Full-field dynamic deformation and strain

measurements using high-speed digital cameras

Timothy Schmidt*a, John Tysona, Konstantin Galanulisb
Duane Revilockc and Matthew Melisc
a
Trilion Quality Systems, 200 Barr Harbor Drive, Suite 400, W. Conshohocken, PA 19428
b
GOM mbH, Mittelweg 7-8, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
c
NASA Glenn Research Center, 21000 Brookpark Rd, MS 49-8, Cleveland, OH 44135

ABSTRACT

Digital cameras are rapidly supplanting film, even for very high speed and ultra high-speed applications. The benefits of
these cameras, particularly CMOS versions, are well appreciated. This paper describes how a pair of synchronized
digital high-speed cameras can provide full-field dynamic deformation, shape and strain information, through a process
known as 3D image correlation photogrammetry. The data is equivalent to thousands of non-contact x-y-z
extensometers and strain rosettes, as well as instant non-contact CMM shape measurement. A typical data acquisition
rate is 27,000 frames per second, with displacement accuracy on the order of 25-50 microns, and strain accuracy of 250-
500 microstrain.

High-speed 3D image correlation is being used extensively at the NASA Glenn Ballistic Impact Research Lab, in
support of Return to Flight activities. This leading edge work is playing an important role in validating and iterating LS-
DYNA models of foam impact on reinforced carbon-carbon, including orbiter wing panel tests. The technique has also
been applied to air blast effect studies and Kevlar ballistic impact testing. In these cases, full-field and time history
analysis revealed the complexity of the dynamic buckling, including multiple lobes of out-of-plane and in-plane
displacements, strain maxima shifts, and damping over time.

Keywords: 3D image correlation, digital high-speed photography, impact testing, LS-DYNA, dynamic strain, full-field,
gas gun, reinforced carbon-carbon

1. INTRODUCTION

3D image correlation photogrammetry is a full-field displacement and strain measurement tool increasingly used for
static and slow rate testing, which has also been applied with pulsed illumination for high speed rotating component
evaluation1. Sample preparation consists of applying a regular or random high contrast dot pattern to the surface,
commonly with spray paint. Thousands of unique correlation areas known as facets (typically 15 pixels square) are
defined across the entire imaging area, as shown in Figure 1. The center of each facet is a measurement point that can be
thought of as a 3D extensometer. Arrays of them form in-plane strain rosettes. The facet centers are tracked, in each
successive pair of images, with accuracy up to one hundredth of a pixel. Then, using the principles of photogrammetry,
the 3D coordinates of each facet are determined for each picture set. The results are the 3D shape of the component, the
3D displacements, and the in-plane strains. Data can be presented as color plots, movies, section line diagrams, etc, and
ASCII exports support further analysis and comparison. Because of similar output, this is an excellent tool for verifying
and iterating finite element models; it provides distribution as well as maximum values of displacements and strains.

The method is extremely robust. It has wide dynamic range and is not affected by rigid body motions, ambient
vibrations, etc. Simply put, as long as pairs of non-blurred pictures can be captured, 3D coordinates, 3D displacements
and the in-plane strains can be measured. The intrinsic measurement of shape provides additional benefits compared to
other methods. Initial flatness of packages can be checked, plastic deformation can be analyzed, and measurement on
multiple planes and complex surfaces is straightforward.
*
schmidt@trilion.com; phone 1 610 722-5100; fax 1 610 722-5099; trilion.com
Figure 1: Zoomed view of left and right camera images, with 15x15 pixel image correlation facets shown. The ARAMIS 3D image
correlation software automatically locates the four edges of each facet on the left and right cameras, computes the center coordinates
with sub-pixel accuracy, and tracks these through all subsequent picture sets.

The basic principles of 3D image correlation photogrammetry have been known for about 15 years2. ARAMIS (GOM
mbH, Braunschweig, Germany), the commercial 3D image correlation system used for this work, represents a fifth
generation turnkey hardware/software product3, normally used with 12 or 24 frame per second CCD cameras. Recently,
500-frame per second cameras became available as an option. Based on the standard ARAMIS image processing
software, the authors have implemented and are now routinely using Phantom v7 CMOS high-speed cameras (Vision
Research, Wayne, NJ). At the 800x600 pixel full-frame setting, 4,800 frames per second can be captured, with exposure
times as short as 2 microseconds. By using a smaller area of interest, much higher frame rates are possible. For
example, much of the data in this paper from the NASA Glenn Ballistic Impact Research Lab was captured with
256x256 pixels, at 26,900 frames per second.

The system is calibrated using NIST-traceable calibration panels for each field of view (FOV). A sequence of pictures
of the panel at different distances and orientations is captured. Then a photogrammetry process known as bundle
adjustment is used to establish the precise relationship between the two cameras. This is essentially a ray-tracing process
to find unique intersection points, similar to how a GPS system triangulates coordinates. Each dot on the calibration
panel occupies more than 100 pixels on each camera sensor, so dot centers can be interpolated to an accuracy of at least
1/30 of a pixel. Additional pictures are used to correct for distortions in each lens-sensor set. With 1280 x 1024 pixel
standard cameras, the overall accuracy of the system can be conservatively stated as 1/30,000 the field of view. This
equates to 3 microns for a 100-mm field of view and 30 microns for a 1-meter field of view.

There are some special considerations when using high-speed cameras at 256x256 pixels. The ideal dot size is 3-5
pixels for the stochastic pattern. Since 256 is one-fifth of 1280, the dots must be five times larger. The small dots on
calibration panels or crosses cannot be resolved adequately with only 256 pixels across the width of the field of view.
Therefore, the cameras are calibrated at the full resolution of 800x600, and then a smaller area of interest is selected for
data acquisition. The difference between full-field and reduced field of view must be factored into lens selection,
working distance, and camera separation parameters.

The camera pair must be well-synchronized, to a fraction of the interframe time. Standard master/slave syncing is
adequate to maintain 1 microsecond jitter for stand-alone operation. Locking the cameras to IRIG time provides a
convenient way to synchronize additional cameras frame for frame. At the NASA Glenn Ballistic Impact Research Lab,
for example, it is routine to have a front view camera and an overhead projectile speed camera in addition to the image
correlation camera pair.

High intensity lighting is required, due to the short exposure times (tens of microseconds or less) associated with high-
speed photography. The “brute force” approach of 1,000 watt halogen lights may be adequate, but care must be taken to
avoid significant sample temperature increases. Hydrargyrum Medium arc-length Iodide lights, much more commonly
called HMIs, produce five times more light per watt than incandescents, and therefore heat test specimens much less.
Sequenced arrays of Megga-Flash magnesium filament bulbs have also been used successfully with the 3D image
correlation process.
In general, an engineering judgment has to be made for each given test series regarding the trade-off between spatial
resolution, temporal resolution, and displacement sensitivity, which affect field of view and frame rate selection. Since
impact tests typically produce relatively large displacements, reduction of displacement sensitivity by a factor of 5 or 10
is usually acceptable. The difference between 30 micron and 200 micron accuracy in a test involving 150 millimeters of
buckling, as shown in section 2.4, is negligible. However, for the ballistic fabric example in section 2.5, resolving local
ripples spatially is worth sacrificing a factor of 2 or 3 on the frame rate.

Data validity checks are an important part of the ARAMIS image correlation algorithm. An accuracy limit of 0.04 pixels
is typically set for shape matching of each facet, and an intersection error limit of 0.3 pixels is usual. It is considered
preferable to exclude a data point, rather than present a potentially inaccurate one.

2. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The following sections contain examples of recent and current projects based on high-speed 3D image correlation.

2.1. NASA Return to Flight: Initial laboratory gas gun impact tests on coupon samples
It is well known that the loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia on February 1, 2002 was caused by foam impact on the
reinforced carbon-carbon leading edge of the left wing4. Most people have seen the “smoking gun” video of a foam
block creating a large hole in an Orbiter wing. As dramatic as this was, it represented the beginning, not the end, of a
massive effort to resume manned space flight in the USA. One of the crucial tasks on the NASA Return to Flight critical
path is extensive impact testing of foam projectiles on various Orbiter subsections5. Beyond the immediate data of
damage tolerance thresholding, it is vital to develop and validate finite element models that predict the effects of
impacts6. The LS-DYNA team is making unprecedented, wide-scale use of high-speed 3D image correlation dynamic
displacement data in order to verify and iterate foam impact models.

It has been a privilege to first witness and then participate in the Return to Flight program. Thousands of NASA
employees and contractors have been working exhaustively on myriad tasks, sometimes beyond the limits of allowable
compensation time. Some individuals have lived extensively in hotels for more than a year, to support special field-
testing operations. STS-107 mission patches are prevalent, reminders of the critical nature of this work.

Initially, high-speed image correlation had to undergo basic feasibility studies to verify that it would work for ballistic
impacts in a vacuum chamber, and to make engineering judgments about parameters such as frame rates, exposure times,
and so on. Figure 2 shows the Phantom v7 stereo pair situated in front of a 2” thick Plexiglas window on a large vacuum
chamber door. The rear wall of the chamber has small angled glass windows, perfect for viewing 90-degree impacts, but
later in the test program, obtuse angles such as 13 degrees had to be tested. It was found that as long as the camera bar
does not move relative to the window, and the effects of the window are calibrated, data integrity is excellent. System
performance at 256x256 pixels, with inter-frame time of 37 microseconds, exceeded our expectations in terms of spatial
resolution and noise floor. Figure 3 shows out-of-plane displacement time history for a blank aluminum coupon.

Figure 2: Phantom v7 camera stereo pair situated in front of 2” (50 mm) thick Plexiglas window outside a vacuum chamber. This
large transparency supplements pairs of glass viewports to facilitate good views of a wide range of impact angles.
Figure 3: Out-of-plane displacement-time history of 50 milliseconds for a blank aluminum coupon sample. The data acquisition rate
was 26,900 frames per second. This was sufficient to resolve higher frequency structural responses.

2.2. Foam impacts on reinforced carbon-carbon coupon samples

Strain gauge and accelerometer data has frequently been used to verify finite element models of impact events. There
has simply not been a good way to measure relatively high amplitude dynamic displacements. 3D image correlation
combined with high-speed digital cameras such as Phantom v7s provides quantitative displacement distribution
information as well as maximum values and time histories, equivalent to hundreds or thousands of non-contact 3D
extensometers. In-plane strains are also determined.

Several test series were conducted to determine the effects of foam impacts on 6” square RCC coupon samples. ASCII
data exports for out-of-plane and in-plane displacement, strain along both axes of the sample, and principal and effective
strains have been provided to the NASA impact analysis team. Because these measurements are part of an ongoing
investigation, absolute values have been removed from the results included in this paper. The left column in Figure 4 is
a sequence of frames from the front view camera, showing foam impacting at 45 degrees incidence. It can be seen that
the foam compresses, with more of the front surface contacting the panel from frame to frame. The right column is the
corresponding set of 3D image correlation results shot from the back side, showing how the maximum deformation point
shifts with the effective loading area. Amplitude is also increasing, though this is not indicated in the autoscaled images.

Figure 5 is an example of LS-DYNA validation via direct comparison of predicted and actual out-of-plane
displacements, for foam impact on reinforced carbon-carbon, with a data acquisition rate of 26,900 frames per second.
For the undamaged case shown, agreement is excellent over the entire initial deflection and recovery period.
Figure 4: Sequence of auto-scaled images showing compression of foam as it impacts a reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) coupon
sample at 45 degrees. As more surface area of the foam contacts the panel, the maximum deflection locations shifts. Amplitude also
increases, though this is not indicated in the auto-scaled plots. Inter-frame time is 37 microseconds.
Figure 5: High-speed 3D image correlation displacement data closely matched LS-DYNA predictions for BX-250 foam impact at a
velocity below the damage threshold. (Courtesy of Karen Lyle)

2.3. Orbiter wing leading edge impact testing

Based on the successful implementation of high-speed 3D image correlation for laboratory coupon testing, it was
desirable to deploy the system during field-testing on complete leading edge panels. However, this presented several
additional challenges. The goal was to record deflections of the interior surface of the leading edge panel as it was
subject to an external foam impact. This necessitates fitting the stereo camera pair inside an extremely limited space,
and then also establishing uniform high intensity illumination. Furthermore, the leading edge is a very complex shape
compared to the flat coupon samples, with continuously varying angles of incidence between the cameras and the
surface. Finally, the cameras would have to be installed on an elevated gantry structure at an outdoor test range in
Southern Texas, with summer temperatures approaching 100 degrees.

The key to this possibility is the use of a first-surface mirror within the leading edge, in order to lengthen the effective
working distance from the cameras to the interior surface. It would be a significant engineering challenge to hold both
the camera bar and especially the mirror motionless relative to the test structure. However, this is not a necessary
condition for success. In principle, as long as the mirror moves as a rigid body, with no local deformations, it would be
the same as if there was no mirror, and only rigid body motion between the camera bar and test object. The image
correlation software can compensate for this motion, and display only the local deformation behavior, even if it is orders
of magnitude less than the rigid body effects.

This was demonstrated during a laboratory feasibility study using a fiberglass Orbiter wing panel (9 right) that had been
removed from Enterprise at the Air and Space Museum in support of Return to Flight testing. Enterprise had been used
for initial Space Shuttle glide testing, so each panel is identical to its RCC counterpart. Figure 6 shows the high-speed
camera bar fitting within the space that would be occupied by an adjacent panel on the wing. A patterned sheet of paper
was applied to the inner surface, and its shape was determined by capturing a pair of images. The noise floor was
verified by taking a second set of images with no change between them. Then the camera bar and the mirror were
purposely moved repeatedly between several sets of subsequent shots. It was demonstrated that, after rigid body
movement correction, the reported shapes matched within the noise floor accuracy of approximately 50 microns.

Therefore, it was decided to proceed with high-speed image correlation for a full-scale RCC leading edge test. Figure 7
shows the surface preparation; a modified spray can nozzle generated flat black splatter of the required size. The paint
was applied over three strain gauges within the field of view; lead wires were epoxied to the surface to prevent local
movements.
Figure 8 shows the camera bar installed on the full-scale test rig at Southwest Research Institute, viewing a mirror within
the panel. Because the leading edge is an aerodynamic structure, each of the 22 individual panels has a unique shape.
The panel 16 shot at Southwest had a much smaller opening than the panel 9 used in the lab. Figure 9 shows the
progression of displacements from a local deformation at the impact point to a global panel buckling (breathing) mode.

Figure 6: Lab feasibility test setup for Space Shuttle leading edge impact testing. The fiberglass panel 9 right was removed from the
orbiter Enterprise at the Air and Space Museum in support of Return to Flight activities. It was demonstrated that the camera bar and
mirror fit within limited space and enable a 14” field of view.

Figure 7: A random dot pattern was applied to the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) leading edge panel 16 using a modified spray
paint nozzle. There are three strain gauges within the ARAMIS field of view, under the paint. (Photos by Jim Sexton, Akima)
Figure 8: Calibrated pair of Phantom v7 cameras in position for Orbiter wing leading edge panel 16 field test. A first-surface mirror
is mounted to a crossbar isolated from the aluminum wing sub-structure. Rigid-body movements of the camera bar and/or mirror
relative to the RCC panel can be eliminated via a software algorithm for deformation analysis. Since strain data is based on
differentiation of displacement data, rigid body motion does not influence strain computation.

Figure 9: Euler displacements showing transition from impact point deformation to panel breathing mode.
2.4. Air blast panel tests
The loss of seven American astronauts was an instant tragedy. How, then, can we describe the loss of more than 1,000
American military personnel in Iraq? Many fatalities have been caused by improvised explosive devices (IEDs), rocket
propelled grenades (RPGs), and land mines. It seems appropriate that the development of high-speed 3D image
correlation was stimulated by efforts at the Army Research Lab (ARL) to develop truck doors and other structures that
can better protect occupants from air blast effects7.

The first successful air blast field measurements using Phantom v7 cameras with ARAMIS 3D image correlation were
conducted in early spring 2004, the day after a significant blizzard. The high-speed camera bar was situated behind a
test panel, together with LVDTs and other point probes, as shown in Figure 10. The panel buckled approximately six
inches in one millisecond. Although this test was conducted at “only” 4,800 frames per second, some interesting
instantaneous operating deflection shapes were captured, such as the triple lobed response shown in Figure 11. A single
point probe at the center of the panel would have absolutely no knowledge of this behavior. As is true of the foam
impact work, the main use of dynamic measurements such as these is to help develop and verify finite element models
that can then be used to design robust structures. The displacement time history in Figure 12 provides important
damping characteristic information.

Figure 10: The air blast panel testing was conducted the day after a blizzard. Here the camera bar and lights are being positioned
around other instrumentation such as LVDTs.

Figure 11: Out-of-plane displacement at frame 4 indicated a triple lobe.

Figure 12: Out-of-plane displacement time history for the point indicated by a black dot on the inset. Initial deformation was
approximately six inches in about one millisecond. The panel rebounded about ten inches over the next few milliseconds, and then
moved to a final position with about two inches of plastic deformation.

2.5. Ballistic impact on Kevlar

The ballistic impact tolerance of Kevlar and similar materials is of great interest to the raw material manufacturers,
fabric weavers, producers of bulletproof vests and body armor, and end users including police and military personnel.
Another important application for ballistic fabrics is jet engine fan blade containment structures, where they offer the
potential for significant weight savings.

High-speed 3D image correlation was recently used to evaluate the performance of a single ply Kevlar sheet when
impacted by a 22-caliber projectile. As shown in Figure 13, the stereo camera pair was mounted off-axis, above the gun
axis, with a ½” Plexiglas shield as further debris protection. The Kevlar was prepared with a speckled paint pattern in
the usual manner.

The fundamental goal of these tests was to quantify the maximum out-of-plane deflection that occurs at velocities
approaching the penetration threshold. This proved to be quite straightforward. In Figure 14, maximum value as well as
interesting rebound behavior is indicated. Ongoing tests will include further analysis of full-field behavior such as
dynamic rippling, and comparison of various weaves and alternative ballistic fabrics. High-speed 3D image correlation
can also be used to evaluate and tune the performance of more complex configurations such as shoot packs, helmets, and
so on.
Figure 13: The ARAMIS camera bar was mounted above the projectile axis, looking down through a Plexiglas shield. High power
halogen lights from both sides, combined with the high sensitivity of Phantom v7 cameras, enabled exposure times of 20
microseconds. The patterned Kevlar sheet is in the wooden frame, with the gun barrel out of view further to the left.

Figure 14: The out-of-plane displacement time history shows a rapid deformation within about 2 milliseconds after impact, followed
by a much slower rebound and relaxation. Note that there are several slope changes, indicating velocity transitions, during the
rebound.

3. CONCLUSIONS

3D image correlation using high-speed cameras has been shown to be an invaluable tool, now in everyday use at NASA
Glenn for ballistic impact investigations. The technique is also broadly applicable for air blast deformation
measurements, crash testing, high strain rate testing, and other dynamic phenomenon. Initial analysis of lab qualification
tests indicates that dynamic strain data is in agreement with mechanical gauges. Dynamic displacement data forms the
basis for validation and iteration of LS-DYNA models. Measurements have been performed in adverse field conditions,
including extreme heat and cold, inside and through vacuum chambers, and in close proximity to high explosives.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors could not have developed high-speed 3D image correlation into a robust, everyday field tool without
significant help from many sources. Dr. Chris Conley from West Point first stimulated the development effort at Trilion.
Reed Skaggs and Kevin Boyd from Army Research Lab coordinated the air blast panel initial field demonstration. It has
been a pleasure to work closely with Mike Pereira, Santo Padula II, Jeff Hammel, Dale Hopkins and other members of
the NASA Glenn Ballistic Impact Research Lab. Philip Kopfinger of Lockheed Martin oversaw the first rigorous
validation testing of high-speed 3D image correlation for ballistic impact work, on highly instrumented external tank
coupon samples. Thanks to Kelly Carney and Karen Lyle for valuable discussions about FEA modeling. Jim Sexton
(Akima, supporting NASA Glenn) provided mechanical assistance for the full-scale leading edge tests. Justin Kerr of
NASA Johnson coordinated the Orbiter wing leading edge work performed at Southwest Research Institute.

All of the image correlation results were processed using the GOM ARAMIS version 5.3 software.
Andy Kubit, Tim Mills and Bill Shipman provided exceptional technical support for the Phantom v7 cameras used in
each of these tests.

REFERENCES

1) Schmidt, Tyson and Galanulis, Full-Field Dynamic Displacement and Strain Measurement Using Advanced 3D
Image Correlation Photogrammetry, Experimental Techniques, Part I: May/June 2003, Vol. 27 #3, p.47-50, Part II:
July/Aug, Vol. 27 #4, p.44-47.

2) Z.L. Kahn-Jetter and T.C. Chu, Three-dimensional Displacement Measurements Using Digital Image Correlation and
Photogrammetric Analysis, Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 10-16, March 1990.

3) ARAMIS v5.3.0 User Manual, Revision A, GOM mbH, Braunschweig, Germany, August 20, 2004.

4) Gehman, H.W. et al, Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report Volume 1, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, August 2003.

5) J. Michael Pereira, Matthew E. Melis, and Duane M. Revilock, A Summary of the Space Shuttle Columbia Tragedy
and the Use of Digital High Speed Photography in the Accident Investigation and NASA’s Return-to-Flight Effort, SPIE
26th ICHSPP, September 2004.

6) Melis, Carney et al, A Summary of the Space Shuttle Columbia Tragedy and the Use of LS DYNA in the Accident
Investigation and Return to Flight Efforts, 8th International LS-DYNA Users Conference, Dearborn, Michigan, May 2-4,
2004.

7) Conley, C.H. and Gregory, F.H., “Characterization of Air Blast-Loaded FRP-Composites,” presented at the 14th US
National Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Blacksburg, VA, 27 June 2002.