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ENGINEERING MATERIALS
211104

SEMESTER ASSIGNMENT:

NON-FERROUS ALLOY-
HEAT TREATABLE WROUGHT
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
(AA2024)
Submitted By: Shahzaib Anwar
180501008
Shoaib Shaheen
180501022
Tauseef Attique
180501006
M. Umer
180501034
Group No. 6
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Submitted to: Dr. Abrar ul Haq

Baluch
Department: Mechanical (07)
Institute of Space Technology
Date of Submission: 1st January, 2020

Table of Contents
Aluminum:.......................................................................................................................................3
Physical Properties and Applications of Aluminum:.......................................................................3
Aluminum Alloys............................................................................................................................4
Classification of Aluminum Alloys.................................................................................................4
Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System......................................................................4
Cast Aluminum Alloy Designation System.............................................................................4
Heat Treatable and Non-Heat Treatale Aluminum Alloys.......................................................5
Heat Treatable Wrought Aluminum Alloys....................................................................................6
Temper Designation System for Aluminum Alloys........................................................................6
2xxx Series.......................................................................................................................................7
2024.................................................................................................................................................7
Chemical Composition....................................................................................................................7
Physical Properties...........................................................................................................................7
Mechanical Properties.....................................................................................................................8
Phase Diagram.................................................................................................................................8
Stress Strain Curve........................................................................................................................10
Solid Solution Formation...............................................................................................................10
Material Failure.............................................................................................................................11
S-N Diagram...........................................................................................................................11
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Heat Treatment..............................................................................................................................12
Applications...................................................................................................................................13
15
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ALUMINUM:
Aluminum is the most abundant non-ferrous metal and is the third most common element
comprising 8% of the earth’s crust. The vast applications and the good physical and
mechanical properties of aluminum makes it the most widely used metal after steel.
Aluminum is a silverish white look and has a strong resistance to corrosion. Aluminum is
malleable and workable. It is derived from the ore bauxite.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF

ALUMINUM:
Aluminum has a density one third the density of steel making it one of the lightest
commercially available metals. Even though they have lower tensile properties when
compared to steel their strength to weight ratio is exceptionally high making it an important
structural material allowing increased payloads or fuel savings for transport industries in
particular. It has FCC structure. It has good thermal and electrical conductivity. When
exposed to air, a layer of aluminum oxide forms almost instantaneously on the surface of
aluminum. This layer has excellent resistance to corrosion. The thermal conductivity of
aluminum is about three times greater than that of steel. This makes aluminum an important
material for both cooling and heating applications such as heat exchangers. Combined with it
being nontoxic this property means aluminum is used extensively in cooking utensils and
kitchenware. Along with copper, aluminum has an electrical conductivity high enough for use
as an electrical conductor. Although the conductivity of the commonly used conducting alloy
(1350) is only around 62% of annealed copper, it is only one third the weight and can
therefore conduct twice as much electricity when compared with copper of the same weight.
From UV to infrared, aluminum is an excellent reflector of radiant energy. Visible light
reflectivity of around 80% means it is widely used in light fixtures. The same properties of
reflectivity makes aluminum ideal as an insulating material to protect against the sun’s rays in
summer, while insulating against heat loss in winter.

PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM:
Atomic Number 13
Atomic Weight (g/mole) 26.98
Valence 3
Crystal Structure FCC
Melting Point (°C) 660.2
Boiling Point (°C) 2480
Mean Specific Heat (0100°C) (Cal/g.°C) 0.219
Thermal Conductivity (0100°C) (Cal/cms. °C) 0.57
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (0100°C) (x10
23.5
/°C)
Electrical Resistivity at 20°C (Ω.cm) 2.69
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 68.3
Poisson’s Ratio 0.34
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ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
Aluminum alloys are alloys in which aluminum (Al) is the predominant metal. The typical
alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin and zinc. Pure aluminum
doesn’t have a high tensile strength. However, the addition of alloying elements like
manganese, silicon, copper and magnesium can increase the strength properties of aluminum
and produce an alloy with properties tailored to particular applications. Aluminum alloys are
the most widely used non-ferrous metals in engineering owing to their attractive properties,
such as high strength-to-weight ratio, good ductility, good corrosion resistance, availability
and low cost. Aluminum alloys do not exhibit transition from ductile to brittle phase at low
temperatures. Aluminum alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components
where light weight or corrosion resistance is required.
Nevertheless, they do not show a true endurance limit so even at low stresses fatigue failure
may occur. On the other hand aluminum alloys are favorable as structural materials because
of their high specific strength and stiffness. Due to this they are being used in automobile
industries as basic constituents of internal combustion engines like cylinder blocks, cylinder
heads and pistons.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS:

Aluminum alloys are classified into two main categories that are; namely casting alloys and
wrought alloys. These are further classified as heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable.

WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOY DESIGNATION SYSTEM:

Alloy Series Principal Alloying Element
1xx 99.000% Minimum Aluminum
2xx Copper
3xx Manganese
4xx Silicon
5xx Magnesium
6xx Magnesium and Silicon
7xx Zinc
8xx Other Elements

CAST ALUMINUM ALLOY DESIGNATION SYSTEM:

Principal Alloying
Alloy Series
Element
99.000% minimum
1xx.x
Aluminum
2xx.x Copper
3xx.x Silicon Plus Copper and/or
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Magnesium
4xx.x Silicon
5xx.x Magnesium
6xx.x Unused Series
7xx.x Zinc
8xx.x Tin
9xx.x Other Elements

Aluminum alloys are classified as heat treatable or non - heat treatable, depending on whether
or not they respond to precipitation hardening. Heat treatable alloys are also produced by the
addition of alloying elements to the pure aluminum. These elements include copper (2xxx
series), magnesium and silicon, which is able to form the compound magnesium silicide
(6xxx series), and zinc (7xxx series).

HEAT TREATABLE AND NON-HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS:

Classification Alloys
Non – Heat
1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, 5xxxx, 8xxx series alloys
Treatable
Heat Treatable 2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx series alloys

The heat treatable alloys contain elements that decrease in dissolubility with decreasing
temperature and in concentrations that exceed their balance solid dissolubility at room and
fractionally higher temperatures.
About 85% of aluminum is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils
and extrusions. Cast aluminum alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting
point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys.

 Copper has appreciable solubility in aluminum and imparts a substantial

strengthening effect through the age-hardening characteristics of the alloy. Many aluminum
alloys contain copper either as the major addition or among the principal alloying elements,
in concentrations of 1 to 10%.
 Manganese has limited solid solubility in aluminum, but in concentrations of about
1% forms an important series of non- heat-treatable wrought aluminum alloys.
 Silicon lowers the melting point and increases the fluidity of aluminum. A moderate
increase in strength is also provided by silicon additions.
 Magnesium provides substantial strengthening and improvement of the work-
hardening characteristics of aluminum. It has a relatively high solubility in solid aluminum
but Al-Mg alloys containing less than 7% Mg do not show appreciable heat-treatment
characteristics. Magnesium is also added in combination with other elements, notably copper
and zinc, for even greater improvements in strength.
 Zinc is employed in casting alloys and in conjunction with magnesium in wrought
alloys to produce heat-treatable alloys having the highest strength among aluminum alloys.
 Tin improves the antifriction characteristic of aluminum, and cast Al-Sn alloys are
often used for bearings.
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 Copper and silicon are alloyed together in the commonly used 3xx.x series casting
alloys. Desirable ranges of characteristics and properties are obtained in both heat-treatable
and non-heat- treatable alloys.
 Magnesium and silicon are added in approximate proportions to form Mg2Si, which
is a basis for age-hardening in both wrought and cast alloys.

HEAT TREATABLE WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS:

These are precipitation-hardenable type of alloys. Thus, these alloys must be showing
characteristics like, decrease of the solid solubility with the fall of temperature; retention of
high temperature single phase solid solution by quenching to room temperature as
supersaturated solid solution; ageing causes precipitation of coherent/semi-coherent
phase/phases.

The heat treatable aluminium alloys can be grouped into two classes- Alloys having medium
strength but readily weldable, for example, Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg alloys (6xxx and 7xxx
series); alloys having high strengths but limited weldability. These alloys are primarily for
aircraft parts, for example, Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys (2xxx series).

Some alloys are strengthened by solution heat-treating and then quenching, or rapid cooling.
Heat treating takes the solid, alloyed metal and heats it to a specific point.  The alloy
elements, called solute, are homogeneously distributed with the aluminum putting them in a
solid solution.  The metal is subsequently quenched, or rapidly cooled, which freezes the
solute atoms in place.  The solute atoms consequently combine into a finely distributed
precipitate.  This occurs at room temperature which is called natural aging or in a low
temperature furnace operation which is called artificial aging.

TEMPER DESIGNATION SYSTEM FOR ALUMINUM ALLOYS:

Temper Definition
F As fabricated
O Annealed
H1 Strain-hardened only
H2 Strain-hardened and partially annealed
Strain-hardened and stabilized (mechanical properties stabilized by
H3
low-temperature thermal treatment)
Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and naturally aged
T1
to a substantially stable condition
Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked, and
T2
naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, and naturally aged to a substantially
T3
stable condition
T4 Solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
T5 Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and artificially aged
T6 Solution heat-treated and artificially aged
T7 Solution heat-treated and stabilized
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T8 Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, and artificially aged

T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and cold-worked
Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked, and
T10
artificially aged

A temper number is used to indicate how the product was fabricated.

2xxx SERIES:
The principal alloying element in the 2xxx series is copper (copper additions ranging from
0.7 to 6.8%). Silicon (Si), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), nickel (Ni) and titanium (Ti)
may be added to the alloys of 2xxx series as minor alloying elements. Heat treating these
alloys improves their strength. These alloys are strong and tough, but not as corrosion
resistant as other aluminum alloys, so they are usually painted or coated for use. For
increasing corrosion resistance of parts made of aluminum-copper alloys they are clad with
pure aluminum or with 6xxx alloys. Ductility of the alloy decreases as a result of the heat
treatment. The most common aircraft alloy is 2024. Alloy 2024-T351 is among the hardest of
the aluminum alloys. Aluminum-copper alloys (2xxx series) are used in aircraft structures
and propellers, automotive bodies, screw fittings.

The important alloys in this series are; 2011, 2014, 2017, 2024, 2124, and 2219.

2024:
2024 aluminium alloy is an aluminium alloy, with copper as the primary alloying element. It
is used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio, as well as
good fatigue resistance. It is weldable only through friction welding, and has
average machinability. Due to poor corrosion resistance, it is often clad with aluminium or
Al-1Zn for protection, although this may reduce the fatigue strength.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:

Cu=4 - 4.4%, Mn=0.60%, Mg = 1.5%, Al balance

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Properties Values In metric Units
Density 2.78 *10³ kg/m³
Modulus of elasticity 73 GPa
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 23.2*10-6 ºCˉ¹
Specific heat capacity 875 J/(kg*K)
Thermal conductivity 193 W/(m*K)
Electric resistivity 3.49*10-8 Ohm*m
Melting Point 935(Solidus)- (°F)
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1180(Liquidus)

MECHANICAL PRPERTIES:
Alloys
Properties
T0 T1 T3 T6
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 73.1 73.1 73.1 72.4
186 482 468 427
Tensile strength (MPa)
Yield strength (MPa) 76 345 325 345
Elongation (%) 22 18 20-25 5
Shear strength (MPa) 124 283 283 283
Shear Modulus (GPa) 28 28 28 27
Fracture Toughness (MPa-
26-37
m^1/2)
Fatigue strength (MPa) 90 138 138 124
Poisson Ratio 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33
Hardness (HB) 47 120 120 125
Annealing temperature (ͦ C) 413 413 413 413
Solution temperature (ͦ C) 256 256 256 256
Aging temperature (ͦ C) 191

PHASE DIAGRAM:
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Al-Cu phase diagram is an example of general diagrams. It is a complex diagram that can be
analyzed as a simple binary eutectic in the high aluminum region.

It is a eutectic system. The equilibrium eutectic phases are α and θ. The α-phase is a solid
solution rich in aluminum and θ is an intermetallic phase CuAl2. Intermetallic CuAl2 , is
hard brittle. Single solid solution exists at the α and θ only. In between there is a eutectic
mixture of α + θ. Solid alloy between the end member solid solutions consists of a so-called
eutectic mixture of two phases α and θ. At room temp  and  phases are stable.

Microstructure Development
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The aluminum-copper phase diagram and the microstructures that may develop during
cooling of an Al-4% Cu alloy (2024). The Al-4% Cu alloy (2024) has a eutectic mixture of α
and θ up to approximately 500 ͦ C. Al- 4% Cu alloy (2024) is 100%  above 500 C. Above
approximately 570 ͦ C the alloy has a mixture of  and liquid phase L. Solubility of  sharply
decreases with temp. And above 660 ͦ C the alloy is in liquid phase.

STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM:

True Stress-True Strain Diagram For 2024-T3 obtained from quasi-static test

From this graph it is clear that 2024-T3 undergoes ductile deformation that contains elastic
deformation and plastic deformation regions. 2024-T3 undergoes elastic deformation until it
reaches a yield strength of 325 MPa. During the region of elastic deformation the ratio of
stress to strain remains constant and the alloy obeys Hooke’s Law i.e; stress applied is
proportional to the strain produced. The ratio of stress to strain is known as elastic modulus
and its value is about 73 GPa. After reaching yield strength, further increasing the stress
results in the plastic deformation of the alloy. When the stress is further increased there
reached a certain point known as ultimate tensile strength. In this case its value is
approximately 468 MPa. The total percent elongation of the alloy before it fails is about 25-
27%.

SOLID SOLUTION FORMATION:

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Some simple empirical laws on solid solution formation in the alloys have been given by
Hume Rothery. These four laws are based on the size factor, the structure, the
electronegativity and the valences.
1. Less than about 15% difference in atomic radii
2. The same crystal structure
3. Similar electronegativities (the ability of the atom to attract an electron)
4. The same valence

For Al-Cu Alloys:

1st Law rAl= 1.43 ˚A and rCu= 1.28 ˚A. ∆R% = -10.5% Favorable
nd
2 Law Al and Cu both have the fcc structure Favorable
3rd Law EAl= 1.38 et ECu= 1.78. ∆E% = 29% Not- Favorable
th
4 Law The valence of Al is +3 and Cu +1 Not- Favorable

Copper atoms are too large to fit into any interstitial sites within the FCC lattice of
aluminium, and they are thus substitutional.

MATERIAL FAILURE:
Aluminum Alloy 2024 is failed due to fatigue.

S-N DIAGRAM:
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S-N Curve for 2024-T3 alloy for Dry Fatigue.

Dry Fatigue occurs at normal or room temperature S-N Curve has 3 parts namely; Low
Cycle, High Cycle, and unlimited fatigue life line. Low Cycle is the portion of S-N curve that
shows the decrease in materials strength from UTS to YS. High Cycle is the portion that
shows the decrease in strength of material from YS to fatigue strength. The given S-N Curve
has only High Cycle portion. From the graph it is clear that the fatigue strength of 2024-T3 is
reached from its YS approximately after 10 * 10^6 cycles. Thus after these number of cycles
of repeated application of stress or loadings a limiting value of about 138 MPa is retained
infinitely. This limiting value of fatigue strength of 2024-T3 is less than one-third of its
tensile strength.

HEAT TREATMENT:
To increase the strength of aluminum alloys Heat treatment is done which is carried out in
three-steps:

• Solution heat treatment: dissolution of soluble phases

• Quenching: development of super saturation

•Age hardening: precipitation of solute atoms either at room temperature (natural aging) or
elevated temperature (artificial aging or precipitation heat treatment)
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Temperature ranges for annealing, precipitation heat treating, and solution heat treating are indicated
below. The range for solution treating is below the eutectic melting point of 548°C (1018°F) at 5.65wt
% Cu.

Solution Treatment, or Solutionizing, is the first step in which alloy is heated above solvus
& below solidus.  and other micro constituents dissolve.  a single solid solution forms.

Quenching is the second step where solute atoms are not allowed to diffuse to nucleation
sites. Inhibit  formation.  is supersaturated / non equilibrium.

Aging is the third step where the alloy heated  below solvus. Extra Cu diffuses to short
distances, forms  at numerous sites →  +  equilibrium structure.
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The aluminum rich end of the Al-Cu phase diagram showing the three steps in the age-
hardening heat treatment and the microstructures that are produced.

APPLICATIONS:
It is used in applications where high strength to weight ratio, as well as good fatigue
resistance is required. It has excellent machinability in the T-tempers. Aluminum is
extensively and commonly used in the following applications:
Due to its high strength and fatigue resistance, 2024 is widely used in aircraft,
especially wing and fuselage structures under tension.
It is used for truck wheels, gears for machinery, screw machine products, automotive parts,
cylinders and pistons, fasteners, machine parts, ordnance, recreation equipment, gears and
shafts, bolts, clock, computer parts, couplings, fuse parts, hydraulic valve bodies, missile
parts, munitions, rectifier parts.
Aluminum 2024 alloy is also used in the manufacture of scientific instruments.
In plate forms Aluminum alloy 2024 are used in shear webs and ribs, fuselage structures,
wing tension members and other structural areas which require stiffness, fatigue performance
and good strength. And in sheet form aluminum alloy 2024 are used in commercial and
military aircraft for fuselage skins.
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REFERENCES:

1. J.G. Kaufinan and M. Holt, "Fracture Characteristics of Aluminum Alloys," Technical

Paper 18, Alcoa Research Laboratories, 1965
2. Aluminum:Technology, Applications, and Environment, by Dr. Dietrich G. Altenpohl,
The Aluminum Association and TMS,1998.
3. M. Draissia, H. Boudemagh and M.Y. Debili: “Structure and Hardness of the
Sputtered Al-Cu Thin Films System”, Physica Scripta, Vol. 69, (2004), pp. 348–350.
4. T. Park, M. Kim, B. Jang, J. Lee and J. Park, "A nonlinear constant life model for the
fatigue life prediction of composite structures", Advanced Composite materials, Vol.
23(4), 2014, pp. 337-350
5. Coffin, L. (1954): A study of the effect of cyclic thermal stresses on a ductile metal,
in: Trans. ASME, Volume 76, 931–950
6. T. Croucher, ‘‘Quenching of Aluminum Alloys: What This Key Step Accomplishes’’,
Heat Treating, 1982, pp. 20^21.
7. L. Backerud et al., in: Wrought Alloys, Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum
Alloys, Vol. 1, Skanaluminium, 1986.

8. http://www.alumeco.com/Knowledge-and-technique/Aluminium-data
9. https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/2024-aluminium –quenching
10. http://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/aluminium/classification-of-
aluminium-alloys-metallurgy/26578
11. https://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=ktn&NM=235
12. https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=wrought_aluminum-
copper_alloy_2024
13. https://www.engineersedge.com/materials/heat_treating_of_aluminum_alloys_10079,
htm
14. https://www.aluminum.org/resources/industry-standards/aluminum-alloys-101
15. http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA2024T4
16. https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/metals-metal-products/2024-aluminum/