Directional Drilling 07

technical training 2006
Directional Drilling
Stag Geological Services Ltd.

Reading
UK
Revision A
September 2006
technical training 2006
Planning Directional Wells
Definition of Directional Drilling

Directional drilling can generally be defined as the science of directing a well
bore along a predetermined trajectory to intersect a designated sub-surface
target.
Figure 1: John Eastman - Relief Well Drilling
Applications
Multiple wells from offshore structures
The most common application of directional drilling techniques is in offshore
drilling. Many oil and gas deposits are situated well beyond the reach of land
based rigs. Drilling a large number of vertical wells from individual
platforms is both impractical and uneconomical. The obvious approach for a
large oilfield is to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from which many
directional boreholes can be drilled. The bottom-hole locations of these wells
are carefully spaced for optimum recovery.
Directional Drilling 1-1

In conventional development, wells cannot be drilled until the platform has

been constructed and installed. This can mean a delay of several years
before production begins. Such delay scan be considerably reduced by pre
drilling some of the wells through a sub-sea template while the platform is
being constructed. These wells are directionally drilled from a semi-sub-
mersible rig and tied back to the platform once it has been installed.
Figure 2: Multiple Offshore Wells
Relief Wells
Directional drilling techniques are used to drill relief wells. This will be
necessary when all well control procedures and equipment have failed,
resulting in an uncontrolled flow of water or ignited oil, gas or to surface: a
‘blow-out’. The only remaining remedial technique is to gain access to the
uncontrolled flow by drilling directionally from an adjacent location. The
object is to drill as close as possible to the source formation or the uncon-
trolled well itself, and then to pump the kill fluid from the new well in order
to hydrostatically kill the first flow and regain control. When the situation
is stabilised, the integrity of the first well can be regained through remedial
surface fabrication.
1-2 Directional Drilling

Figure 3: Relief Well Drilling
Controlling Vertical Wells

Directional techniques are used to “straighten crooked holes”. When
unplanned deviation occurs in a well which is supposed to be vertical,
various techniques can be used to bring the well back to vertical. This was
one of the earliest applications of directional drilling.
Modern developments in specialised drilling tools, such as Baker Hughes

Inteq’s VertiTrakTM Rotary Steerable System, now mean that vertical wells
can be drilled straighter by making small corrections as small inclination
changes are identified.
Side-tracking
Sidetracking, in it’s original guise, was done to bypass an obstruction (“fish”)
in the original well-bore; it may also be done to explore the extent of a
producing zone in a certain sector of a field, or to side-track a dry hole to a
more promising target.
Sidetracking is now a common technique in horizontal and multi-lateral

drilling where up to six branches of a well may be made, both horizontally
and vertically in different azimuths, in order to fully exploit the producing
field from a minimum number of surface wellhead locations.

Figure 4: Sidetrack
Inaccessible locations
It may not be possible to site the well directly above the target, even when
drilling vertically, so that a directional well may have to be used. This is
most often the case onshore where both natural and man-made objects may
be impediments.
Offshore locations may also be restricted however because of sea-bed condi-

tions, shallow gas zones, shipping lanes or environmental reasons.
Figure 5: Inaccessible Location

Geological Hazards
Directional wells are also drilled to avoid geological hazards. This might
include:
• Drilling across or close to major faults
• Drilling salt
• Drilling an inclined borehole through steeply dipping bedded,

laminated or fractured zones in order to minimise borehole
instability
Shoreline Drilling.
In the case where a reservoir lies offshore but quite close to land, the most
economical way to exploit the reservoir may be to drill directional wells from
a land rig on the coast.
Figure 6: Shoreline Drilling BP Wytch Farm
Horizontal & Extended Reach Drilling

Since the 1990s horizontal wells have been drilled to enhance production
from thin or stratigraphically difficult reservoirs. Drilling more of the
reservoir than just it’s vertical thickness will usually give greater productiv-
ity and fewer individual wells need to be drilled.
Extended reach drilling is where the horizontal departure of the well is two-
three times its vertical depth. Drilling ultra-long holes at high inclination

angles leads to difficult hole cleaning and high levels of torque and drag on
the drillstring.
Sidetracks and multi-laterals (both horizontally and vertically) are often

drilled to try and drain the reservoir as effectively as possible and these may
also involve azimuthal variations leading to very complex 3-D paths.
Figure 7: Horizontal Well
Figure 8: ERD Well

Well Planning
Introduction
There are many aspects involved in well planning, and many individuals
from various companies and disciplines are involved in designing specific
programmes for the well (mud programme, casing programme, drill string
design, bit programme, etc.). Normally personnel from exploration, opera-
tions geology and drilling together with those of the service contractors
become equally involved in this process. Planning issues include:
• Trajectory and Wellpath Design
• Borehole Stability
• Hole Cleaning
• Drilling Hazards
• Drilling Tools
• Drillstring Torque, Drag and Buckling
Trajectory and Wellpath Design

Directional wells are controlled by the surface location, TVD, measured
depth and horizontal displacement to the target, geological conditions
drilling the overburden, the nature of the reservoir, the length of any hori-
zontal drilling to be done and the number of any multilateral branches.
Early directional wells were simply inclined boreholes drilled along a single
azimuth, perhaps including a final drop-off section to drill the reservoir
nearer to the vertical. Designer, “3D wells”, drilled with multiple vertical
and azimuthal turns are becoming the norm.
Most wells are initially drilled vertically in order to establish the borehole,
install conductor pipe or surface casing and attach the wellhead and BOP
system.
The Kick-Off Point (KOP) is the place from which inclination and azimuth
changes are initiated. Deflection techniques or specialised directional
drilling tools are used to change the well path and drill in the required
direction.
The Build-Up Section is where azimuth and inclination changes are made to
reach a maximum inclination angle along the desired azimuth. This angle
may be maintained until the target is drilled or a second build-up or drop-off
section is required. Build-up rates are described in o/30m or o/100ft and this
is usually called the dog-leg severity (DLS). Maximum values for DLS will

be defined by the surface and target locations, geological hazards and

proposed drilling tools. Long, medium and short radius of curvature wells
may be drilled with DLS values ranging from 1-3o/30m to >90o/30m for
ultra-short radius drilling. The latter requires very specialised drilling tools
such as coiled-tubing.
Tangents are straight sections drilled at a particular inclination. They may

be drilled between KOPs or a KOP and a Drop-off section. Tangents are often
drilled in order to identify the final KOP for drilling horizontal wells.
Dir
0 N
KOP
Inc
TVD MD EOW
HD
Figure 9: Directional Well Plan
Well Planning Considerations

Objectives of the Well Planner
• Assemble information
• Calculate torque and drag and BHA design
• Determine expected Kick-off Point
• Calculate target azimuth

• Develop knowledge of build rates in the area
• Calculate end of build
• Calculate hole angles
• Calculate well TD
• Plot the actual well plan on paper
Locating the Target

• Seismic survey-most common method
Shock waves are reflected from subsurface layers
Shock waves are absorbed by fluids
• Depth is problematic due to unknown rock densities:

Can only be verified by drilling
Correlated to well log.
• After drilling:
Other logs are run to confirm depth, formation tops,
pressures, etc.
Coring
Surface Location
Surface location is controlled by:
• Surface features
• Existing facilities
• Obstacles
• Formation drilling tendencies
• Multiple targets
• Reservoir Characteristics
Drilling the reservoir is determined by:
• Thickness
• Size
• Shape
• Hole stability

• Types of production liners
• Downhole producing equipment.
Drilling Consideration
The Well Planner must consider:
• Type of drilling rigs available
• Depth
• Hole sizes
• Anticipated casing points
• The mud program
• Motors
• Bits
• Budget
Factors Affecting Wellpath Design

• Completion Type
• Reservoir:
Reservoir drainage area
For fracturing, gravel packing, completion in weak formation or

depleted formation, it may be desirable to limit the inclination
through the reservoir,
In horizontal wells, correct TVD placement will minimize gas

and water coning problems.
Shallow, weak formation:
This affects angle build-up due to the lack of reactive forces

against the BHA. A solution is to place the KOP deeper.
• Casing and hole program:

The casing and hole program is generally designed on the basis
of the desired completion. Higher dog-leg angles will affect the
casing running program.
• Drilling experience in the area:

Tendency of build, hole and drop will vary from one location to
another.
• Borehole Stability
Dipping beds, unstable and reactive formations, regional tectonic
stress and borehole inclination and azimuth are all factors that
affect borehole stability. Choosing the right trajectory, together
with casing points, mud systems and hydraulics are important
issues in managing borehole stress related issues.
Basic Well Profiles

Build and Hold (J-type) Wells
This features a shallow KOP during which the borehole inclination increases
to a maximum inclination angle (MIA) which is then held to drill into the
target formation. A shallow KOP allows for easier initiation of inclination
and azimuth changes in soft formations (at least when drilling offshore) and
lower MIAs which reduce torque, drag and hole cleaning problems. They are
usually drilled with long or medium radius of curvature and are best suited
to deep targets with significant horizontal departure.
Figure 10: Build & Hold Profile

Build, Hold and Drop (S-type) Wells

These wells feature a shallow KOP, an initial build-up section followed by a
tangent and then a drop-off section to drill into the reservoir. These are best
suited to deep wells with limited horizontal displacement; they allow
multiple pay-zones to be accessed from a single well and reduce the inclina-
tion when entering the target. They may also be used when lease or
boundary restrictions are in place.
Figure 11: Build, Hold & Drop Profile
Horizontal Wells
These are drilled to enhance production in thin or complicated reservoir con-
ditions by drilling more reservoir and reducing the length of flow of more
traditional well path designs. Fractured zones and multiple channel reser-
voirs are particular applications.
They may be drilled by following a geometric pattern along a single build-up

section or as an extension of a J-Type well which includes a second BUS.
Extended Reach Wells (ERD)

Extended Reach Wells are those where the horizontal departure is two-three
times that of the TVD. Long, high angle tangent sections produce excessive
torque, drag and drillstring buckling problems together with poor hole
cleaning. Specialised drilling tools such as Rotary Steerable Systems (RSS)

and high quality drilling fluids need to be used to successfully drill these
wells which may have horizontal departures of more than 11kms, much of
which is drilled at inclinations greater than 80o.
Figure 12: Horizontal Profile
Catenary Curve Well Plan

A continuous smooth curve from KOP to target is also called the catenary
method. A catenary curve is the natural curve that a cable, chain or any
other line of uniform weight assumes when suspended between two points.
A similar suspension of drill string would also form a catenary curve.
Proponents of the catenary method argue that it results in a smoother

drilled well bore, that torque and drag are reduced and that there is less
chance of key seating and differential sticking. However, in practice it is
hard to pick BHA’s which will continuously give the required gradual rate of
build. It is in reality no easier to follow a catenary curve well plan than a tra-
ditional well plan. It is best suited to geometric wells where geological
uncertainty is limited since it may be difficult to change the well path having
become locked-in to a particular radius of curvature and well pattern.
Lead angle
Because of rotary drilling techniques using clock-wise rotation, wells often have a
natural tendency to walk to the right. This is enhanced with the use of mud motors

producing high RPM but may be limited by choosing bits and BHA components that
have been specially designed to resist this tendency. Nevertheless many wells are still
drilled with a lead angle pointing to the left of the desired azimuth in order to use the
natural drilling tendency to draw the well into the target. This may be easier than con-
tinually fighting this tendency in order to drill along the proposed target azimuth.
Proximity (anti-collision) Analysis

On multi-well configurations (particularly offshore) there may be small distances between slots.
To minimize the risk of collisions directly beneath the platform, the proposed well path is compared
to existing and other proposed wells. The distances between the other wells and the proposal are cal-
culated at frequent intervals in critical sections. These calculations can be performed using propri-
etary software packages.
Survey uncertainty must also be computed for both the proposed well and the existing wells. All
major operating companies have established criteria for the minimum acceptable separation of
wells, based on “cone of uncertainty” calculations.
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
Survey A-21 Survey A-20 Survey A-08

Survey A-25
400 400
Survey A-01
30
00
55
0 0
3500
Survey A-04
30
00
50
00
250
2500
00
200
20
Survey A-27 200

3000
25
Survey A-09
00
2500
Survey A-03
2000
2500
Grid North
2000
0 Tot C orr ( E 4.74° )

0
2000
Mag Dec ( E 4.84° )

4000
4500
Grid Conv ( E 0.11° )

2000
00
5000
20
Survey A-16
2500
15
00
-200 20
00
-200
3000
00
Survey A-14
25
Survey A-12 Survey A-22

-400 20
00 -400
Survey A-24
20
Survey A-10 Survey A-33

00
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
<<< WEST EAST >>>
Figure 13: Proximity Analysis
Trajectory Calculations
The initial geometric design is made based upon the above criteria. The
initial vertical depth to KOP must be established, followed by the Build-up
rate (BUR) to the desired MIA. The measured length of the build section, the
measured length to the end-of-build and TVDs at these points must also be

computed. With extended reach drilling horizontal departure lengths also

need to be calculated.
Of course specialist 3D well planning software is used extensively during

this part of the process and many of the larger Operators have virtual reality
rooms where 3D representations of both the wellbore trajectory and seismic
sections can be projected; wellpaths can be adjusted by manual dragging for
fine tuning the plan.
Geometric
Section
Geosteering
Section
5.5 /100'
V1
V2
10 /100'
V3
D1 D2 D3
Figure 14: Trajectory Planning

V β L
1
β
2
Where:
B = Build-Up Rate (deg/100 ft) D 180
R = Build-Up Radius (ft) Rc =
β1 = Initial Inclination (deg) BUR
β2 = Final Inclination (deg) ×π
L = Length of hole (ft) 100
V = Vertical Height (ft)
D = Displacement (ft)
Figure 15: Radius of Curvature Calculation

Figure 16: Trajectory Calculations

Figure 17: Trajectory Calculations

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100

West m
1000
Case Study 1: CAL 100 Plan

0 900
T arget 2
100 800
Case Study1: CAL100 Section
200
700
300
Middle Ommelanden Chalk 600
N o rth m
400
Lower Ommelanden Chalk
500
TVD - m
500
Texel Marl
` 400
600 Upper Holland Marl
T arget 1 300
700
Lower Holland Marl
Gag Sst. 200
800 Headley Sst.
Fortuna Shale
100
900
Vertical Section- m 0
1000
-50 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
-100
Figure 18: Well PLanning
Borehole Stability and Wellbore Stress

Vertical boreholes are kept open because of the hydraulic pressure produced
by the drilling fluid and the build up of an impermeable filter cake when
drilling porous or even unconsolidated formations. The drilling fluid
pressure needs to be greater that the geological forces acting against it, and
the filter cake needs to provide an impermeable barrier. The dominant geo-
logical stress is vertical, caused by the grain-to-grain contact of the matrix
stress. In vertical wells this acts along the borehole but when drilling
inclined wells this acts across the borehole leading to instability and caving
(borehole breakout) in a direction perpendicular to the maximum stress,
which usually corresponds to the horizontal stress.
In some regions the horizontal stress is the same magnitude in all directions
so that the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid will provide pressure
control all around the borehole. However in many parts of the world the hor-
izontal stresses are not equal leading to borehole breakout parallel to the
minimum stress azimuth, requiring higher mud weights to stabilize the
hole.
This leads to difficulties when drilling deviated and horizontal wells since
different mud weights may be required when drilling along different

azimuths even in the same reservoir. Drilling parallel to minimum horizon-

tal stress will cause borehole breakout along the direction of the borehole
requiring lower mud weights than when drilling parallel to the maximum
horizontal stress when the borehole will breakout along the sides of the hole.
Well planning engineers should aim to reduce drilling costs by incorporating

geomechanics into the planning process with the aim of:
• Optimizing Mud Weights
• Balancing the mud chemistry to the formation fluids
• Minimising Casing Strings
• Optimizing Wellbore Trajectory
Types of Wellbore Stress

Mechanical stress
• Tension failure:
fracturing; lost circulation
• Compression failure:
Spalling and collapse or plastic flow
• Abrasion and impact
Chemical interactions with the drilling fluid

• Shale hydration, swelling and dispersion
• Dissolution of soluble formations
• Physical interactions with the drilling fluid

Erosion
Wetting along pre-existing fractures (brittle shale)
Fluid invasion - pressure transmission
Drilling Fluids Management Issues

• Hole cleaning problems
• Wellbore erosion
• Physical impact damage

• Mud weights and pore pressures
• Surge and swab pressures
• Wellbore stresses
Chemical conditions
These must also must be evaluated such as:
• Reactivity of the failing formation
• Chemical compatibility of the mud system
• Possible wellbore dissolution
Mud System Limitations

A number of restrictions may be placed on the types of mud systems and
products that can be used. These restrictions include:
• The need to obtain specific formation evaluation

(minimally altered cores or a particular log)
• Local health, safety and environmental regulations

Cost, logistics and availability of materials
Other problems that override wellbore stability concerns
(lost circulation, for example)
Evaluating Wellbore Stress

A number of methods are available for evaluating wellbore stress some of
which can be used in real-time to aid drilling in addition to well planning.
These include:
Regional Studies
Offset Data
Overburden and Fracture Pressure Analysis
Determination of Least Principle Stress Direction
Rock Strength
Regional Studies
Seismic interpretation and basin studies will provide a great deal of infor-
mation about the regional tectonic framework in which the well is being
drilled and the likely orientation of major stresses

Offset Data
Data from previously drilled wells will be invaluable in determining mud
weights, systems and casing design. Drilling data, drilling reports, mudlog
data, LWD and Wireline log data, and wellsite geological logs can all be
used.
= Maximum Stress / Overburden

= Intermediate Stress
= Minimum Stress
Figure 19: Hole Angle & Stress
Overburden and Fracture Pressure Analysis
Estimates of overburden pressure, minimum horizontal stress and rock

fracture pressure can be made from direct measurements and by indirect
means using mathematical modelling techniques.
Overburden Pressure
Overburden Pressure is integrated from bulk density data, which itself is
obtained from Wireline or LWD Density or Sonic logs. Density normally
increases with depth, as compaction proceeds, towards an average
maximum value of around 2.3 gm/cc or 1.0 psi/ft in a thick sedimentary
sequence. Lithology variations and geo-pressured zones caused by under-
compaction will affect this process.
Estimates of pore pressure are made by direct measurements, (Wireline

RFT, LWD tools such as TesTrakTM (Baker Hughes INTEQ), StethoscopeTM
(Schlumberger) and GeoTapTM (Halliburton), DST, Kick Analysis), and
indirect methods from drilling, LWD, Wireline and geological data.
Least Principle Stress

Estimates of the magnitude and direction of the least principle stress are
required for trajectory planning and mud weight requires to minimise the
effects of borehole breakout.

Leak-Off Test
Leak-Off Tests, Extended Leak-Off Tests and mini-frac tests are made to
measure the strength of the formation, usually just below the casing shoe to
ensure that the required mudweight can be used for the next hole section.
The minimum force required to initiate and/or propagate fractures can be
determined. Extended Leak-Off Tests use multiple pressuring and de-pres-
suring cycles to measure such things as fracture closing pressure. These
tests are usually non-azimuthal.
Leak-Off Test
Pump Stopped
C
D
B
Bleed Off
Gauge Pressure psi
Total Pressure at B:
Gauge Pressure + Mud Hydrostatic
Total Pressure at C:
B + Crack Extension Pressure
Total Pressure at D:
B=D
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 Time, minutes
BBL Mud Pumped
Figure 20: Standard Leak-Off Test
Caliper Logs
Mechanical wireline and acoustic LWD caliper logs will confirm the presence
of borehole breakout and its direction. Azimuthal, four-arm calipers
measure the borehole size in two perpendicular directions.
Image Logs
Wireline and LWD image logs can be used to identify borehole breakout and
the direction of least principle stress. The use of LWD logs provides the pos-
sibility of having real-time analysis of borehole breakout. The width of the
breakout can be determined and this is used by some Operators to determine

the optimum mudweight to stabilize the hole. Because of variations in

lithology and rock strength within one particular hole section a certain
amount of breakout is normally allowed before intervention measures are
introduced.
Azimuthal Resistivity, Density, Photo-electric Absorption and Sonic logs can

also be used. Borehole breakout will show as low density in the direction in
which the breakout occurs:
• Low Resistivity (Dark Colours)
• Low Density (Dark Colours)
• High PEF (Dark Colours)
• Long Travel Times
An example of UBI image of borehole

breakout where angular caving are
produced
Figure 21: UBI Image Scan
Cavings
Cavings provide direct evidence of borehole breakout and provide useful
information about the intervention measures to be followed. Mudloggers and
wellsite geologists can identify cavings from drill cuttings by their size and

shape. Estimates can be made of the volume and weight of cavings and
detailed analysis can be made by visual examination and by the use of
digital photography.
Three styles of cavings can normally be determined:
• Angular
• Tabular
• Splintery
Angular
• Characterized by the presence of conjugate shear surfaces –
curved, rough/gouged surfaces intersecting each other at acute
angles
• Produced from rock shear failure. When the sheared surfaces

are fresh, they are from borehole break-outs: drilling-induced
near-wellbore shear failure
• When the sheared surfaces are old, the cavings are most likely
come from a rubble zone
• UBI/FMI logs will see symmetric failures on both sides of the

borehole wall in this case
Borehole wall
Sheared surfaces
Figure 22: Angular caving

Tabular
• Characterized by having one or more flat and smooth

surfaces; parallel surfaces are common
• Typically from failures along weak bedding planes, or

cleavages in pre-existing fracture/joint sets
• UBI/FMI logs show failures are much more pronounced on

one side of the borehole
Preexisting cleavages in nature fracture/joint sets

Bedding planes
Figure 23: Tabular Cavings
Splintery
• Characterized by long, thin morphologies with fresh plume

structure – a key feature of tensile splitting in rocks
• Typically from near wellbore tensile spalling in the radial

direction – due to drilling too fast through low permeability
shale, or because the mud weight is lower than the pore
pressure in the adjacent formation
• Failure should be evenly distributed around the borehole in

homogeneous formations, but could show preferential
enlargement where tectonic or unequal stresses occur

Figure 24: Splintery Caving
Remedial Actions
• For angular cavings:

Raise mud weight if pore/frac window allows
Manage hole cleaning if no extra mud weight window available
Optimize well trajectory in future wells
• For tabular cavings:

Minimise fluid loss
Reduce surge, swab forces and drill string vibration
Avoid back reaming
• For splintery cavings:

Increase mud weight
Reduce penetration rate
Example of Calculated Safe Mud Weight Range

90
80 Collapse Fracture
Gradient Gradient
Hole Deviation (Degrees)
70
60
50
40 Compressive Stable Tensile
Failure Wellbore Failure
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Mud Weight (S.G.)
From McLean, et. al. SPE Paper No. 20405 12
Figure 25: Drilling Window

Borehole Ballooning
Some “soft” shales and high-water content clays can deform plastically,
causing an increase in the size and volume of the hole (ballooning). The bal-
looning theory is that if the mud weight is excessive, the hole can be enlarged
(ballooned) and trap pressure like a pressure vessel. However, when the
mud pressure is relaxed, for example when the pumps are switched off
during a connection, mud can be squeezed from the borehole giving similar
indications to that of a kick. This concept is somewhat controversial and
poorly understood. It is not clear whether ballooning symptoms are caused
by opening and closing fractures or by plastic deformation of the wellbore. In
any case, well control situations should be handled in the safest possible
manner.
Hole Cleaning in High Angle Wells

Hole cleaning is generally more difficult in high angle wells than when
drilling vertically. Cuttings beds can easily build up on the low side of the
borehole and it may be difficult to generate the required ECD and drilling
fluid hydraulics. The potential lack of drillpipe rotation, high penetration
rates producing large volumes of cuttings and borehole stability issues con-
tributing cavings.
AV (ft/sec)
2 120 ft/min
3 180 ft/min
240 ft/min
0 35 55 90
Hole Inclination
Figure 26: Annular Velocities
Parameters that influence hole cleaning

• Flow Rate: determines transport & annular velocity
• Mud Density

• Hole Angle: determines mechanism of removal
• Fluid rheology & flow regime
• Rate of penetration
• Cuttings Size
• Drill pipe rotation
CENTRIFUGAL
EFFECT ROTATING
TORQUE
NO EFFECT
ROTATION
(VELOCITY
GRADIENT)
Figure 27: Pipe Rotation & Hole Cleaning
Mechanisms For Cuttings Removal

The mechanism depends on hole angle:
• High angles (>55°)

Stationary cuttings bed forms instantly
Transport via a rolling mechanism (saltation)
• Intermediate Angles (45°-55°)

Unstable, churning, moving cuttings bed
Transport via lifting mechanism

• Near vertical wells (<45°)

Particle settling determine rates
Transport velocity greater than slip velocity
Barite Sag
This is a significant variation in mud density measured during the first
bottoms-up circulation after a weighted mud has remained static for some
time in a directional well.
It is caused by slumping or sliding of higher density beds formed when

weight material settles to the low side of the hole. Bed formation occurs
while the fluid is circulating & not just during static conditions.

Co-ordinates & Grids
Well Planning
Introduction
There are many aspects involved in well planning, and many individuals
from various companies and disciplines are involved in designing specific
programmes for the well (mud programme, casing programme, drill string
design, bit programme, etc.). A novel approach to well planning is where
each of the service contractors become equally involved in their area of
expertise.
This section will concentrate on those aspects of well planning involving

directional drilling companies.
Reference Systems and Coordinates.

With the exception of Inertial Navigation Systems, all survey systems
measure inclination and azimuth at a particular measured depths measured
‘along hole’ or AH. These measurements are tied to fixed reference systems
so that the course of the borehole can be calculated and recorded. These
reference systems include:
• Depth references or datum
• Inclination references
• Azimuth references
Depth References
During the course of a directional well, two kinds of depths are used as
reference:
• Measured Depth (MD)

is the distance measured along the actual course of the borehole
from the surface reference point to the survey point. This depth
is always measured in some way, for example, pipe tally, wireline
depth counter, or mud loggers depth counter.
• True Vertical Depth (TVD)

is the vertical distance from the depth reference level to a point
on the borehole course. This depth is always calculated from the
deviation survey data.
In most drilling operations the rotary table elevation is used as the opera-
tional datum reference. The abbreviation RT (rotary table) and historically
RKB (rotary Kelly bushing) are used to indicate depths measured from the
rotary table. This can also be referred to as derrick floor elevation. For
floating drilling rigs the rotary table elevation is not fixed and hence a mean
rotary table elevation has to be used.

In order to compare individual wells within the same field, a common datum
depth level must be defined and referred to (e.g. When drilling a
relief well into a blow-out well, the difference in elevation between the
wellheads has to be accurately known). Offshore, mean sea level (MSL) is
sometimes used. Variations in actual sea level from MSL can be read from
tide tables or can be measured.
Inclination References
The inclination of a wellbore is the angle () between the vertical and the well
bore axis at a particular point. The vertical reference is the direction of the
local gravity vector and could be indicated by a plumb bob.
Azimuth Reference Systems

For directional surveying there are three azimuth reference systems:
• Magnetic North
• True (Geographic) North
• Grid North
Magnetic North: All “magnetic-type” tools give an azimuth (hole direction)

referenced to Magnetic North. However, the final calculated co-ordinates are
always referenced to either True North or Grid North.
True (Geographic) North: This is the direction of the geographic North

Pole, which lies on the Earth’s axis of rotation. Direction is shown on maps
using meridians of longitude.
Grid North: Drilling operations occur on a curved surface (i.e., the surface
of the Earth) but when calculating horizontal plane co-ordinates a flat
surface is assumed. Since it is not possible to exactly represent part of the
surface of a sphere on a flat well plan, corrections must be applied to the
measurements. To do this, different projection systems can be used.

TN
MN
EAST
MAGNETIC NORTH TRUE NORTH
X
X
Figure 1: Magnetic Declination
TN
MA
MN
-1 0°
GN
+ 6° -4°
Figure 2: Magnetic & Grid North Corrections
Grid Mapping Projection Systems

To minimise distortion a number of grid mapping projections are used. The
point of reference is taken at a specific location and the data projected onto
a flat plane.

C ylindrical M apping Conical M apping
Central N
N M eridien
M ap
Earth
Earth
S NG NG NG
Lam bert
Universal
(Local or State
Transverse NT NT governm ents)
M ercator
(Federal or Foreign G rid
governm ents) Correction
Figure 3: Grid mapping Projection Systems
UTM System
One example of a grid system is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
System. In transverse Mercator projection, the surface of the spheroid
chosen to represent the Earth is wrapped in a cylinder, which touches the
spheroid along a chosen meridian. (A meridian is a circle running around the
Earth passing through both North and South geographic poles).
These meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and do not
produce a rectangular grid system. The grid lines on a map form the rectan-
gular grid system, the Northerly direction of which is determined by one
specified meridian of longitude. This “Grid North” direction will only be
identical to “True North” along a specified meridian.

Figure 4: UTM Zones
The relationship between True North and Grid North is indicated by the
angles ‘a’ in Figure 1. Convergence is the angle difference between grid north
and true north for the location being considered.
Figure 5: True North and Grid North
The reference meridians are 6º degrees apart, starting at the Greenwich

meridian, which means the world is divided into 60 zones. The zones are

numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31 having the 0º meridian (Greenwich) on the

left and the 6º East on the right. Each zone is then further divided into ‘grid
sectors’ - a grid sector covering 8º of latitude starting from the equator and
ranging from 80º south to 80º north. The sectors are identified by the letters
from C to X (excluding I and O).
Each sector is therefore uniquely identified by a number from 0 to 60 (zone

number) and a letter. For example, sector 31U shown in Figure 10, is the
Southern North Sea.
Figure 6: UTM Sector Identification
Coordinates in the UTM system are measured in metres. North coordinates

being measured from the equator. For the Northern hemisphere, the equator
is taken as 0.00m north, whereas for the Southern hemisphere the equator
is 1,000,000m north (to avoid negative numbers). East co-ordinates for each
sector are measured from a line 500,000m west of the central meridian for
that sector. In other words, the central meridian for each zone is arbitrarily
given the co-ordinate 500,000 East. Again, this avoids negative numbers.
Therefore UTM co-ordinates are always Northings and Eastings, and are
always positive numbers.

Figure 7: Eastings and Northings
Lambert Projection.
Another projection system, used in some parts of the world, is the conical
projection or LAMBERT system. A cone as opposed to a cylinder covers the
spheroid under consideration. This produces a representation with
meridians as convergent lines and parallels as arcs of circles.
Further discussion of the co-ordinate systems and map projections is beyond

the scope of this module.
Field Coordinates
Although the co-ordinates of points on a wellpath could be expressed as UTM
co-ordinates, it is not normal practice. Instead, a reference point on the
platform or rig is chosen as the local origin and given the coordinates 0,0. On
offshore platforms this point is usually the centre of the platform. The
Northings and Eastings points on the wells drilled from the platform are ref-
erenced to this single origin. This is important when comparing positions of
wells, in particular for anti-collision analysis.
Direction Measurements
Survey tools measure the direction of the well bore on the horizontal plane
with respect to North reference, either True or Grid. There are two systems:
Azimuth:
In the azimuth system, directions are expressed as a clockwise angle from 0º
to 359.99º, with North being 0º.

Figure 8: Azimuth System
Quadrant Bearings:
In the Quadrant system (Fig 13), the directions are expressed as angles from
0º to 90º, measured from North in the two Northern quadrants and from
South in the Southern quadrants. The figure below illustrates how to
convert from the quadrant system to azimuth and vice versa.
The advent of steerable systems has resulted in wells that are planned and
drilled with complex paths involving 3-dimensional turns.
This is particularly true in the case of re-drills, where old wells are side-
tracked to new targets.

Figure 9: Quadrant System
Positioning Problems
There are many errors associated with mapping projections and the mathe-
matics of grid corrections. Uncertainties also exist with regard to datums
and reference systems. It is important to note that any projection will also
have an associated datum and that stating, for example, that a set of co-
ordinates refers to a specific UTM Zone is insufficient unless the associated
datum is also supplied.
The shape of the earth is not a true sphere but is flattened at the poles to
produce an ellipsoid. The exact shape of this ellipsoid must be specified and
referenced in datums. Latitude and longitude are arbitrary values
depending on the size and shape of the ellipsoid and also where it is fixed in
space. A single point on the surface or in the interior of the earth may have
many latitude and longitude co-ordinates referenced to different datums.
Some years ago Shell audited the positions of 63,000 wells stored in the
global database of a large consultancy and found around 9,000 that were in
error by more than 1,000m.

Geoid “real” shape of earth

Datum 1 Ellipsoid
Datum 2 Ellipsoid
Satellite Datum Ellipsoid (eg WGS 84)
Figure 10: Geoid References
Figure 11: Latitude & Longitude variations

Wellbore Surveying
Directional Surveys
Directional surveys are necessary to:
• Permit calculation of well coordinates at measured depths in
order to specify the well path and the current bottom hole
location
• Compare current position to proposed well path
• Determine tool face orientation
• To calculate dog leg severity values
• Stay within lease boundaries
Most survey instruments measure:

• Borehole inclination
• Borehole Azimuth
• Tool Face Orientation
Common Survey Tools

Drift Indicator
This measures inclination form vertical using a mechanical inclinometer. The
tool is dropped down the inside of the drill string, allowed to settle using a tim-
ing device. After taking a reading the tool is retrieved using the sand line before
drilling can proceed. This is a time consuming process in deeper wells and does
not provide azimuth information. It is generally used on vertical wells, where
few directional problems are envisaged.

Wellbore Surveying
Figure 1: Drift Indicator
Figure 2: Dropping Drift Survey Tool

Wellbore Surveying
Magnetic Single Shot

This measures the inclination and azimuth, and is similar in operation to the
Drift Indicator. A magnetic compass reading is photographed using a single
film. Before MWD this was the main tool used during drilling operations to
monitor the progress of the well.
Magnetic Multi-shot
This uses the same principles as the single shot but is able to take a number of
photographs using a film strip. It is used mainly during trips out of the hole to
obtain multiple readings (correlated to depth by a timing mechanism) to check
against MWD or single shot readings taken during drilling. Electronic magnetic
Multishot tools (EMS) use a sensor array of accelerometers and magnetometers
which record the data on a memory chip which is transferred to computer for
surface processing when the tool is retrieved to the surface.
Figure 3: Magnetic Single Shot

Wellbore Surveying
Figure 4: Magnetic Multishot
Figure 5: EMS Tools
Gyroscopes
Gyroscopes use inclinometers and oriented spinning wheels attached by gim-
bals to give readings of hole angle and direction. Since all magnetic survey
instruments can be affected by metallic objects in and around the borehole (cas-
ing and drill string components etc.) and corrections need to be made for decli-
nation and changes to the earth’s magnetic field, gyroscopes provide a more
accurate means of obtaining directional data.
They are very delicate tools however, and can also be temperature sensitive.

Wellbore Surveying
They are run on wireline, normally in cased hole sections since their size pre-
cludes use through the drillstring. The main use of gyros is when drilling out of
casing whilst the MWD tool is still affected by magnetic interference. Most
gyros are single shot, surface read-out tools, though multi-shots can also be
taken if required.
Whilst the spinning mechanism is oriented at surface and will tend to keep this
orientation whilst being run, there is a tendency for these tools to drift. Some
correction is necessary to counter this drift in order for the readings to remain
accurate. Modern tools include self seeking gyros which automatically sense
this drift (represented by a torque increase) and make the corrections.
Figure 6: Gyroscope Tool

Wellbore Surveying
Wireline Steering Tools

This is used to give a continuous reading of directional survey data whilst drill-
ing with a bent sub and motor assembly. The sensors are similar to the EMS tool
described above but the tool is run on wireline (using a side entry sub) which
enables the information to be continuously transmitted to surface. This was the
early form of MWD tool but can only be used with no drillstring rotation and
has largely been superseded by wireless, mud pulse telemetry style data trans-
mission MWD tools.
Figure 7: Wireline Steering Tool
MWD
The MWD tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers situated in a drill collar
within the BHA. Data are transmitted to the surface using mud pulse telemetry
and enable directional survey information and tool face orientation readings to
be made any time without the time taken by more traditional methods.
Accelerometer
Accelerometers are used to measure the earth’s local gravitational field. Each
accelerometer consists of a magnetic mass (pendulum) suspended in an electro-
magnetic field. Gravity deflects the mass from its null position. Sufficient cur-
rent is applied to the sensor to return the mass to the null position. This current
is directly proportional to the gravitational force acting on the mass.
The gravitational readings are used to calculate the hole inclination, toolface,
and the vertical reference used to determine dip angle.

Wellbore Surveying
Magnetometer
Magnetometers are used to measure the earth’s local magnetic field. Each mag-
netometer is a device consisting of two identical cores with a primary winding
around each core but in opposite directions. A secondary winding twists around
both cores and the primary winding. The primary current (excitation current)
produces a magnetic field in each core. These fields are of equal intensity, but
opposite orientation, and therefore cancel each other out such that no voltage is
induced in the secondary winding. When the magnetometer is placed in an
external magnetic field which is aligned with the sensitive axis of the magne-
tometer (core axis), an unbalance in the core saturation occurs and a voltage
directly proportional to the external field is produced in the secondary winding.
The measure of voltage induced by the external field will provide precise deter-
mination of the direction and magnitude of the local magnetic field relative to
the magnetometer’s orientation in the borehole.
Inertial Navigation Systems

These are the most accurate types of survey tools, but are both very large and
very expensive. They are run inside casing and are used to provide very accu-
rate readings from multi well platforms to ensure that each well is correctly
positioned before completion.
Readings are made whilst the tools are in motion, either running into or out of
the hole by wireline. They make measurements of gravitational acceleration in
three directions at right angles. The acceleration data are integrated backwards
three times in order to obtain velocity and distance information. The three dis-
tance readings obtained provide TVD, North and East values which provide
borehole position information from which inclination and azimuth can be calcu-
lated.
Survey Calculation Methods

Tangent
The tangential method assumes that the wellbore follows a straight line between
each pair of survey stations. The method utilises only the angles I1 and A1 mea-
sured at the bottom of the course length and assumes the entire survey interval
DMD to lie tangent to these angles.

Wellbore Surveying
Figure 8: Tangential Method
Average Angle
The average angle method assumes the course of the wellpath between two sur-
vey stations to be a straight line tangent to the average angles of inclination and
azimuth at the two stations. It consequently uses I1 & I2 and A1 & A2

Wellbore Surveying
Figure 9: Average Angle Method
Radius of Curvature
This represents the wellbore as a curve twisted out of a plane. It is equivalent to
drilling along the surface of a cylinder. The method uses functions of the tan-
gent lines in conjunction with the actual angular differences to account for the
curvature.

Wellbore Surveying
Figure 10: Radius of Curvature
Minimum Curvature
This method represents the well course between adjacent wellbore stations as a
circular arc in a plane containing the directions measured at these two stations.
It is equivalent to drilling along the surface of a sphere. The ratio factor, F,
smooths straight line sections onto a curve. In most cases F is very close to 1.
The vertical section calculation is very similar to the TVD calculation but uses
the sine of the angle instead of the cosine, because here we are interested in the

Wellbore Surveying
adjacent part of the triangle rather than the opposite. (Well path length as
opposed to well depth.).
Figure 11: Minimum Curvature

Wellbore Surveying

Directional Drilling Techniques
Whip-stocks
The whip-stock was the main borehole deflection tool from 1930-1950. A stan-
dard whip-stock is seldom used nowadays, but it has not disappeared
completely. Whip-stocks are used today mostly for assistance in sidetracking
and milling windows in casing.
Standard removable Whip-stock

The Standard Removable Whip-stock is mainly used to kick off wells, but can
also be used for sidetracking. It consists of a long inverted steel wedge, which is
concave on one side to hold and guide the drilling assembly. It is also provided
with a chisel point at the bottom to prevent the tool from turning, and a heavy
collar at the top to withdraw the tool from the hole. It will usually be used with
a drilling assembly consisting of a bit, a spiral stabilizer, and an orientation sub,
rigidly attached to the whip-stock by means of a shear pin.
The whip-stock assembly is lowered to the bottom of the hole and orientated.
Weight is applied to set the whip-stock and shear the pin. The bit is then drilled
down and forced to deflect to one side. A 12’ to 16’ “rat hole” is drilled below
the toe of the whip-stock and the assembly is then pulled out of hole, taking the
whip-stock with it. A hole opener is run to open the rat hole to full gauge. The
hole opener assembly is then tripped out and a rapid angle build assembly run in
hole to “follow up” the initial deflection. This whole procedure may have to be
repeated several times during the kick-off.
It is obvious that the major disadvantage of the standard whip-stock is the

number of trips involved. The other important disadvantage is that the whip-
stock produced a sudden, sharp deflection - in other words, a severe dogleg -,
which may give rise to subsequent hole problems. The advantages are that it is a
simple piece of equipment, which requires relatively little maintenance and has
no temperature limitations.
Circulating Whip-stock
The “Circulating Whip-stock” is run, set and drilled like the standard whip-
stock. However, in this case the drilling mud initially flows through a passage to
the bottom of the whip-stock, which permits more efficient cleaning of the
bottom of the hole and ensures a clean seat for the tool. It is most efficient for
washing out bottom hole fills.

Figure 1: Removable Whipstock

Permanent Casing Whip-stock

The “Permanent Casing Whip-stock” is designed to remain permanently in the
well. It is used where a “window” is to be cut in casing for a sidetrack. The
casing whip-stock can be set using a Baker Model “D” Packer. A special stinger
at the base of the whip-stock slips into the packer assembly, and a stainless steel
key within the packer locks the whip-stock’s anchor-seal and prohibits any
circular movement during drilling.
The normal procedure is to orientate the system and then set the packer. After
this, the starter mill is pinned to the whip-stock and the whole assembly run
slowly in hole and seated in the packer.
Although the packer has already been orientated, it is good practice to orientate
the whip-stock in the same manner as the packer. This will ensure that a faster
“latch up” will take place without endangering the shear pin.
After the whip-stock has been “seated” in the packer, the pin is sheared and
circulation and rotation started. The starting mill is used to make an initial cut
through the casing and mill approximately 2 feet of the window. The (brass) lug
that held the starting mill to the whipstock must also be milled off.
This assembly is tripped out and the mill changed. A tungsten carbide or
diamond speed mill is used to cut the rest of the window, usually run below a
watermelon or string mill. Once the window has been cut, approximately 5’ of
formation is drilled before pulling out of hole. Next, a taper mill is run with a
watermelon mill immediately above it. This is done to “clean” the top and the
bottom of the window. Finally, another trip is made to change over to the
drilling assembly for drilling ahead.
The advantage of using this system, instead of the normal method of milling a
section and sidetracking, is that the operation takes less time. The main disad-
vantage is that it gives a sharp dogleg, and as such the casing whip-stock
assembly is not recommended if there is a considerable distance to drill below
the sidetrack. This is because problems can occur when trying to pull stabi-
lizers, etc. back into the casing through the window. On the other hand, if there
is only a short distance to be drilled below the sidetrack point, then the casing
whipstock is the optimum tool.
In recent years, improvements in the design of the system have eliminated the
need for so many trips in and out of the hole.

Figure 2: Casing Whipstock
Jetting
Jetting (or badgering) is a technique used to deviate wellbores in soft forma-
tions. The technique was developed in the mid 1950s but is seldom used in
modern drilling operations.

A special jet bit may be used, but it was common practice to use a standard soft
formation tri-cone bit, with one very large nozzle and two smaller ones. More
mud was produced from the larger jet nozzle so that, with no pipe rotation, the
hole would be wahed away preferentially on one side. A combination of
washing and rotating would deviate the borehole although with little or no
azimuthal or BUR control.
Jetting has been used in the recent past for nudging wells apart whilst drilling
top hole sections, particularly when drilling multiple wells from offshore plat-
forms.
Figure 3: Jetting
Downhole (Mud) Motors

The concept of using down-hole motors as a subsurface power source to
directly turn the bit is not new. The first commercial motors were turbine based.
The first patent for a ‘turbo-drill’ was taken out in 1873. The USSR focused
efforts in developing down-hole motors in the 1920’s and continued to use
motors extensively in their drilling activity. After 1945, the western companies

focused efforts more on rotary drilling, but field applications for down-hole
motors have greatly increased from the 1980’s.
The principle of both positive displacement motors (PDM) and turbines is the
same. Mud pumped through the device is deflected by a stationary ‘stator’ onto
a bearing mounted ‘rotor’, which is then forced to rotate.
The PDM has a multistage helical ‘corkscrew’ type rotor/stator while. In both
cases the rotor is connected through the bearing section, via a drive shaft to a
rotating bit sub into which the bit is screwed.
Turbine
A turbine is made up of several sections:
• Drive stages or motor sections
• Axial thrust bearing assembly and radial bearings.
• Bit drive sub
Figure 4: Turbine Mud Motor
The drive stages, or motor section, consists of a series of stators and rotors of a
bladed design. Each stator and rotor combination forms a stage’. Turbines are

referred to as 90 stage, 250 stage, etc. The number of stages determines the
torque generated. Each stage, theoretically, applies an equal amount of torque to
the control shaft and it is the sum of those torques, which will be outputted to
the bit. The drive sub is the bit connection and bearing shaft. Radial bearings
protect the shaft from lateral loading and the thrust bearings support the down-
wards-hydraulic thrust from mud being pumped through the tool and the
upward thrust of weight being applied to the bit. Theoretically, weight on bit
should be applied so as to equalize the hydraulic thrust, which unloads the bear-
ings and prolongs their life.
Figure 5: NeyrFor Turbine Mud Motor
Drive Section
This consists of a series of bladed stators, fixed to the outer tool housing and
bladed rotors fixed to the central rotating shaft. Mudflow is deflected at a pre-
determined angle off the stator blades to hit the rotor blades and cause the shaft
to rotate. The angle of the blades will affect the torque and speed output of the
turbine.
Bearing Section
Usually, thrust bearings are made up of rubber discs, which are non-rotating
(being fixed to the outer housing of the tool) and rotating steel discs attached to
the central rotating shaft. Long bearing sections known as cartridges are used
for long life in tangent or straight hole sections. These are changeable at the rig
site. If the bearings wear past the maximum point, considerable damage will be
sustained when the steel rotors collide with the stators below.

Directional Turbine
This is a short tool, which has a set number of stages and the bearing section
entirely within one housing. It is therefore not a sectional tool and will be typi-
cally less than 30’long. It is designed for short runs to kick off or correct a direc-
tional well, using a bent sub as the deflection device.
Turbine Observations
• There is minimal surface indication of a turbine stalling.
• Turbines do not readily allow pumping LCM.
• Sand/solid content of the drilling fluid should be kept to a

minimum.
• Due to minimal elastomeric components, the turbine is high

temperature tolerant.
• Pressure drop through the tool is typically high, ranging from

500 to over 2000 psi.
• Turbines do not require a by-pass valve.
• Usually, the maximum allowable bearing wear is ca. 4mm.
Turbine Characteristics
• Torque and RPM are inversely proportional (i.e. as RPM
increases, torque decreases and vice versa).
• RPM is directly proportional to flow rate (at a constant

torque).
• Torque is a function of flow rate, mud density, blade angle and

the number of stages, and varies if weight-on-bit varies.
• Optimum power output takes place when thrust bearings are

balanced.
• Changing the flow rate causes the characteristic curve to shift.
• Off bottom, the turbine RPM will reach “runaway speed”

where torque is zero.
• On bottom, and just at stall, the turbine achieves maximum

torque and RPM is zero.

• Optimum performance is at half the stall torque and at half the

runaway speed; the turbine then achieves maximum horse-
power.
• A stabilised turbine used in tangent sections will normally

cause the hole to “walk” to the left.
Positive Displacement Motors

A positive displacement motor (PDM) is a hydraulically driven downhole
motor that uses the ‘Minnie’ principle to rotate the bit, independent of drill
string rotation. A helically coiled steel drive shaft, rotor, is located in a hard
rubber housing, stator, which also has a helical coil cut within but with one
more lob than that of the rotor to provide a cavity.
In 1930 the University of Paris awarded René Moineau doctorate of science for
his thesis on “the new capsulism”. His pioneering dissertation laid the ground-
work for the progressive cavity pump. Then, to manufacture the pump, René
Moineau became a partner to Robert Bienaimé within a company founded with
capital from the Gévelot group: PCM.
Figure 6: PDM
Instead of driving the shaft to draw fluid along the cavity, pumping mud pushes
the shaft to produce rotary drive.
These tools work on the principle of progressive cavity. Fluid is pumped into
the cavity formed between the rotor and stator. The force imparted causes the
rotor to turn inside the stator and the drilling fluid passes through the power
section as the cavity moves progressively down the tool. The power output and
torque are directly proportional to the differential pressure across the PDM, and

are not affected by variations in fluid density. This parameter can be monitored
at the rig floor, and be used to finely adjust power and torque output to the bit
while drilling. Other advantages of the PDM are that pump pressures required
are much less than needed to run a turbine. A higher pressure loss can be main-
tained across the bit, allowing for the use of a greater range of bit styles. LCM
can be pumped through the tool when required. Finally, the tool is cheaper to
build and maintain, as well as easier to re-design to alter the power output and
bit RPM.
RPM is dependent on the flowrate of the mud and the degree of coiling applied
to the rotor and stator sections. More coiling results in lower RPM but higher
torque for the same flowrate.
Figure 7: Steerable Mud Motor
Down-hole motor and bent sub

A common method of deflecting wellbores is to use a down-hole motor and a
bent sub. The bent sub is placed directly above the motor thus creating a deflec-
tion. Its lower thread (on the pin) is inclined 1º-3º from the axis of the sub body.
The bent sub acts as the pivot of a lever and the bit is pushed sideways as well
as downwards This sideways component of force at the bit gives the motor a
tendency to drill a curved path, provided there is no rotation of the drill string.
The degree of curvature (dogleg severity) depends on the bent sub angle and the
OD of the motor, bent sub and DC's in relation to the diameter of the hole. It
also depends on the length of the motor.
A down-hole motor and bent sub assembly may be used for kicking off wells,
and for correction runs or for sidetracking.
Notice the absence of any stabilizers in the lower part of this assembly. Usually
there would be no stabilizers for at least 90 feet above the bent sub. In fact, it is

not uncommon for the entire BHA to be “slick” when a motor and bent sub is
used for kicking off at shallow depths.
Figure 8: Bent Sub & Motor

Figure 9: Bent sub and Motor
Reactive Torque
The drilling fluid pushing against the stator creates reactive torque. Since the
stator is bonded to the body of the motor, the effect of this force is to twist the
motor and BHA anti-clockwise. As weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling
torque created by the motor increases, and reactive torque increases in direct
proportion. Thus using the analogy of Newton’s’ Third law of Motion, the
clockwise drilling torque generated at the bit is the “action” and the anti-clock-
wise torque on the motor housing is the “reaction”. The reactive torque at the
motor is equal to the drilling torque.
Reactive torque causes a problem for directional drillers when using a motor
and bent sub to deflect the wellbore. The twisting of the BHA caused by reac-
tive torque changes the tool face orientation of the bent sub. If they are
obtaining tool face orientation from single shot surveys, the directional driller
has to estimate how much turn to the left they will get due to reactive torque.
They will set the tool face that number of degrees round to the right of the
desired tool face, so that the reactive torque will bring it back to the setting
required while drilling.

Drill string design will also affect the extent of “drill string twist.” This concept
is important to understand because it can directly affect the tool face orientation
of the down-hole motor. This twisting becomes more critical at greater depths,
especially when using smaller OD drill-pipe.
When drilling is in progress, every effort must be made to keep the drilling
parameters constant and obtain a constant reactive torque, and a steady tool face
setting. Reactive torque occurs with both types of down-hole motors. Obvi-
ously, high torque motors produce higher reactive torque.
Factors Affecting Reactive Torque

The reactive torque, which motors generate, will be in direct proportion to the
differential pressure across the motor. This in turn is influenced by:
• Motor characteristics
• Bit characteristics
• Formation drillability
• Weight on bit
PDM’s vs. Turbines with a Bent Sub

For directional work with a bent sub, PDM’s offer several advantages over
turbines. When drilling with a PDM, the directional driller can use pump pres-
sure as a weight indicator. If the pump pressure is constant, the differential pres-
sure across the PDM is constant, so torque and WOB are constant. It is also
much easier to tell if a PDM has stalled because there will be an immediate
increase in surface pressure. PDM’s give a longer bit life than turbines because
of the slower rotary speed. They can tolerate LCM whereas turbines cannot.
Finally, instead of using a bent sub, a PDM with a small bend at the U-joint
housing can be used. As this bend is nearer to the bit, a smaller angle of bend
will have the same effect as a larger bent sub angle. This reduces the problem of
the bit abrading the side of the hole while tripping in and out.
The only real advantage of turbines is that they can operate at higher tempera-
tures than PDM’s. Also turbines DO NOT have a dump valve. Previously, short
deviation turbines could handle higher flow rates than PDM’s, but this is no
longer the case. Today, it is uncommon to use a turbine with a bent sub.
Down hole Motor and Bent Sub Combination

A down hole motor and bent sub combination will drill a smooth, continuous
curve, which makes dogleg severity more predictable than with other deflection
tools. They can be used in most formations. In addition, since there is no rota-

tion from the surface, it is possible to use
a wireline “steering tool” for surveying and orientation while drilling. Alterna-
tively, a MWD system can be utilized.
One drawback of this combination is that reactive torque changes the tool face
when drilling commences, which may make it difficult to keep a steady tool
face. Also the motors are expensive and require precise maintenance.
PDM with Kick-Off Subs

An alternative to using a bent sub is to use a PDM with a single bend in the
universal joint housing, described as a kick-off sub in the case of a Navi-Drill
and a bent housing by some other PDM manufacturers. Historically, these
“single tilt” motors were used for difficult deviation jobs such as sidetracking
over a short section of hole into hard formation. Since the bend is closer to the
bit than when a bent sub is used, a smaller tilt angle can be used to still give a
strong deviation tendency.
Today, single tilt motors are the most common steerable motors. If the drill
string is rotated so that the body of the motor rotates, then a reasonably straight
path is drilled. However, if the tilt (tool face) is orientated in a desired direction
and there is no drill string rotation, then the motor will drill a controlled curve.
Tool-face Orientation
The Tool-face of a deflection tool, or a steerable motor system, is the part
(usually marked on the outer tool casing with a scribe line), which is oriented in
a particular direction to make a desired deflection within the wellbore. There are
two ways of expressing tool-face orientation:
Magnetic or Gyro Tool-face is the tool-face orientation measured as a direction

on the horizontal plane. If measured by a magnetic type survey tool, it is called
magnetic tool-face, whereas if a gyroscopic survey device measures it, it is
called gyro tool-face. Tool-face orientation is measured and expressed in this
way at low inclinations, generally less than 5º.
High Side Tool-face is the tool-face orientation measured from the high side of
the borehole in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the hole.
The following chart is a rule of thumb, which can be used when orienting
deflection tools or steerable motors. The chart is applicable to steerable systems
in most situations. It may not be applicable to slick motor and bent sub assem-
blies, used at higher inclinations (over 30º) in soft or medium soft formations. It
will give the qualitative changes in inclination and azimuth which should result
from drilling with the given tool face settings.

It should be noted that the tool face settings are based on the high side of the
hole.
Figure 10: Toolface Orientation
Directional Control with Rotary Assemblies

An important aspect of directional drilling is the BHA design, which is to drill
the planned trajectory. In this section we shall concentrate on the basic princi-
ples used in directional control when drilling with rotary assemblies, and the
typical assemblies used for each section. The effects of drilling parameters
(weight-on-bit) and formation (anisotropy) will be considered.
H i s t o r i c a l l y, it has always been possible to control the angle (inclination)

of directional wells during rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly and
use of suitable drilling parameters. However, the control of hole direction has
traditionally been poor. Roller cone bits usually walk to the right, and direc-
tional control was formerly limited to using well-stabilized assemblies to reduce
this tendency. Until the eighties it was standard practice to give wells a lead
angle to the left of the proposal to compensate for this right hand walk.
Side Force and Tilt Angle

Directional trends are partly related to the direction of the resultant force at the
bit. It has also been shown that bit tilt (the angle between the bit axis and the
hole axis) influences the direction of drilling. This is because a drill bit is
designed to drill parallel to its axis. In rotary assemblies where there is a near bit

stabilizer, the bit tilt angle is small causing the magnitude of side force at the bit
to be a key factor.
Factors Affecting Bit Trajectory

Factors, which can affect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies,
include:
• Gauge and placement of stabilisers
• Diameter and length of DC’s
• Weight-on-bit
• Rotary speed
• Bit type
• Formation anisotropy and dip angle of the bedding planes
• Formation hardness
• Flow rate
• Rate of penetration
Basic Directional Control Principles

• The Fulcrum Principle is used to build angle (increase bore-hole
inclination)
• The Stabilization Principle is used to hold (maintain) angle and

direction.
• The Pendulum Principle is used to drop (reduce) angle.
The Fulcrum Principle

An assembly with a full gauge NB stabilizer, followed by 40’ to 120’ of DC’s,
before the first string stabilizer, or no string stabilizer at all, will build angle
when WOB is applied.
The collars above the NB stabilizer bend, partly due to their own weight and
partly because of the applied WOB. The NB stabilizer acts as the pivot, or
fulcrum, of a lever and the bit is pushed to the high side of the hole. The bit
therefore drills a path, which is gradually curving upwards, and the assembly
builds angle.
The following will INCREASE the rate of build:

• Increasing the distance from the NB stabiliser to the first string

stabiliser
• Increase in hole inclination
• Reduction of DC diameter
• Increase in WOB
• Reduction in RPM
• Reduction in flow rate (in soft formations)
Figure 11: Fulcrum Principle
The distance from the NB stabilizer to the first string stabilizer is the main
design feature in a fulcrum assembly which will affect the build rate. The build
rate increases as this distance is increased, because a longer fulcrum section will
bend more, which will increase the fulcrum effect and the side force on high
side. There is a limit, however. Once the upper stabilizer is more than 120’ from

the NB stabilizer (depending on hole size, collar OD, etc.), the collars are
contacting the low side of the hole and any further increase in this distance will
have no additional effect on build rate.
The rate of build increases as the inclination increases because there is a larger
component of the collars’ own weight causing them to bend. The mechanics
involved theorise that the rate of build should increase in direct proportion to
the sine of the inclination. In reality, the situation and the actual response are
more complicated. For example, a strong build assembly which built at a rate of
1.5º/100' when the inclination was only 15º might build at 4º/100' when the
inclination was 60º.
• DC Diameter:
The stiffness of a DC is proportional to the fourth power of its di-
ameter. A small reduction in the OD of the DC’s used in the ful-
crum section considerably increases their limberness and hence
the rate of build. However, it is not common practice to pick DC
diameter according to build rate requirements. Usually, stand-
ard DC sizes for the given hole size are used.
• Weight-on-Bit:
Increasing the weight on bit will bend the DC’s behind the NB
stabiliser more, so the rate of build will increase.
• Rotary Speed:
A higher rotary speed will tend to ‘straighten’ the DC’s and hence
reduce the rate of build. For this reason, low rotary speeds (70-
100 rpm) are generally used with fulcrum assemblies.
• Flow Rate:
In soft formations, a high flow rate can lead to washing out the
formation ahead of the bit, which reduces the build tendency.
The Stabilization (Packed Hole) Principle

This principle states that if there are three stabilizers in quick succession behind
the bit separated by short, stiff DC sections, then the three stabilizers will resist
going around a curve and force the bit to drill a reasonably straight path. The
first of the three stabilizers should be immediately behind the bit (a NB stabi-
lizer) and should be full gauge.
Assemblies, which utilize this principle, are called packed hole assemblies and
are used to drill the tangent sections of directional wells, maintaining angle and
azimuth.

Figure 12: Packed Hole Theory
The Pendulum Principle

This was the first directional control principle to be formulated and was origi-
nally analyzed for slick assemblies drilling straight holes. We shall concentrate
on pendulum assemblies used in deviated wells.
The portion of the BHA from the bit to the first string stabilizer hangs like a
pendulum due to its’ own weight, and presses the bit towards the low side of the
hole. The major design feature of a pendulum assembly is that there is either no
NB stabilizer or an under-gauge NB stabilizer. In most cases where a pendulum
assembly is used, the main factor causing deviation is the force at the bit acting
on the low side of the hole. The length of collars from the bit to the first string
stabilizer (the “pendulum”) must not be allowed to bend too much towards the
low side of the hole.
If the collars make contact with low side as shown in the Figure 41, then the
effective length of the pendulum and the side force on low side are both
reduced. This situation is also undesirable because the bit axis has been tilted
upwards in relation to the hole axis, which will reduce the dropping tendency.
Careful selection of drilling parameters is required to prevent this. High rotary

speed (120 - 160+) helps keep the pendulum straight to avoid the above situa-
tion. Initially, low WOB should be used, again to-avoid bending the pendulum
towards the low side of the hole. Once the dropping trend has been established,
moderate weight can be used to achieve a respectable penetration rate.
The gauge of the bit is effectively a point of support, so that most pendulum
assemblies, especially longer pendulums, the pendulum section is most likely to
bend towards the low side of the hole.
Figure 13: Pendulum Principle

Figure 14: Building BHA

Figure 15: Holding BHA

Figure 16: Dropping BHA
Formation Effects on Bit Trajectory

The nature and hardness of the rock being drilled can have a pronounced influ-
ence on directional tendencies, although in many cases the importance may be
exaggerated. A main point is whether the rock is isotropic or anisotropic. An
isotropic rock is one, which has the same properties, or behaves in the same
way, regardless of its direction. Most sandstones are isotropic. Conversely,
anisotropic rocks, such as shales, do not have the same properties in all direc-
tions. Anisotropy can be defined as the rock possessing a structural ‘fabric’.

Figure 17: Borehole Deflection: shallow dip
Figure 18: Uneven cuttings production
Most oilfield drilling is in sedimentary rocks. Due to the nature of their deposi-
tion, sedimentary rocks have layers or bedding planes, causing most sedimen-
tary rocks to show some degree of anisotropy. Drilling into dipping (tilted)
formations has shown that the drill bit is forced towards a preferential direction
related to the dip angle and direction of the bedding. The trends are most preva-
lent in low angle, medium to hard drilling, especially in formations with
pronounced structure.
A number of explanations and models have been proposed over the years to
explain these effects. In their early work on the pendulum theory, Lubinski and

Woods proposed a drillability model which related an index of the rock strength
when attacked perpendicular to the bedding planes to rock strength when
attacked parallel to the formation. They produced tables of anisotropy indices
and formation classes which could be used as a guide in selecting pendulum
length, DC size or WOB.
Another theory proposes that as the bit drills into hard layers, the hard layer will
fracture perpendicular to the dip. This creates a miniature ‘whip-stock’ which
guides the bit to drill into the dip.
Another explanation, proposed by McLamore and others, is that of “preferential

chip formation”. This considers the mode of chip formation at a single tooth.
Anisotropic formations have preferential planes of failure. As it impacts the
formation, the bit tooth sets up a compressive stress in a direction perpendicular
to the face of the tooth. Shear failure will then occur more readily along the
bedding planes. When the bit is drilling an anisotropic rock, larger chips will be
cut rapidly on one side of the bit and smaller chips will be cut more slowly on
the other. Unequal chip volumes will therefore be generated on each side of a bit
tooth.
The forces between the bit tooth and the rock will be greater on the right side of
the tooth. Therefore, there will be a resultant force on the bit acting to the left.
This is Fd, the deviation force. It follows that the deviation force will depend on
the angle of dip.
The formation attitudes will have a similar effect on directional tendencies. For
dip angles less than 30º, if the direction is up-dip, the bit will tend to maintain
direction, but build angle. If the borehole direction is left of up-dip, the bit may
tend to walk to the right, whereas if the direction is right of up-dip the bit tends
to walk to the left. Both phenomena are simply variations of the up-dip
tendency.
When the formation dip angle is greater than 60º, the usual tendency of the bit is
to turn while drilling to a direction to the bedding plane or down-dip.
In cases where the dip angle is greater than 60º, if the hole direction is right of
down-dip direction then the bit tends to walk to the left. If the hole direction is
left of down-dip direction, the bit tends to walk to the right. Again, these are
simply variations of the down-dip tendency.
There will be no deflection of the bit caused by the formation at 0º or 90º dip.
This is because the bit is cutting into a structure that is essentially uniform and
is constantly cutting into the same layers at the same time or constantly drilling
between layers.

Figure 19: Drilling down dip
Effective Dip Angle in a Deviated Hole

In a directional well, the effective dip angle is the angle at which the bit strikes
the bedding planes.
Formation Hardness
The preceding discussion has concentrated on the effects of rock anisotropy and
changes in hardness between layers. There are also a few general points
concerning the effect of rock hardness on directional behaviour:
In very soft formations, the drilling fluid exiting from the bit nozzles, creating
an over-gauge hole, can erode the formation. This can make it hard to build
angle, even with a strong build assembly. If this problem is anticipated then
fairly large nozzles should be fitted into the bit. If it occurs while drilling, the
pump rate should be reduced and prior to making each connection, increase the
flow rate to clean the hole with the bit one joint off bottom. Hole washing or
enlargement in soft formations may also cause packed assemblies to give a
dropping tendency at high inclinations.
This can be counteracted by increasing WOB and reducing flow rate. If antici-
pated beforehand, a possible solution would be to run a slight build assembly.
BHA’s tend to respond more closely to their theoretical behaviour in harder

formations. This is mainly because the hole is more likely to be in gauge. In
medium to hard formations, building assemblies are more responsive as
maximum bit weight may be applied to produce the required build. The main

directional problem encountered in hard formations is for a pendulum assembly

to drop angle. Generally speaking, the harder the formation, the longer it takes a
dropping assembly to respond. There may also be a conflict between the need to
reduce WOB to get the dropping trend established and the need for high WOB
to maintain an acceptable penetration rate. Where possible, it is best to avoid
planning a drop section in hard formation. When a drop section must be drilled
in hard formation, the use of large diameter, heavy collars are recommended.
Summary of Formation Effects

It should be emphasized that in most formations, the rock properties have a
minimal effect on the directional response of the BHA.
In soft to medium soft, isotropic formations, the rock has little influence on
directional response and the BHA should follow its theoretical behaviour.
In medium to hard rocks, which have an appreciable degree of a n i s o t r o p y,

directional tendencies can be significantly affected by formation attitudes and in
particular by the effective dip angle of the bedding planes. If the effective dip
angle is less than 45º - 60º, the bit tends to drill up-dip. When the effective dip
angle is greater than 60º, the bit tends to drill down dip. When the effective dip
angle is approximately 0º there is no effect on the directional behaviour of the
hole.
Subsurface stresses (σ1, σ2 and σ3) will have no effect on directional behaviour
in a steady state situation. However, where tectonic influences have disturbed
the equilibrium of the horizontal stresses, major effects will be seen both on
hole stability and directional tendency. Current drilling problems in the Andes
foothills in Columbia are largely attributed to the local relict tectonic stresses in
such a way.
Unwanted deviation tendencies caused by the formation can best be reduced by

packed assemblies. The use of a full gauge NB stabilizer definitely reduces bit
walk. In cases where strong formation effects have been observed on previous
wells in the same area, the BHA design should be suitably modified to compen-
sate for the anticipated effect.
Navigation Drilling Systems

Most conventional directional drilling operations will require extra trips to
change the BHA for directional control. In addition, bit performance can be
reduced by those same conventional deflection techniques, thus increasing trip
frequency.
Several methods exist for continuously controlled directional drilling using

steerable down-hole motor assemblies. These methods are based upon tilting

the axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the hole to create a side-force at the
bit. If the drill string, and the body of the motor, is rotated at the surface, the bit
will tend to drill straight ahead. With a steerable assembly, this is called ‘rotary’
drilling. If the drill string is not rotated from surface then the bit will drill a
curved path determined by the orientation of the side force or the tilt of the bit
axis. With a steerable assembly, this is called ‘oriented’ drilling or ‘sliding’.
Most steerable systems presently being used are based on a positive displace-
ment motor and use the principles of tilting the axis of the bit with respect to the
axis of the hole. The majority of directional drilling companies use a single-tilt
PDM, with a bend either on the U-joint housing or at the connection between
the U-joint housing and the bearing housing. Nowadays this single bend is typi-
cally adjustable on the rig floor, enabling the tilt angle to be set at any value
between zero and some maximum value. The principle of tilt adjustment is that
of a cylinder with an oblique planar section: thus rotation of the adjacent pieces
causes relative displacement of the axis.
Advantages of NDS
• Elimination of trips for directional assembly changes, saving
rig time
• More complex well paths can be drilled
• Wells are drilled more closely to the plan at all times
• Smaller directional targets can be hit
Adjustable Kick-Off (AKO) Motor

This is a single-tilt adjustable motor, which:
• Is powered by a Navi-Drill motor section
• Incorporates a rig-site adjustable bent housing which can be

set to achieve maximum build rates in the medium radius
range (8º/100’- 20º/100’), varying with tool size and stabiliser
configuration
• Allows a single AKO motor to be used for a variety of build

rates
• Allows fewer tools to be transported to and from the rig, a

particular advantage for remote locations

Adjustable Kick Off Housing

The Baker Hughes INTEQ Navi-Drill Mach 1 or 2 can be configured with an
adjustable U-joint housing drilling motor suitable for both performance and
general directional drilling applications. Steerable (mixed rotary and oriented
mode) operation of the motor is possible for all well paths normally required in
conventional or medium radius directional drilling operations.
The tilt angle of the AKO can be adjusted from 0º to the maximum design
angle. The maximum tilt angle ranges from 2º to 2.75º depending on tool size
(see below). This variable tilt angle is possible because the internal connections
of the AKO housing features a tilted pin thread which screws into a tilted box
thread. The relative position of the two tilted angles determines the AKO tilt
angle and the position of the High Side. The AKO angle is rig floor adjustable.
Figure 20: Navi-Drill Motor Configuration

Figure 21: BHI AKO Steerable Motor
Steering Capabilities
The dogleg capability for the AKO is variable and is a function of the adjustable
U-joint housing angular offset. The range of AKO U-joint housing adjustments,
and corresponding dogleg capability for both oriented-only and steerable
(mixed mode) operation, is detailed in the relevant operations handbook.
Using lower DLS and AKO settings, the motor can be rotated and used as a
steerable rotary assembly. The AKO motor can also be used as a:
• Partially stabilised system with bearing housing stabiliser
• Fully stabilised system with bearing housing and top stabiliser
• Slick system (without stabilization) where a wear protection

hard-banding ring on the AKO sub is one of the points, which
supports the tool inside the hole.
Maximum allowable deflection angle on the AKO sub may be limited when

contact of the tool with the borehole wall exceeds mechanical limitations. This
maximum angle is called “Recommended Maximum Angle”.
The Navi-Drill AKO is available for medium radius applications in 3 3/4”, 4 3/

4”, 6 3/4”, 8", 9 1/2”, and 11 1/4” OD sizes for hole sizes from 4 1/2” to 26".
Mechanical operating and performance characteristics for the AKO are identical
to those for the standard Navi-Drill.
Tilt Angle
The proper tilt angle and steerable motor deflection technique is usually depen-
dent upon the directional requirements and characteristics of the well plan.
When kicking off or sidetracking, high tilt steerable motors are recommended.
The tilt angle selected should produce a greater dogleg severity in the oriented
mode than the rate of change specified in the well plan.
By getting higher dogleg severities than specified, the directional driller can
“get ahead” of the well plan build requirements and begin utilizing the practice
of drilling intervals using oriented and rotary modes. The directional driller can
then reduce a high build up rate by increasing the percentage of footage drilled
in the rotary mode.
Typically, the rate of penetration will increase when switching from the oriented
mode to the rotary mode. As a rule of thumb, the tilt angle selected should theo-
retically produce a minimum 1.25 times the maximum dogleg severity required
for the well plan. Directional drillers must keep in mind that the TGDS (Theo-
retical Geometric Dogleg Severity) assumes that tool face orientation is
constant. In practice this is difficult to do, especially in high torque applications.
As a result of a constantly changing tool face orientation, the actual rate of
change is often less than expected.
• When a choice is available, a tool with a higher dogleg capa-

bility can increase overall efficiency by reducing oriented
drilling requirements.
• When tangent section or straight hole drilling, a lower tilted

tool may be more desirable to reduce bit wear and increase
ROP. However, this depends on the extent to which orienta-
tion may be necessary and the anticipated ease of oriented
drilling.
First String Stabiliser

It is normal practice to run a string stabilizer either directly above the motor or
with a pony DC between the motor and the stabilizer. Reasons for using this
include:

• It defines the third point of contact in the NDS assembly
• It produces a predictable directional response
• It centralises the drill string
Placement
The stabilizer is most commonly run directly above the motor. According to the
3-point geometry, increasing “L” (by moving the first string stabilizer higher in
the BHA) reduces the Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity. This does not
always work in practice. It has been found that moving the stabilizer higher can
make it harder to get away from vertical in a kick-off. However, once some
inclination has been achieved, the rate of build is often greater than the TGDS.
For flat turns or for dropping angle, increasing “L” does reduce the dogleg rate
as theory predicts.
Figure 22: BHI Navigator

Figure 23: Schlumberger Geosteering Tool
Rotary Steerable Systems

Steerable motors are able to drill complex 3D wellpaths, include build, tangent
and dropping sections without having to change the BHA. They are typically
used to drill long radius inclined and horizontal wells with relatively short hori-
zontal sections. During the late 1990s operators began drilling extended reach
wells with horizontal departures in excess of 10kms, with long tangent sections
at high angles of inclination. ERD wells are difficult to drill because of poor
hole cleaning, high ECD values and excessive torque, drag and buckling of the
drillstring. To successfully drill these type of wells BHA’s that could orient the
borehole whilst rotating the drillstring were required.
Baker Hughes INTEQ, in association with AGIP, developed the first commer-
cial rotary steerable drilling system in 1997. AutoTrakTM has subsequently
drilled many wells throughout the world and is one of the most widely used

directional drilling systems. Meanwhile Schlumberger, in association with

CAMCO, developed their PowerDriveTM RSS tool whilst drilling some of the
first ERD wells at Wytch Farm, onshore southern England, for BP. Halliburton
were also researching RSS tools and developed GeoPilotTM as their version.
These three tools remain as the benchmarks of RSS technology although other
companies also have similar systems.
Two basic styles of RSS technologies exist:
Push-the-Bit
Deflects the well path in rotary drilling mode applying a side load to the bit
forcing the bit’s outer cutters and gauge section to cut sideways into the forma-
tion and so drill a curved hole. Short gauge bits are generally used with the
gauge set with an active cutting structure. This provides fast and precise
response to any desired changes but the side cutting action and short gauge bits
promote vibration and spiral hole drilling tendencies.
Point-the-Bit
Point-the-bit systems drill by pointing (tilting) the bit in the direction that
drilling is required to proceed. This is similar to using a bent-sub and motor
although orientation is now made while the drillstring is rotating. The bit face
points precisely along the direction being drilled so that there is no side loading
of the bit which minimizes vibration and produces more concentric drilling.,
particularly as longer gauge bits can be used. However, the orienting response is
more sluggish so that these tools are slower to respond to required changes
resulting in significantly lower doglegs than with push-the-bit systems.
Steerability
As noted above there are inherent differences in the orienting response of the
two systems which is also affected by the hardness of the formations being
drilled. A perceived weakness of push-the-bit systems is that they may be less
responsive when drilling soft unconsolidated rocks where there is not enough
rock strength to push against and so develop a side force. Orienting while
drilling typical high porosity sandstone reservoirs may be difficult with these
systems.
Non-Rotating Sleeves
In order to maintain toolface azimuth while rotating many systems use non-
rotating or rotating-resistant housings. Even though these may be only a few
metres in length they introduce a drag element into what is otherwise a rotating
drilling system. This drag can be significant when drilling complex and ERD
wells and has been likened to sailing with the anchor deployed.

However, systems which are fully rotating may suffer from stick-slip effects
and may find it difficult to maintain drilling and orienting performance when
this happens. Non-rotating sleeves de-couple the orienting mechanism from the
effects of stick-slip and are able to maintain performance better in such condi-
tions.
Control Systems
Most RSS systems use a down-linking system of mud pulse telemetry to control
the tools and make changes to the toolface settings. This normally requires the
installation of suitable equipment at the surface to interface with the standpipe
and mud pumping system.
Early RSS tools took up to 40 minutes to complete the down-linking process,

and even some current tools can require 20 minutes; the majority however
require only a few minutes now to re-set the tool, minimizing downtime in the
drilling process.
Push-the-Bit Systems
BHI AutoTrakTM
The AutoTrak automated steering unit controls inclination and azimuth as the
drill string rotates. The steering direction is defined by pressure distributed
selectively (through a combination of electronic control and hydraulic pressure)
to three stabilizer pads on the (non-rotating) sleeve. Any deviation from the
programmed well path is automatically corrected through closed-loop control
without interrupting drillstring rotation.
The tools includes near-bit inclination and a full suite of LWD tools using the
OnTrakTM MWD system. Inclination and Azimuth measurements can be made
in rotary mode, whilst drilling, so that continuous survey data may be obtained.

Figure 24: BHI Autotrak
Schlumberger PowerDriveTM
The PowerDrive system comprises a bias unit and a control unit that add only
12 1/2ft [3.8 m] to the length of the BHA. The bias unit, located directly behind
the bit, applies force to the bit in a controlled direction while the entire drill-
string rotates. The control unit, which resides behind the bias unit, contains self-
powered electronics, sensors and a control mechanism to provide the average
magnitude and direction of the bit side loads required to achieve the desired
trajectory. The bias unit has three external, hinged pads that are activated by
controlled mud flow through a valve. The valve exploits the difference in mud
pressure between the inside and outside of the bias unit (right). The three-way
rotary disk valve actuates the pads by sequentially diverting mud into the piston
chamber of each pad as it rotates into alignment with the desired push point, the
point opposite the desired trajectory, in the well.
After a pad passes the push point, the rotary valve cuts off its mud supply and
the mud escapes through a specially designed leakage port. Each pad extends no
more than approximately 3/8in. [1 cm] during each revolution of the bias unit.
An input shaft connects the rotary valve to the control unit to regulate the posi-
tion of the push point. If the angle of the input shaft is geo-stationary with
respect to the rock, the bit is constantly pushed in one direction, the direction
opposite the push point. If no change in direction is needed, the system is oper-
ated in a neutral mode, with each pad extended in turn, so that the pads push in
all directions and effectively “cancel” each other.

Through its on-board actuation system, the control unit can be commanded to
hold a fixed roll angle, or tool-face angle, with respect to the rock formation.
Three-axis accelerometer and magnetometer sensors provide information about
the inclination and azimuth of the bit as well as the angular position of the input
shaft.
Figure 25: Schlumberger PowerDrive
Point-the Bit Systems
Halliburton GeoPilotTM
The GeoPilot system utilizes a drive shaft mounted on bearings at each end and
enclosed in a non-rotating outer sleeve. The drive shaft is deflected in the
middle by a pair of eccentric rings that can be rotated to any desired toolface
setting and to varying degrees of offset from centre. The deflection of the shaft
in the middle results in the deflection of the output shaft carrying the bit, in the
opposite direction. The computer-controlled bias unit automatically detects any
slippage of the outer housing and compensates for this by correcting the ring
positions in the opposite direction.
Two modes of rotary steering are possible. In manual steering mode, the tool is
pointed and controlled by the directional driller. In automated mode the tool is
self-guiding along a pre-programmed trajectory.

Figure 26: Halliburton GeoPilot
Schlumberger PowerDrive Xceed

With this system, the only interaction with the wellbore is through a normal
stabilizer near the bit. No pads are necessary to push against the wellbore or
slow rotating sections needed to interact with the wellbore for steering control
when drilling in soft formations, openhole sidetracks or rough drilling condi-
tions.
Communication is based around the company’s PowerPulse MWD telemetry

system and includes a full set of survey electronics that rotates with the system.
When combined with PowerPulse, Xceed provides real-time toolface, inclina-
tion and azimuth data for reliable, long runs. Based upon this information,
commands can be transmitted to the system to maintain or change the bit’s
trajectory. The electronic survey package constantly references itself to the high
side of the hole internally without the need for well-bore interaction.
Steering the bit itself is accomplished in a unique but simple manner. The bit is
mounted on a short shaft that spins to the right at drill string RPM. The back end
of the shaft is attached to a disc with an eccentric connection between the bit
shaft and an electric motor that rotates to the left at the same RPM as the bit.
The disc is also attached to a controller that matches the varying RPM of the bit
as it increases or decreases rotation as it drills ahead. To steer the bit, for

example, changing the trajectory of the bit to point upward, a command is trans-
mitted from the surface to the electronics. The disc will then turn itself around
so that the offset in the disc is at the bottom relative to the wellbore, meaning
the back end of the shaft is also at the bottom and the bit is pointing upward.
If the system is used in a straight hole in what is referred to as neutral mode, the
disc spins at a slightly different RPM enabling the bit to wobble slightly, drilling
a straight but slightly overgauge hole. The system always has a bend of 0.6o so
if a straight tangent is drilled it will result in 1/8-in. over-gauge hole, much
smaller than a traditional positive displacement motor.
Steering that is independent of the well-bore also allows for the use of bi-centre
bits to increase hole gauge. This capability is advantageous in extended reach
and deepwater applications where directional drilling techniques are often
required.
Figure 27: Schlumberger PowerDrive Xceed
RSS and Mud Motors

To achieve planned penetration rates it is often required to rotate the drillstring
at rates that approach the limit of the rig’s rotary system. This increases down-
time and produces wear on casing and drillstring components, particularly when
drilling small hole sizes. 6” holes, for example do not require high RPM to
assist hole cleaning since high annular velocities are easily achieved. Baker

Hughes INTEQ’s AutoTrak X-Treme and Schlumberger’s PowerDrive vorteX

systems both use state-of-the-art PDM motors to produce high bit RPM to
enable planned ROP targets to be met without the need for excessively high
drillstring RPM.
Figure 28: BHI Autotrak Xtreme

The PowerDrive VorteX system’s integrated power section rapidly rotates the
bit and optionally permits drillstring rotation to be slowed. Stick-slip and other
damaging vibration modes common to conventional RSS drilling are reduced.
All available energy is used to drill the hole efficiently and maximize the ROP.
Casing wear and drillstring fatigue in sections with high dogleg severity are
reduced, lessening the chance of drillstring or casing failure.
Figure 29: Schlumberger PowerDrive Vortex
Coiled Tubing Drilling

Using coiled tubing instead of traditional jointed pipe for drilling operations has
been developed over the fifteen years. Early coiled tubing operations were
mostly concerned with workover operations and the majority of coiled tubing
interventions are still applied for:
• Well Cleaning
• Fishing and Milling
• Zone Isolation
• Stimulation and Fracturing
• Sand Control Completions

• Flow Management
• Plug and Abandonment
• Sidetracking and Re-entry
Advantages of coiled tubing for drilling operations include:
• Smaller Rig Footprint
• Smaller Hole Sizes
• Reduced Mud Volume
• Faster Pipe Handling and Deployment
• Through Tubing Drilling
• Bi-directional wired control systems
• Underbalanced Drilling
Coil Systems
Drillpipe is made up into continuous sections of 2ins to 3ins O.D. and wound
onto a steel drum. Continuous lengths can be made up to 5,000m long (2ins
O.D.). A hydraulic power pack, controlled from a central console, drives the
injector head to deploy and retrieve coiled tubing. The coiled tubing typically
passes over a goose neck and through the injector head before passing through
well control equipment. Some systems use a parabolic loop system rather than a
goose neck to minimise tubing fatigue.
Drilling Operations
Since the entire coiled tubing cannot be rotated drilling is performed by using a
downhole mud motor and either a bent sub housing or a rib-steering system to
orient the borehole.
Straight drilling using a bent sub requires alternate rotating or flipping of the
drilling assembly whereas rib-steering provides more continuous inclination
and azimuth control and smaller dog-legs. Rib-steering also permits more
complex profiles and eliminates spiralling which is a feature of many coiled
tubing drilling operations.

Figure 30: Coiled Tubing Drilling

Figure 31: Parabolic Loop System

Figure 32: Baker Hughes INTEQ CoilTrak system

Figure 33: Coiled Tubing Drilling Control Unit

Directional Drilling 07

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technical training 2006

Stag Geological Services Ltd.

Definition of Directional Drilling

Figure 1: John Eastman - Relief Well Drilling

Directional Drilling 1-1

In conventional development, wells cannot be drilled until the platform has

Figure 2: Multiple Offshore Wells

1-2 Directional Drilling

Figure 3: Relief Well Drilling

Controlling Vertical Wells

Modern developments in specialised drilling tools, such as Baker Hughes

Sidetracking is now a common technique in horizontal and multi-lateral

Directional Drilling 1-3

Offshore locations may also be restricted however because of sea-bed condi-

Figure 5: Inaccessible Location

1-4 Directional Drilling

• Drilling across or close to major faults

• Drilling an inclined borehole through steeply dipping bedded,

Figure 6: Shoreline Drilling BP Wytch Farm

Horizontal & Extended Reach Drilling

Directional Drilling 1-5

Sidetracks and multi-laterals (both horizontally and vertically) are often

Figure 7: Horizontal Well

Figure 8: ERD Well

1-6 Directional Drilling

• Trajectory and Wellpath Design

• Drillstring Torque, Drag and Buckling

Trajectory and Wellpath Design

Directional Drilling 1-7

be defined by the surface and target locations, geological hazards and

Tangents are straight sections drilled at a particular inclination. They may

Figure 9: Directional Well Plan

Well Planning Considerations

• Calculate torque and drag and BHA design

• Determine expected Kick-off Point

• Calculate target azimuth

1-8 Directional Drilling

• Develop knowledge of build rates in the area

• Calculate end of build

• Calculate hole angles

• Plot the actual well plan on paper

Locating the Target

• Depth is problematic due to unknown rock densities:

• Formation drilling tendencies

Drilling the reservoir is determined by:

Directional Drilling 1-9

• Types of production liners

• Downhole producing equipment.

• Type of drilling rigs available

• Anticipated casing points

• The mud program

Factors Affecting Wellpath Design

For fracturing, gravel packing, completion in weak formation or

In horizontal wells, correct TVD placement will minimize gas

Shallow, weak formation:

This affects angle build-up due to the lack of reactive forces

• Casing and hole program:

• Drilling experience in the area:

1-10 Directional Drilling

Basic Well Profiles

Figure 10: Build & Hold Profile

Directional Drilling 1-11

Build, Hold and Drop (S-type) Wells