cover concrete is beyond 60 mm then the estimation of diameter of rebars
will not be accurate or possible.

5 CONCLUSIONS

1. Although nondestructive tests are relatively simple to perform, the analysis and
interpretation of the test data are not so easy because concrete is a complex material. The
user is therefore cautioned that interpretation of the test data must always be carried out
by specialists in this field rather than by technicians performing the tests.
2. If used properly, nondestructive test can form a very important link in the chain of testing
and evaluation of concrete and concrete structures, which commences with the breaking
of test cylinders and may end with the “load testing” of a finished structure.
3. In a structure, strength attained is different from that specified. They depend on real
compaction and consolidation conditions. An attempt is made to know approximate
strength of concrete after the structure has been occupied by using Non-Destructive
Testing methods.
4. The first instrument used in NDT is the ultrasonic pulse velocity instrument. Even though
this test method has limitations, UPV method of test is generally preferred to assess the
strength or quality of concrete and other many properties in structural members. NDT is
now considered as a powerful method for evaluating existing concrete structure with
regard to their strength, durability, investigation of crack depth, microcraks and
progressive deterioration are also studied by this method. But the rebound hammer
testing methods are used to co-relate the results obtained from the ultrasonic pulse
velocity method.
5. Cover meter is the method from which approximate mapping of the rebars in structure
can be done. Even though this equipment has limitations still it is very widely used all
over the world to generate the structural details of R.C members, especially in the
absence of structural drawings.

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REFERENCES

Bungey, J.H, (1989), “Testing of Concrete in Structure”, Surrey University pres, USA: Chapman
and Hall, New York.

Chapman and Hall, “Testing during Concrete Construction”, proceedings of an International

RILEM Workshop, New York.

IS: 13311 (part 1) - 1992, “Methods of non-destructive testing of concrete- Ultrasonic pulse
velocity”, BIS, New Delhi.

IS: 13311 (part 2) - 1992, “Methods of non-destructive testing of concrete- rebound hammer”,
BIS, New Delhi.

Malhotra, V.M, (1986), “Testing Hardened Concrete- Non Destructive Methods”, ACI and
IOWA State University Press, US.

Neville, A.M. (1996), “Properties of Concrete”, ELBS, New Delhi.

Shetty M.S, (2002),”Concrete Technology theory and practice”, S. Chand and Company Ltd.
Ramnagar, New Delhi.

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