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    Wren, D.A. & Greenwood, R-G. (1998) (Pp. 170-189) (Pp. 190-203)

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    MANAGEMENT INNOVATORS The People and Ideas ‘That Have Shaped Modern Business Daniel A. Wren The late Ronald G. Greenwood | New York Oxford University Press 1098 om omit © 96 sed Uae rm ne ‘Agama ete el nto eaten SSS tee niente! Seams (Seems eget ‘Sey en man sina gs ens Spy Oe depy ne pote Eger npc te SSeS eect pla ae nce ae ‘To the family, lends, colleagues, and students of Rorald Guy Greewwood MOTIVATORS urn motivation has been problematic ince the Ret human wondered ‘why her or his fellow hurmans did what they did. Some, uch a Peter each, suggest, “We kaow nothing about motivation. All we can do is ‘waite books about i" Is Drucker ght? Or can we earn rom others and “understand beter this puzzling qussion? The word martin comes fom the Latin mower, "to move from tht roor comes mote, why someone oes something, and motion, what impel, incites, o induces people to actos they do, “The ancient Grek philosophy of hedonism rst aricubsted the enduring ‘elie tha peopl ek plearsle experiences and act toi paint ones Torexample, the ale ofthe donkey driver who uses both caret anda ce provides an cary way of ying people canbe ple by rewards or pushed by punishments, But the medieval philosopher Jenn Buridan sugested 2 ‘more dificule problem, that ofthe donkey who starves while standing balay between two equally attractive bales of hay. This analogy further complates our understanding ofthe poces of human cole, ‘Some people ague tha fears the greatest mouvator, while other ay thatthe hungry petson makes the most elabe, igent employee twat this thinking shat led people to label economics asthe “dismal slence. [Counzertothe ea of keeping employees at the subsistence evel was Adam Smith the cghteenth-century Liberal economist, who argued tat “where ‘rage ace high, accordingly we sal always ind he workmen more ative, (lien, and expedisous tha where they are low Smith's poston was eflected in the ute of economic incentive sytem sn he emerging Bich fctony and in Ameria, giving ret the notion of economies.” Frederick W, Taylor, for example, engaged in work Jmprovement ecigues find better ways odo job, ost performance standard, ant ew employes for mesting or exceeding the andar While engineers dominated the aystematemanagement period f pay for performance, others were beginning to question "ecanomie man" assump- ons “The figures we have chosen ae motivators were soil and behavoral sch atts whose philosophies exend our understanding of modtvaion. Elton Mayo emphasized the soil aspects of work and che type of supervisor needed to tinilate both improved morale and betes performance; Abra ‘ham Maslow wrote of human neds and their ol in why we work: and Frederick Herbeng fl that alfiing work would emiate the nee forthe ‘carota heck “The General Bete Compaay wanted t sll more ight bulbs—how many prychologits, engines, and socal scents would it ake to do this lec te lighting had nt bee fly istale in ofces and factorix in the easly twentieth century, so GE sponsored research int the question of whether ‘rot inpeomed ihtng led to proved performance. An ec researcher wat paychologis, Hugo Museen, bot his eu id not ly support 2 reltonship between ilmination and prodctvty. Rather than surzen- ‘exing, GE sponse other rerarch that produced more sang resus, lnting that bee lighting let increases in employee product. ‘Concerned that ts sponsorhp of ths research might lea to questions sbout the valid of the findings, GE provided the money fr an impart _r0up, she National Research Counc, o eanduet another study. The pace ‘chosen for tudy war the Haweborse plant ofthe Western Electric Com: pany the exeipmentrapply am of AT&T. The research group consied of lectrical engineer from the Massachusers lstiute of Technology, and ‘hey began thee workin 924. Thy observed exiting lighting conivons ‘nd performance records in Wester Flt’ pach press, coll winding, tnd relay assembly departments to establish « baseline forthe level of ‘worker performance. The level of lighting was then varied in all groupe ‘with the result that ouput “bobbed up and dow” without any relation to ‘tamination, Forging ahead, they selected two groups of coil winding operators, ‘equal inexperience and performance, and designated one the experimental group thats, the level of lighting was to be vasa}, and one the control group (no changes ia lighting were co be made). The groups were placed in dierent balling, separae from the osber employes. na suprising ing, oatput wen up in oth groups. In another attempt, productivity was ‘maintained even unde condition of insuficien lighring In one instance, the lighting was gradually lowered down othe level of moonlight; gai. ‘ouput went up ‘The Relay Asem Tes Room {In oa7 the electrical engineers gave up, but some Western Elects maa agers ecognized tha something other than lighting was improving perfor: mance, and thar an answer could be found t would be import. GE and the National Research Coun dropped their ssport, but Wester Electric continued by having one of delay assemblers selec: four other employees to form znew group fo study layout operator was appointed to make sure the pats supply was accurate and adequate ad one ofthe company -supervsors was chosen to oserve—and oy not ta be a "boss tobe supportive ofthe assembles. “The relay assembly group was placed in a separate om, the plan of the sad was explained and, eo ensure hat no one was hurt frundally by the ‘change, hey were put ona small group incentive plan tha ave them the ‘opportunity to earn more money if they atembled more relays. Over a peviod of time, the overall rend wat «dramatic improvement a ouput Bur what was rexponsble forthe reduced absences, higher morale, snd Increased output Rest pauses had been introduced, but these di not appeae to seduce fatigue, so ha was not the answer. The smaller ize ofthe group Ww com sidered: one asembler ported the group "was fu family you know el Friend” Also, the st zoom observer supervisor wasn dramatic contrat to the regular supervisor, Fra Plateka, Ax one of the operators, Theres. Layman, explained, "We were more razed. We dle see the boss [Piseka didn't hearin... he was mean. He eI didnt even goto see him." Wester Hlecxe reported ha the employes were more “content” he to the “pleaanter eer, and hapler working conditions canedby the *cosiderate supervision “The opportunity o take mote money was aso considered a 2 posse factor, On the shop floor there were more than hundred assemblers aid ‘on lage group cate an each cou cd le to ferease his or he ay, but Inthe eto those operators ona small group rate wer able to ncrease thelr “carnings..slgncnty above the lino] sate average for let ‘al apparatus workers] and, even more dramatically, above the regular Akeparemene pay the workers recall receiving before the test.” Thee average ‘wage before gong nt the test room was 6 ps week, but nthe test room they averaged fom tattoo per week: whea one of the operators was shed what they liked about the test room, che response was "We made ‘more money nthe test oom.” Water Elec personne manages, Mak Putnam, ol asics Wick ha ay was the number-one concer expressed byemployes when they were interviewed in 930, [Another possibly was the attention they wert receiving from their bserver supervisor. But when asked the operitrs said that they didnot ‘set diferent cause they were being watched by this ‘endl supers: $02: "No, we kept working. Ie dda matter who watched us or who talked ous” Another aed ha the workers “got lax” atthe study went on? ‘The Soil Person “The “offic” explanation of what happened to cause the increased produc try came fom a miitmannered profesor of phlosophy and psychology fiom Australia, George Elton Mayo wat bors December 5, 1880 in Ade Ini, He was edeated in logic and pslosophy atthe Univesity of Ade Inie, tog st Queensland University, and would later study medicine in Edinburgh, Scorlnd. His family wanted him co become 2 doctor of med ‘ine, bat May fled an examination and that cerminate his opportunity fora caeerin mesicne From medicine May tuned to plyslogy,pychatry. and psychology as ‘applied to the wookplace. He was able to emigrate to the United States in :33) and fond a month esearch appelntment withthe Wharton School ‘of Finance and Economy athe Univesity of Pennspvania. Mayo’ esearch ‘vith various ims inthe Philadelphia ares concerned how a person's past experiences home life, and working conditions led to obsessional eveses, which in sam became emotional maladies that led t higher employee turnove low productivity and rail views of society These ses were of ‘widespread concern among academics and businesspeople, and mamerou lectures by Mayo auacted a broader audience and a nitation to jon the Harvard Unlerty Graduate Schol of Business Admit. ‘Arriving at Harvard in 126, Mayo was co devote all of his time to research and his only contact with tuents in those eaty years weee three Jeceares per academic year concering hs resarch findings Mayo's research vas far anging, as evidenced by J Edgar Hoover’ invitation to talk to Fe eal Bureau of Invegaton inseractore abou interviewing techniques, “Mayo became an adviser tothe movie industry and, a reques fm fa, he “recognise how movies could broaden and enrich .. e conchided ‘hatin Hollywood there was a systematic attempt to destroy the soci oder... (Mayo) provided guides for selecting fll ploss—the sory must relate to ‘contemporary circumstance’ plots should not abandon their socal messge nor be too ‘sentimental oe nonsensical’ [and the sory should noc be secondary to sex—tove, es, bu nt mere sex—because it ‘cannot susan iret fortwo hours! ~! Hollywood never accepted Mayo's ‘eas and she industry's wayward ways continued, in Mayo's opinion, to destroy he soci abs Mayo’ classroom syle was relaxed: e chose rst ona ale closer he students ates than using te ecter, as most instructors dd. He wished to erate an ar of informality to encourage diacisson, and he would «ross legged onthe able; a tadets 30m eared, hit socks offen failed to match, and they began the practice of guessing what the colors of Maye socks would be that day ‘Although Mayo appeared relzed and informa, hsbiogrpher noted that “to some people he seemed arrogant” Whether to sudents to prospec: tive faculty members, Mayo's remarks could becutng, a the fllowing Incideneusats In na, calyx bl caeer, Peter Druckerintrvewed for 2 facity poston at Harvard nthe dscusion filling presentation by Mayo, Drucker took sue with Mayo's ew of autho tha cooperation required the consent of subordinates ai could not be niposed on ther by 2 domineering exccutive. Drucker fet that human relations could be used ‘by supervisors to manipulate employees. Mayo, upset this view stood and poked fun at Drucker's postion: "To show what subordinate thinks shou manipulative boss, Mayo pus thumb o his nose and, Joking st Drucker ake You know what shis means” Drucker dd not. "Then you should replied Mayo." Ie was apparent wo thos in attedance that May's thumbiag hie nose meant not ony “the attude ofa subornate who was tuwiling ro consent to deste frm a domineering bos but alo May's ‘ew ofthe eas that Drucker ad expressed" ‘Drucker did not get an ofr fiom Harvard, and he eventual jolned the faculty at Bennington College i» Vermont. Mayo and Drucker exchanged apolgles,bot Drcker apparently was sil carrying some of that baggage tn later years when he expressed his feling that Harvard’ goal was “to become educations ighese qual delicatessen tore."* We will never now ‘whether or not there would have ben enough space f= Morgan Hall con ‘ain both lion Mayo and Peter Drucker Instead, each would go his way cach leaving inde marin management history If Hollywood would not help mend shredding sca ibric,pethaps Mayo could ind snacher avenue Although many of the studies had been done when Mayo ative, be took Hawthorne as means of interpreting ‘hat future managers should do human reains. Inox, a the eight of| the Geeat Depression, ermployees a the usualy ob secure Wester Bete ‘Company were being lai off andthe suds of employe behavior atthe Hiwthorne plant were creeping to a hal. Ina speech tha same year, Mayo cowed these dial ines, paling eater forms of community ie in which work was part ofa colectiv socal bic that provided solidarcy tnd belonging. With the Depeeson ths communal onenes was eglected tndhad o be restored ia the workplace inorder to peovide cooperation and racial olaboration "When Mayo wot of the relay assembly test room atthe Hawthorne nt, e tuted the group ability to matin higher level of perfor ‘ance the strong socal te that had been bul among the employees, {cluding the sympatherc vest room observer. According to May, the key {actor explaining the motivation af the lay assemblers was that they ‘Became social unt, enjoyed the added freedoms grated by the fiendly ‘observer, and developed a sense of patcpation Because they were con Salted before changes were introduced. The group was able to build an interna equilibrium that enabled io produce more despite the manipula tions of res pauses length of work day, payment schemes, and so on. Mayo fet tha the advances ofa technological oriented socey places too much emphasis on engineering and eficeney pushing the soil needs ‘of individuals oto the background and herby reducing people’ capaciy ‘or ellsoration ia work. Managerial emphasis onefcency stifles the in viduals dese forthe group approval soil ntifvon, and sel purpone ‘ath previo been gained dhrough communal ie ‘A human-relaions manager needs waining in the human and socal specs of organization, in developing ltening nd counseling kil, i in recognizing and understanding the nonlogical side of people. Under 4 hhumanselaions cent manager employees would absinthe recognition, secuty and satsicsion that make them wing to cooperate and contribute ‘heir efforts toward accomplishing the ganizations goa, The motivation, ‘hen, comes from meting these social, "belonging" ace of people, ‘Was Mao'sacerpretaton of human motivation based on what had been found at Hawthorne? There is substantial evidence that May's personal bef shaded the ofc account ofthe Hawehomne sie, which was wri ten by Fritz Roethlisberger, a Harvard colleague, and Willan. Dickson, hie of Western lecrcs employee relaons department.” Mayo changed his intespreation of the Hawthorne studies before they publiehed thee book, The major derence was inthe emphasis on social needs ate than, on fianclincenives inthe relay asemby test room. The employes sid they ke the tet room becuse dey made more money Mack Pena, the personnel manages tld Pass Wick that money was the number-one fac tor; and ag memo to Mayo sd that “econo and ancl factors ate ‘of considerable importance nthe test room. The employees are anos for high exnings" There was evidence that pay for performance had con tubuted tothe relay assembler increased output, But Mayo used the Hawthorne resus to supports belie that the nee fr eficiency had ed wa negles of people's sci nee, ‘What can we conclude? Elton Mayo and his haman-seltons followers thllenged the primacy of Snancal incentives, emphasing nea human relatlons and employee feelings Although we now know tat Mayo should not have downplayed financial ncenies and neglected an exsentl part o- why performance ncressed inthe relay atsembly test room, soi lets such as Mayo ave enlarged our understanding of socal and group needs ‘working condons and supervision. Haman rations was an ides whose time had ace. The “soil person” concep ade, but dno take the place of, the “economic man” concept in out understanding of human motives: prepaed the way fra broader consideration of human needs. Then, as now, the question is not whether to rewind performance, but ‘which performance to reward and how to reward i “The dea tha human beings ave ceraln needs that they ty to sais sone ofthe oldest notions nour understanding of motiation. The phiesophy of hedonism, for example, was based on the need to swvor pleasurable events vl fleeing fom unpleaarable ones economists developed consumption ed tity theories around human needs. Modern need does however, ave revolved primary around the ess ‘of bahar Hacld Masi, born on Ape, os» Brook, New York, ‘to evi nigra parents, When came ne for college, Maslow beaded forthe Univesity of Wisconsin, where John B. Wason was amember ofthe prythology fic: Malo had ead Wsor'swoskcon behaviors, the idea ‘hat pychology was the ence of human behavior, which cou be studied ‘under conrlled laboratory conditions, like animal behavior. Watson ‘elev hat all Behavior wa a response co certain stim and that hese esponts cos be conditioned. For example aclasic study of Watson's ‘yas the conditioning of eleven month-old oy to fee white rats and oer Faery objects (On secenly dd the use of rman abject for experients come under close ethical sera) When Maslow arived in Madison in $926; he found tat Watson had left join he J Wales Thompson Com pny one of the largest advertising agencies nthe United Stes (Sif those omnes provide sin to condition and enforce your buying habits, ame it oa fla 8, Wasson) ‘With Watson gone, Mrslow tured to Harry Halwa ring young Py: tologie who was becoming famous fr is rules ofthe social behavior af ‘tony, Hs more widely known zearch concerned the bonds of afc ‘on between a mother and her oping an the finding that infant females ‘who had been deprived of this bond with cele mothers di not develop ‘maternal instincts when they became ada. Further, Harlow discovered ‘hac monkeys ised in olaton dno get along well with other monkeys In ter i. Matiow sed monkey subjects in is doctoral disertaion under Harlow’s rection and found that dominance was related to sex and co rmalenes, ‘nt meh el disor that wo mantle me... One da. sen dawned me thc ew rch boar sexs aun gn thence 1k everything sa ad been ween. -.» Then tudeny bt in lager Here wat the pease, and had ave feenan ee penis excep ont and shat war om my ow iy “hathambed me comes? Doctorate in and, Mahow taught at Brooklyn College and ater at Brands ‘nse, where hi research ws concerned with primates, Bat one event, the ith of Abraham and Bertha Maslow’s ist il, became one of those “peak experince in i: "When my Best aby was bors, that was the th erp chat weed hing ooked at his ny mysterious hing and elt 2 sup felt small, weak, and feeble. Tsay chat anyone who's had a baby ould be a behaviors.” Maslow ad been a behaviors, bt eat would soon be ot ‘The Tht ae ‘The wo mos widely aeceped views of pychology in the midasaoe were behaviors and paychounayis, As Maslow moved along in his carer, he became disenchanted wich the behaviorist view of imu and condoned response. The dominant chiar in psychoanalysis ws Sigmand Freud, but there Mashw saw an emphasis on che study of neurotic, oF wort, Maslow ‘sw shortcomings in basing psychology onthe emetionaly dibed or on ‘he sealy of monkey and 4, “Maslow proposed tha paychology should be a sty of the hele person, not limiting she Bel othe ei and vy bu expanding our human under ‘anding to include those values and choices that people make that can be ‘ood honorable, cea, hero, nid 010m, Maslow’ “hunt pycho- gy" was 2 revolt against behavior and paychoanalyse creating what ‘became known in psjchology asthe Third Force. The This orc gathered ‘momentum a other pominen psychologists agreed that previous taking tad omited the majority of people who were welladjrted and leading produce, rewarding nes ‘The mos: notable work of Abraham Mislow ws published in 94 on ering his theory af human mosvation,Recly have so many ending ‘deasbeen developed in only eweny ix page of text hit sights have been reprinted hundeeds of tne in other works, ere ate soe prose bites: ‘ypialyanactbchavor hs more than one motivation, iuman needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of pre potency. Tate to.ay the appearance of one need uly rest on the pir sation of another pe potent ned Man isa perpetually wating aim, [No need or drive can be treated a if wer slated or discrete ftom other needs o ees). Motivation theory should be human-centredeaer than animal en vere, While behavior limos aways motivate, itis ao almost always bio Togialy culturally nd stony determined as well" tn these premises Maslow proved the bass for humanistic psychology. Maslow ident ve categories of human aceds: physiological safety love, esteem, and self acusiztion, The most basic need ae physiological suchas hunger se, anid thie If perons hungry. ay hungry opi isa ‘aera, Bat Irs que tre tht man es by bead slone—wen theres ho brea... A want that sated 0 longer awant” When phsiolog- Cal needs ae reively wel atid safety neds emerge. These neds ate bros drawn coincide rotecion fom temperature exemes sfety from comin asus, having savings account, having health insane, sndothers ‘Love neds are for ftson, belonging, acceptance na group and ¥ on ‘Maslow emphasized tha the need for lov "not synonymous with sx 4 purely physiological need” Exteem i also multifaceted need—for Schievement, recognition, confidence, independence, freedom, apprci- on, pesige and others. ‘Sef-actunlization ithe highest-order need and emerges only after the bother needs have been sated “A maican must make music an artist faust paint.» What 2 man an be, he must be. to become more and ‘more what one is become everything tha one i capable of becoming Paths to selactusiation vary greatly among individuals and could take such forms as being a al paren, blag an athlete, inventing cresting, oF ‘whatever takes to zea one's potential. "The need hierarchy, as Maslow concluded isnot gid or fied in the sense that each iv a tp that mast be achieved before another can e take. For example, sone indvdual place a greater importance on selfeseem than on love creative people might forsake at many bac needs as possible in oder to etry ou ther creative pulses some peopl’ level of asp tion may have ben loyered or deadenedto mach n extent that higher needs tmay be abandoned Purther, one need does not require 100 percent sata ‘on before another can emerge inead, Maslow salt would be more reali to describe the hierarchy “in term of decreasing percentages a5 we soup che hierarchy of pre-potency. Fo instance. 5 perce is physio logical needs, 70 percent in isfy needs..o percent in hiss actu ‘ation nee For Masiow, humans act asf they are unflled cups, and ll need ae never really fly grated, The uniqueness of his notions is that they addres human needs and with that Maslow cnged she course of psycho ogy iti Moses for Leaders Far less wellknown than his hierarchy of human needs is the work of Masiow’s ater years, which brought 3 ichnes of insights nt the motives of lendrs/managers in business organization, Inthe summer of 1963 Maslow became a visting fellow at Nom Linear Systems Inc, of Del Ma, California, atthe request of Andrew Kay, the firm's president. This was Marlow fist contact with industry, and Kay, x owner and president, wat plying ideas gathered fom Douglas McGregor's Haman Si of Enteric and Peter Drucker’ The Practice of Managemen sing paripatie manage ‘ent liminating the assembly ine and organizing work around teams of six or even employees; eliminating ime cin and placing all employees on sly; making departments autonomous and having thers keep tet OW, record and eliminating quay inspector, Masiow’s ideas proved the point of departare for some of MeGrego's and Drucker’ work 50 the sumuner at Nom Linear Sytem was an oppor nity for Maslow to See management and Behavior dessin practice. He ‘ep jourals hat summer and ltr published these in book farm as By ‘how Management Exaychlan wis & acologism, anew word, and meant ‘moring toward pychological held.” Coupled withthe word managenes, ‘he phrase meant management by competent, mental aly, self actu. Ising inviduals. Maslow fel that one way to improve the metal heath of all people would be to begin atthe workplace and ite management since most people were exiploye. Another selection af prose bitesiltates Maslow hiking: ‘The only happy people {know are the ones wit are working well t someting they consider important [Some se] slfacuainstion a kindof lighting stoke which wil hit them onthe head suddenly wishou thet doing uything about it. “Too mach responsbiycan crush the person jas 8100 le respons ity can nae him bby. (Peces) Drucker... neglects the presence of el, of paychopathology,of| senerl maine in some people “The best managers under the American research condos seem tobe ychologcallyhelthice people than he poorer managers athe same fesearches, Theis easly enough pported bythe data fom (Reni) taker. The best managers increase the heath of che wokees whom they mar se “The correct hing to do with authoritarian ito ake them eealsically forthe bastards hey ar and then behave toward them as if chey were base ‘atm dst wit the mates on leadership in he management ter ‘ste. thers ome tendency, asin McGregor, tobe pious bout the democratic dogma, “The person who seh for powers the one whois jus exact aly 0 be the one whe shoul have “The safes penon to give powerto isthe one who doestenjoy power “The more grown mature] people at, the worse authoritarian manage sent wl werk People who have experienced feedom can never realy be content again wither. In the eatiyr7or the seroapace industry went into atalspin taking Kay’ frm with His reaction was to etua to more tational management pracsces sch as ightenng nancial eontos redcing the workforce oy Ing more tention today to-day opersions and changing production line techniques. Although some people believed that tis cast doubts on the cffcacy of McGregor Theary Y others elt hat the Non-Linear Systems perience was nota tue teat of McGregors and Drucker’ ideas. Maslow rote, "Theve principles Le, McGregor and Drucker) hold primary or ood conditions, rather than for stormy weithet” jst asinidva' eae: ‘onto penal crs tha threatened the normal sting for growth and selFactualzaion would beo move to lonerorderneeds become defensive, lor use othe adapuive mechanisms an orgaization would also revert to pre ‘iow coping mechan Despite thi, Masiow sil had hs doubts abou the validity of Theory "A good eal ofthe evidence upoa which [McGregor bases his conclusions comes rom my reaches... Bu of ll people shoul know art how shaky thi foundation x.» My work on motivations came fom the clin, ‘oma seady of neurotic people... woul ike ose alot more sles of {is ind before eling Sally convinced hat this ary ver rm the sty of nearosisto the study of labor in factories legitimate” ‘The tagedy of Mslow’s fe was chat he war never onthe fcty of major research univers, noe uly accepted into the pychology Rater, becase hit work wis coalderednonscietife and not grounded on extensive researc, Maslow sere a near hear attack in 1967, dd “psychic house ‘keeping in what e cll his "postmortem years and ded on Jane 8,97 ‘One of his fn joural entries represented the essence of hs humans psy ‘chology: “Every baby born s capable, in pnp of slate Yu. should never gie up on anyone, ever Man has an insinctold higher nave Wspossible to grow this oro tnt Society can do thes” ‘Maslow’s Third Force provided a signfcant opportniy for changing ‘managerial thinking about people He didnot diacover human needs, nor ‘vas he the fis wo put them in a hierarchy of strength, but is observations made us more aware ofthe potential within each of. Jamusike, work appears throughout history both a an ksome ty and at 2 wy tofalllment. The queston of why we work probably arses more fe _quentyon Mondays and Fridays than on other days, hough most ous will Sad ou way to work egies of grumbling because We have somehow ia some way, found value in tha activity. Works often seen as a punishment, such a in the Old Testament story of Adam and Eve, where Adatn i dmonighed:"Beeate you have itened tthe voice of your wie and have ‘eaten ofthe wee af which commanded yo, You shall nea cased isthe ground because of you to you shal eto tall he days of your Lf... Inthe meat of your fae you sal eat brea sil you return tothe ground, for out of you were taken; you are drt, and to dast you shal evan” (Genet 37-19). Tis punishment seems rather severe fr afew ‘pples ad figleaves Yr thi page charateries work ata penshment by GGod fora sn by humankind "The New Testament doesnot offer much reli and makes work mora ry" anyone will not wor, let him not eat. For we hear that same of| you are ving in ene, ere buayboies, not doing any work. Now such ‘evsons we command and exhort inde Lod Jeu Christ odo thee work Jn guietness and to ea their own ving” (2 Thesaloian 310-19). “The moray of working not limited 0 Jdeo Cristian vals for we fies in che words ofthe prophet Mohammed: "[He] who sable and and doth ot work fr biel ofr other, God is nor gracious tim. Gans gracious to him ha ret his ving by his own abou, an no by ‘begging These etching provides basi fo inerpreting work spy ‘shment,an irksome heritage of times ong ago and for the view that l= res sad Inifferent languages dis negativism consnues the Greeks ‘sed ones, meaning sorrow” oe “burden for work the Latin labore (Chusdensome") war opposed to fee any) « more postive word and ia English we gethe wor amt meaning “had robling time,” fromthe French aly, "o wor” Fedetick Hereberg puta pov sp 0a Woe, however, and represents another of our motivator. His own motive fora dkierentinerpreation of wok came ot ofa wartime experince. cea KITA Werke Near the end of Wold War ta young niry sergeant wa od to ve sme fleas dwn the subs a gulag posse and help at ‘he lean of Dacha Concentration Cam ae Mich, Getmany The ‘st hing we sw awe entered were he roe of ralrond ear led with line coeed np th et, We ake i he par buses, were the ‘rts fe pking chin a ote ot Tha tared 2 Nothing my education itor or paeilogy bad prepued me er this eserence The soca infsenced al my hsking "Thee ae alas around pce nen ny sce: Bua whole socety ago ince. How cold apparent nema people do such ele thing Teonlaed int the orsign ole of apeelogis ws ep ‘herane fom ping sine ™ reerick Herzberg was born on Api 8, 93, n ym, Massachsets, where his ater Lewis, was foreman of she ater ina fctony. Fedele stuiied history and psychology atthe City College of New York, but listed in the army before finishing his degre, After he war experiences, Ine finished his bachelors degree ad becae intrested in mental a well ab ‘Physical health The problem that attracted him was that we know when people were uahealhy, but know very Ile shout what makes people healthy, His PhD. om the University of Pesburgh faced on pachology, and he began to stad jb ads. Sings were cones. in hat lt was possible to find support in them for any point you wished to argue. More important, Herberg observed that tere wae spatter inthe esearch resus suggesting thatjob dsatsfaction ad jo satisfaction were caused by ferent tore Hierberg extended his studies and asked workers respond to thi que ‘on: “Thi of aime when you ft exceptionally god or exceptional bad shout your ob, ether your present job or anyother job you have had ‘Tellme what happened” Prom the responses to this question and a sees of follow-up questions, Hersberg set ou to discover what things people reported made them sified or dsatisfied on their jobs. From people's responses he was able ro oat two ferent kinds of eed tat appeared to beindependent When people reported job dsausaton, cheyatnbuted thou flings ‘0 therjb environment oF the jb owen Herzberg call these “hygiene” facrors, "for they actin & mane analogous to the principles of medical hygiene. Hygiene operates to remove health hazards rom the enviroment of man. eis ot curative: es eather, a preventive." The hygiene factors Inde supervision, nrerpertonlzlatons, physical working conditions, salaries, company policies and administrative practices, benefits, and job securiry Whea these fctrs deteriorate below what the workes considers an acceptable lel, jo dsaifiction isthe raul, When the ob contexts considered opal by the worker, satis le ened. This doesnot lead to posiveatrudes, however, butt some sor of «neu tate of ne ‘her satiation nor sation, ‘The fictors that ead co postive attiades and stisfiction ae called the ‘motivator of hing inthe jo cnet The motivators ae such fons 5 Achievement, recognition for accomplishment, challenging work incensed Job esponsibility, and opportnises for growth and development If pre sent, hese factors ea ro hlgher motivation n this sense, Herzberg wit saying tac tion assumptions about motivating factors rach ar wage Incentives, improving interpersonal reasons, and eablishing proper work {ng conditions were cores hve thing donot ead to higher moueaon "They remove satisfac and acto prevent peobles, bance ches Akional motivators are opin, they donot lead eo postive motiaton. According to Herzberg, management should recognize that hygiene s nee ‘say but that neutralizing iatsfcion doesnot ead oposite resis, (nly the modvators lead people to superior performance Heraberg elt hat adiional ideas about motivation involved KITA (a ‘ik ice as. This could be a postive KITA, che “atrot” ora negative KITA, the “ck” In ether case, che result would be only a shor-term movement in a person's behavior. Inthe condition surrounding the fo, people need to avoid pain but nthe matare of she jb sel, peopl ean be ‘motiraed into growth and creativity, which are longterm beviors “Tahelp manages understand how the tributes of held and unbealthy relate o motivation and hygiene, Herzberg pied some catchy phases: + "The Bet of All Possible Worlds for those whose hygiene needs have been met and whose sisiction (oteation) i high + “Tay All igh, Jock,” for those who ae no healthy (peshaps bored) bburocunhely(ufeng de or 30 psn) + "The Starving Artis” for those who are motivated but whose de sates are poor + “Down spd Out” fornia who have nether the motivators noe ‘he hygiene tos -Heraberg is rete with coining the phrate “job enrichment,” but a carter idea of “jo enlargement” war ano alleged to enrich the job, eroerg made adisincion by observing tha job enlargement consisted af rotating jos ar combining te oF more fbs into one This extended the tasks inthe work ese, what Herberg called “horizontally loading” ajo, but dd nor neces ad meaning to what wa being done. He advocated jb enrichment (sometimes refered to as “verti loading’) because it ded dept, not breadth, oa job. Eakehment pushed tesponstlity down ‘ward he never used the word empowerment, bu the Kea are very simi) by giving a employee reponse fran aea or group of hens, creating ‘tense of accountability for raul, encouraging heping behaviors, and ‘ing the employe contol ofthe resources todo the job Heraherg developed some penile of how to implement job niche: + To increase a person's sense of responsibilty and achievement, Increase thet aceountbily for thelr work; give chem a complete at tral wn of work To enhance an individual's achievement and recognition, grant a ‘ional authori to employees in thelr work act: provide more job freedom; make periodic reports of how well they are doing del svalabe tothe employees. “To promote growth and leering, ssgn casks that develop an cemploye's experts; ntodice new sol mote challenging tas ot evil anigned” | He recognized that implementation isnot always easy st that flores to atic obs need te continuous, nota one shot, one size endeavor | He didnot use che tem eonuauousemprovernent” hs) alter writers db is deus eal elect chat concept. Herbert of clems, such as ATT, Teas nsruments, leo, pe: ial Chemical Industries (Great Brain), and Cummins Engine grew and _rew ajo enrichment became one of those practices that manager felt ‘woul improve productivity and creste motivated employees, Noteweyone accepted the motivation hygiene theory, and some questioned Hetabenys ‘methods—for example, f people are arked wat work expecience leads sation, they ae more key to atu to something they do‘on the ob; conversely ls yplcal to Blame oder in dhe jb enironment if things do noc go well. Heraberg sald money motivates only f given to rewast achievement, gow, and responsTty. However, moneys hygiene fc torifs given regres of meriin an arose the board manner, Never thels, ersberg hs been heasd to say that money easaot buy hapines, Dutitcan elie a gret del of unhappiness 1 Wokand he Native of Ma, Herabeng wed the Ok Testament’ Adan ‘sbelygan example ofthe psn svidancepeton, while Abrabatn pewided spilstration of the growth seeking person Peshape twas sheer conc ence, bur Heraberg aged with Abrsham Maslow with respect o humans secking selfacwalzation dough the motivators: Heraberg dd not, how cer agree with Masiow that slactualzaton depends on the priest sion of lower-onder need; cater, Herzberg fle chat sel actualization ‘operates independently and canbe achieved hrogh meaning work, |We know that maison ran elusive subjec because of individual tenes Some people vale work more highly in thee than thes wok {3 means for some people, not an end. Therefore one employee might respond job enrichment while another ay pero be cold what to da ‘Extension of Ferber ideas hae explained these india ferences at bey dependent upon an individuals "growr-need strength" Certain job characteristics such a8 the significance ofthe task the variety of skills needed, knowledge of results (feedback), and autonomy appear to be important in achieving meaning work, If these chareteviatin can be enhanced for example by increasing the variety of sil used or by provi {ng information abou how well a persons performing then dhe employee will eserence more "mesingfle” on the ob I person already feels sufficiently challenged and expecinced the job as meaningful growth-need strength willbe lor and further efforts odmprove the job willbe les ee tive.” Some individuals seek more challenge, others donot further, some jobs can be made more meaningful, others cannot. The key sto provide a loser match between ob characterises and employe neds. ‘Are you “Adam,” the pain avoir, or “Abraham,” the growth seeker Jobs, cen as clusters of tasks, come and go; asa result of technological advances, we 20 longer need the ancient trades of cork ters, button mak fs, and chandlers. But works a diferent stor, and oar views about the meaning of work are central toa fire of economic wel: being socal wel- es, and nda selfesteem: Frederick Heraberg called our tesion to the importance of work, not asa punishment nora moral duty but aa way toachiove seltatelation, Drache Cont? ater Peter Drucker was uoted to the elf that all we do is wate books shout motivation, bu reall we know nothing sour the sabjeet Ils tue ‘thatthe path toa dete conclusion about human modeaion i itered ‘with the debris of dicarded nodons Specific chores may explain afew {nivale fll shor of being bl to generale about others, Gen ‘rl theories obscure individual ferences and ae handicapped in that ‘regard. Human need does seem the most widely accepted, yer there are ‘other ideas tha are use, Expectancy thon, for example, explains mot ‘on asa proces of chocslng what todo based on eu ansipation of obra ‘ng pleasurable outcomes. What the vale of «parila reward to 2 ‘penoe? Do we expec thatthe effi expended will ead to peformance? Bo we expect that f hej x done the performance wl be rewarded? The ‘value af the reward ould be positve something highly desed or negative (somehing 1 be aad and cold vary in strength ofthe dive" Richer, eraps, bat sl esting on the pleasure pain notin of hedons, Equity theory i ao new an has orgie inthe observations of Whit ing Wiliam, an indus executive who gut is job ofnd out “what on ‘he worker’ mind.” Willams argued that pay i relative fom the worker's Pine of view tha, whats imporeane not the abso pay pero, receives but the amount relative ro what other receive.” Moder equy the ‘ory sys that a persons perception of his or her rewards irbated ona est two ratios the persons pay relative 10 the pay of others, and the persons "pus (has, efor expended, eduction, sl level, ening experience) selec the persons outcomes” rewa). For earpl, a worker might be dui with her slay the worker perceives ha another pet son doing the same jo pid more hence the eles of “equal pay or equal ‘wor fom those who fel discrimination interme of slay. The source of Assmsfaction may noc necessary be the abet amount of sliry bu he ‘lary inselaton co others anda eatin to inp an utcones, Goa seing theory is based to a lage extent on the eater ea f red ‘vik Taylor and Frank Gibreth. The ide sto develop and et pee work, goals ortargetsfor employees to accomplish. The more spect the gs, he beter: "Prouce ro units tha wil pass che quale inspection” rather than Do the best you can today.” Farther, liu goals are beter than easy cnes—the gol shoud challenge out aot exceed) he invidal's abies, ‘athe than asking the employee fo spread fourhour ob over an ight hour dy. Employes alo nee to be able o keep rack of thelr performance by recline fedback abou ets, Withouta knowledge of esl, ‘employees cannot gauge the relationship between thls performance and the epeted performance, incentives (bth nancial and noninanial are alo necessary to zeward goals met Gosling theory hasbeen scene faland of more value wo practicing managers than most previous theories. Bur gal senting isno¢ a cueall and works only withthe exercise f god ‘managerial judgment So Peer Drucker is parally correct—much more has been wien shout motivation han hasbeen ade v our understanding of Yc there sre some ictors that Seem wo have tod the tet of sme: people have fle Ingneed and aspitions work can bea postive force in ourlives if we have seal, challenging jobs matched wo ur abies: growths peered over pals avoidance the opportunity to grow and be recogozed for tat develop: ‘ment i needed information about how well Weare ding i necestry job is done well iis essential that this be rewarded and rewards must be ‘suitably dried based on performance ‘We harvest the Mess of philosophers such a8 Mayo, Maslow, and Heroberg, dy emerging ides, and reson to beter endenand ove Jow beings. Ie isin the crucible of everyday practice that we test the mee ofthese philosophies, LEADERS ‘Wim Shakespeare wrote, “Some are bor ges, some achieve grein snd some have grestes thrust pan them” (Teh Nigh, at, cee 3) “These notion elect commonly held explanation of what happens om he ‘way to being leader Being "bor gest” suggest some natural eof qual: ‘ues abies, rte shat tnguihe leaders rom nonleaders, Ove the yeas thi ia grew lngee and longer: courage, sense of mor, jgment, heath and ines, nteligence, moral reside, an interest in people, mag nation inate, deisvenes, and 0 on, but o lear sene of agreement shout leader tras hs ever been achive ‘The dea that it spose to “achieve greatness” relet longstanding 1nd widely published view ofa succes ethc—you can become a leader by reading certain books, by finding the right mentor, through eduation and/or txperiene, or by taking other actions o develop you leadership kil nd ables. Horatio Alger’ soris brought he dreams of success o American ‘reader fr over half century ane set the sage forthe ending ideas of Dale ‘Carnegie rook Howto Win Friends and Infunce Pepe Carnegie pr Sonal magnetism etic advise thatthe path to rocces resid in making oh fel portant through a sincere appreciation oftheir effrs: making ood fis mpresion: winning people to one wayofthinkingby eting oth edo the aling and being sympabesc: and changing people by prising good tats and by giving the offender the opportunity to save face, This dvce has withtood the est of time, snd pron could do worse th a: low Carnegie’ formula of how to win the cooperation of ober ving greaznens thro” upon someone suggests that eecumstances| playa large pre in who is chowen to lend. Chine forane or being inthe Fight place at the right ime provide opportunices for ome to sscend toa leadership ole Winston Churchill comes o mind bur there are undoabs lly countless others. Church, out of power and out of favor Britain ‘before Word Wa I, became prime minister for wartime duties, then fll buck ou of power after the css ended. Another example, petaps more fiat vo just, was Moses, who was empowered by higher authority: lead the Istaltes ou of their bondage in Egypt, But was hea great lade? Divine intervention was quired to part the Red Sea for dhe exodus, and sfrerward the Isles wandered inthe deser fr forty yeas IF thee are lessons of history in these examples they suggest tha some are chosen only sv long a the crisis endures and that i soften dial co follow dhe supreme efforts of an exemplary leader Despite year of study anda mountain of books, the ques of leader retain ete, suggesting tht leadership i very much an art The piloo- pers selected fr this section do not offer any one Bestway to lead but rather challenge our dhaking about power, confit, and human nature [Ncold Machlvell provides oneview of people and the ature anduseof| power. May Paket Foe provides a counterpoint 0 Machiavelli bout power and the role of the leader Douglas McGregor urges that we examine tr armimprions abou man natre and how these guide our behavior. ‘Together, these philosophers do not provide al of the answers, instead fering insights to stimulate our thinking abou ourselves and others as lesders wieord MacHIAVELLE Plywsght, diplomat, solder, nd hain, Nicola Machiavelli (460-1527) ls bese remembered san observer of power and its uses, The son ofa Flo- eatin lawyer, Machisvell held governmental office in republican Flo rence, wrote ply, and served aa solr war between Florence adits neath longeine enemy Pisa. When the Florentine republic fli 12 t0 the Med, Machine was arcested and treed by Sour tna ofthe rack, ‘bur was ial acquit and bane om the ci He had a country place near Horence, where he endured the sweat and mud longing fora return 0 rene sna ore fvorble Me, For i return cet he wre The rine, dedicated to Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medi, hoping that this hizo nas ‘of politics and power wold regain him ie former satus, Witten in 3, The Prince became one of onl few books to be plated again and again, ‘over he cenares. The fawning Machlavell never regained the poston he sought, but his bok di give him literary immorality and preserves his ame in an adjecive for describing» syle of leadership. Machiavelli id not see to reform tyrant to describe them they wee, "Tarhow we iv it fr emove fm how we ought t ve, hae ‘who abandons whats done fr wht ough to be doe, wil ther lesa > ‘ring abou his own run than ix preservation” Machinels times were pur of the lalan Renaiesane, and among his contemporiser were [Leonardo da Vine! snd Michelangelo, Whale others sought enlightenment in art and earre, Machiell desebe the force of power a wor, and he ‘became aswel known, perhaps more widely recognized by some, than the reat leader ofthe ula ebirth of dat psig, ‘What sit about The Pine tat explains its remarkable longevity? His sssamptionssbowt human nature seem out of sep with contemporary beiets—but are they? "Whoever destes ro found a state and give avs, ust tart with the asumpton tha all men ate bad ad eer sadly tod psy thei wcour mature, whenever they may find ction foe Ie may besa of men n general that they are ungrateful oll, dlsembes ama: ‘ousto sold danger, and covets of gin as ngs you benef then, hey cently yours" Some other observations also seem to be appropri ‘adem ines: + On image management: “Everybody ses what you appear tobe, Fw feel what you are, and thoae few will nt dar to oppose themecles 0 ‘the many... In the avons of men. eh end justifies he means + Onfearand ioe "There ares the question whether iiebeter tobe loved more than fared, o feared more than loved. The epy i that ‘ne ought to be Bot eared and loved, bu abt dial forthe 90 to go together, irs much safer te feared than loved fone of the twobas tobe wanting. Stil, prince should make hmwelf feared in sucha way hati he doesnot gun love he a any eae avolds ated forfearand she absence of hatred may go well togethes seer ws + Delegaing the dity work: “Princes shoul et the carrying out of ‘unpopular duis devolve on oes, and bestow favors themselves” Making change: "Ie must be considered chat there i nothing more

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