MODULE 1

PROTECTION, EARTHWORK,
SITEWORK AND DRAINAGE
(Written Report)

Submitted by
ALONZO, SIENA GRACE Y.
BACHO, VERGINIA KRISANTA F.
LOMUGDANG, VICENT RYAN V.
SIERVO, PAUL GERARD
TRINIDAD, JOHN LESTHER
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering 3-1

Submitted to
ENGR. CATHERINE C. BOMBITA
(CIEN 3093) Construction Materials and Testing
 1. PROTECTION

1.0 GENERAL ISSUES

Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations.
Excavations can vary widely in shape and size depending on the work station. It’s an officer’s
responsibility to ensure that employers comply with the regulations. The first step in
understanding safe excavation work is to define the terminology.

Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or

depression in the Earth’s surface formed by earth removal.
A trench is a narrow excavation
(in relation to its length) made
below the surface of the ground. In
general, the depth of a trench is greater than its width, but the width of a
trench is not greater than 15 feet (4.6 m).

Trenching and excavation work presents serious hazards to all

workers involved. Many on-the-job incidents result from inadequate
initial planning. One cubic yard of soil can weigh as much as a car. An unprotected trench can be
an early grave. Employers must ensure that workers enter trenches only after adequate
protections are in place to address those hazards. Other potential hazards associated with
trenching work include falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and hazards from mobile
equipment.

Protection of excavated areas is necessary for two good reasons:

1. Most cities, towns, countries, and municipalities require it, to protect the workers; and

2. Prudence suggests that it is better to prevent accidents from happening that to try to rectify
their results later, through payment of either costs of replacement, monetary damages, medical
expenses, or all three.

If there are any hazardous conditions present, the employer must ensure that adequate
precautions are taken to prevent employee exposure to those conditions. Employers can gather
the information they need through jobsite studies, observations, test borings for soil type or
conditions, and consultations with local officials and utility companies to determine the amount,
kind, and cost of safety equipment they will need to perform the work safely. Employers need to
emphasize specific practices that will help reduce the risk of on-the-job injuries at excavation
sites. Such practices can include the following:

■ Know where underground utilities are located before digging.

■ Keep excavated soil and other materials at least 2 feet (0.61

meters) from trench edges.

■ Keep heavy equipment away from trench edges.

■ Inspect trenches after any occurrence that could have changed

conditions in the trench.

■ Do not work under suspended or raised loads and materials.

■ Test for atmospheric hazards such as low oxygen, hazardous fumes, and toxic gases when
workers are more than 4 feet deep. Employers are required to provide respiratory protection or
ventilation, a safety harness, and ladders or ramps for workers working in trench excavations 4
feet or deeper.

SOIL INSTABILITY

What are the forces that affect soils? The

downward or vertical stress is created by the
weight of the soil. The horizontal support is
provided by the surrounding soil. If the stresses
are equal, the soil is stable. Once a cut is made (change in stress), the stresses become unequal
and the rate of collapse depends on the soil strength and on one or more of the causes of soil
instability.

There are five main causes of soil instability:

1. An increase in the depth of the cut.

2. Saturation or increase in the water content of the soil.

3. Hydrostatic or water pressure in ground cracks near the walls of the excavation.
4. The weight of the excavated material and the equipment adjacent to the excavation.

5. Shock and vibration from machinery, traffic or blasting.

When collapse occurs, the fracture point will usually occur at a point back from the face
which is equal to 1/2 to 3/4 of the depth of the excavation. The key to stable phases is to ensure
that the stresses imposed are weaker than the soil strength. So, there are a number of systems
used to prevent property damage or personal injury from occurring as a result of excavation
activities in trenches, pits, or banks, either during work in progress or upon completion. Such
systems usually involve shoring, sheeting, or underpinning.

1. SHORING

Shoring is borrowed from a term describing the

protection used to prevent erosion of the “shore” side of a
breakwater. Currents of water swirling around the outer end of
such a breakwater would rapidly wash away any unprotected
materials on the leeward or shore side, so slabs of stone or
concrete are used to minimize such effects. Similarly, shoring
is used in construction processes to eliminate or reduce the potentially dangerous effects of soil
erosion after excavation has occurred.

A shoring system include: uprights or soldiers (vertical support), stringers or whales

(horizontal support), and cross braces or struts (support perpendicular to stringers).

Shoring and bracing shall be provided, placed and maintained at the locations and
elevation that are necessary or required to: support and protect the sides and bottom of the
excavation; prevent undue disturbance or weakening of the supporting material below or beside
the works; prevent movement of ground which may disturb or damage the works, adjacent
pavements, property, structures or other works.

Shoring and bracing shall conform to the requirements of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act. Support systems must be inspected daily or more frequently if required and must be
maintained in a fully effective condition. This is the site managers responsibility.
INSTALLATION

Shoring is installed from the top-down and removed from the bottom-up. The reason is so
workers will always be protected by the shoring that’s in place. Upper cross braces shall be
installed within 2 feet of ground level. If the trench depth is up to 8 feet, two sets of stringers and
cross braces are required for trench. 8 to 12 feet depth, three sets of stringers and cross braces are
required for trench are required to be installed. A 12 to 15 feet trench all have at least 4 sets
securely placed. Shoring uprights must extend above the top of the excavation by at least one
foot and must be as close to the bottom of the trench but in no case two feet from the bottom.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The bracing and shoring systems required to provide temporary support of a structure or
portions of a structure during construction shall be designed to support the dead, live, soil,
earthquake and wind loads that may be imposed on the structure during construction in
accordance with geotechnical investigation prepared for the Project, industry standards and
generally accepted engineering principles.

Design calculations of proposed bracing, shoring, and underpinning of the structure shall
be prepared, stamped, and signed by a Structural Engineer.

2. SHEETING

Sheeting is any broad, thin mass of materials used as a covering.

In construction, sheets of plastic or canvas are sometimes
draped over thew face of excavated surfaces to prevent erosion
by rainwater; sheet pilings are sometimes constructed to form a
type of solid retaining wall to prevent collapse of a steep or high excavated face.

SHEET PILES

Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials with

interlocking edges that are driven into the ground
to provide earth retention and excavation support.
Sheet piles are most commonly made of steel, but
can also be formed of timber or reinforced concrete.
The different types of sheet piles used in excavation are:

1. Flat Web Sheet Piles

2. Arc Web Sheet Piles

3. Z-Piling Sheet Piles

3. UNDERPINNING

Underpinning means a system of permanent new

supports inserted under an existing foundation or wall, to
permit alterations to the foundation or wall itself to
immediately adjacent property.

Underpinning may be necessary for a variety of reasons:

1. The original foundation is not strong or stable enough.

2. The usage of the structure has changed.

3. The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have changed (possibly through
subsidence) or were mischaracterized during design.
4. The construction of nearby structures necessitates the excavation of soil supporting existing
foundations.

5. It is more economical, due to land price or otherwise, to work on the present structure's
foundation than to build a new one.

6. Earthquake, flood, drought or other natural causes have caused the structure to move,
requiring stabilisation of foundation soils and/or footings.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

Before implementing appropriate underpinning measures the following important points should
be carefully attended:

1. The existing structure should be fully examined carefully and appropriate underpinning
method should be adopted.

2. All poor masonry work, such as joints, cracks, plastering should be rectified before.

3. Necessary shoring and struting should be done such that existing structure is safe.

4. Urgent repair like grouting of cracks, insertion of rod between walls, etc. should be carried out
before commencing underpinning.

5. Adequate care should be taken to ensure that there should be no movement of structure for
which levels should be marked.

PROTECTION OF ADJOINING PROPERTY

1. Before starting the excavation, the

Contractor shall notify in writing the owners
of the adjoining buildings not less than 10
days before such excavation is to be made and
that the adjoining building will be protected by
him.

2. The owners of the adjoining properties shall be given access to the excavation for the purpose
of verifying if their properties are sufficiently protected by the contractor making the excavation.
3. In case there is a party wall along a lot line of the premises where an excavation is being made,
the contractor at his expense preserve such party wall in as safe as a condition as it was before
the excavation was commenced and shall, when necessary, underpin and support the same by
adequate method.

4. Guards or fences shall be provided along open sides of excavation except that, in the
discretion of the Engineer, such guards or fence may be omitted from any side or sides other than
those adjacent to streets or public passageways.

2.0 PRODUCTS

2.1 MATERIALS

Basic materials are of wood, steel, plastic, or shotcrete.

1. Wood

All wood members should be a botanical softwood such as fir, hemlock, or spruce, and should be
of a good structural grade, sound and free of defects that might impair strength or suitability. It is
not usually necessary to treat members with wood preservatives, provided they are not left in
place for extended periods of time. Thick plywood is occasionally used for close sheeting.

2. Steel.

Steel for bracing, shoring, and sheeting should be of good commercial quality and be
specially designed and treated for various purpose intended.
 For shoring, steel trench jacks can be substituted for timber struts but must be equal to
strength of the timber ratings in all instances. Struts are to be installed horizontally and
perpendicular to the strut. Hydraulic or pneumatic trench jacks can also be used as long as a
system is in place that will ensure that the integrity of the jacks is maintained in the event of a
loss of internal pressure.

3. Plastics.

Large sheets of plain or fiber reinforced polyvinyl chloride plastic are frequently used to
cover exposed surfaces of excavated areas.

4. Shotcrete.

This is a concrete-like materials (also known as gunite), made from mixture of rapid-
setting cement, sands, water, and admixtures, sprayed under high pressure onto excavated
embankments or faces. Shotcrete normally has a greater compressive strength then cast in place
concrete due to lower water to cement ratio.

Benefits :

■ Lowers cost due to quick speed of construction

■ Easier to construct complex forms or shapes

■ Bonds well with most surfaces

■ No forming needed, therefore lower costs

2.2 ACCESSORIES

Accessories such as bolts, washers, shims, screws, nails, cleats, and the like should be
purpose-made and treated for use in such work and specially selected having regard to the
specific conditions of use anticipated.

2. EARTHWORK

Earthworks are engineering works created through the processing of parts of the earth's
surface involving quantities of soil or unformed rock. It generally embraces excavation,
placement, stabilization, and compaction of natural earth materials at the site, including the
addition and disposal of earth.

EXCAVATION

Excavation is the act or process of

digging, especially when something specific is
being removed from the ground.

Excavation can be subdivided to two

main categories:

 Large-volume excavation – bulk or mass

excavation
  Small-volume excavation – trenches, pits, and post holes

Factors affecting excavation:

 Nature of the material to be excavated – one of the important factors to be considered before
the process of excavation is to know the nature and properties of the soil and if it’s
appropriate place to excavate.
 Types of tools and equipment available- the equipment and tools are needed to be considered
because the excavation process wouldn’t be done without the appropriate equipment and
tools that are used for excavation.
 The skill of excavation machine or tools operator – it is important that those machineries that
would be used for the process are properly checked and tested. Moreover, the operator of
those machines must be well trained and informed about the excavation processes.
 General condition of work site – before the excavation, it is necessary to know the condition
of the place so the adjustment for the machineries would be done before hand and the
planning and duration of the process would be done before the actual excavation.
 Topographic condition – the topography of the place where the excavation would take place
is also an important factor for adjustment of the depth of excavation.
-uniform depth
 Size and location of the site
-large site
-busy commercial center site
 Water table – the depth of the site, if it reached the water table, drainage is used to lessen
the saturation of water to the excavated place.
-drainage
 Erosion and sliding – due to the phenomena of erosion because of weathering, bracing
and sheeting are made to hold the soil on the excavated area.
-bracing and sheeting

The Building Code for the Protection of Adjoining Property

 This code states the responsibility and duty of the people who will do the excavation
and the owner of the property adjoining the working site.
EARTH MATERIAL

Earth or soil materials encountered in excavation work are naturally very varied.
However, they can be classified under two broad headings.

 Native – this term implies soil materials that are indigenous to the site being
excavated.
 Imported – this term implies the new material that has been brought onto the site from
some external source.

Primary criteria prior to soil excavation

 Moisture content - The natural water content also

called the natural moisture content is the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of the solids in a given
mass of soil.

 Layer structure - Soil structure describes the

arrangement of the solid parts of the soil and of the
pore space located between them.

These criteria are determined on

each site by doing a soil analysis. One
of the best known soil analyses is the
boring and penetration test. This test is categorized in many ways and method. Penetrometer
is designed to be used on soil. They are usually round or cone shaped. The penetrometer is
dropped on the test subject or pressed against it and the depth of the resulting hole is measured.
SOIL TYPES

All earth soil can be further classified as one of two types.

 Cohesive – solid soils which include clay, conglomerate, loam. Rock,

shale and sand.

 Noncohesive – loose soil which includes boulders, glacial till,

gravel and sand.

SWELLING AND SHRINKING

When solid earth materials are loosened by digging, they usually occupy more volume
than before; conversely, when excavated materials are compacted, they may take up less volume
than before. These phenomena are called swelling and shrinking, and each category of material
has its own factor.

If ordinary soil weighs 1250 kg/m^3 in its natural solid state and is found to weigh 1000
kg/m^3 in its loose state after excavation. The swell factor is (1250/1000) 1.25 or 25%. If the soil
is capable of being compacted to 80% of its original volume, the shrink factor weight is (1250 x
0.80) 1562 kg/m^3.

3. SITEWORK

PAVING

Pavement in construction is an outdoor floor or superficial surface covering. Paving

materials include asphalt, brick, concrete gravel, stone, tile, and sometimes wood.
ASPHALT

BRICK

GRAVEL

TILE

STONE
 In landscape architecture pavements are part of the hardscape and are used on sidewalks,
road surfaces , patios , courtyards and others. In this work gutters, curbs, gratings, sealers and
pavement markings are also related and will be discuss later.

When doing or designing pavements traffics must be consider. There are five broad
traffic-use categories to consider, relative to normal construction activities:

1. Heavy duty. To withstand all types of vehicles, such as on major roads, dock-sides and
warehouse or industrial ramps.

2. Medium Duty . For heavily loaded delivery trucks, such as on suburban roads and urban
public or private parking lots.

3. Light Duty . For cars and light delivery vans, such as on residential driveways and
sidewalks.

4. Very Light Duty. For pedestrians and bicycles, such as in play parks, tennis courts, and
other athletic areas.

5. No traffic . For appearance or protection only, such as for landscaping and embankment
protection.

Consideration must also be given to the maximum single-axle load from traffic of the
anticipated types. There are six basic paving options from which to choose, relative to the
possible traffic conditions.

1. Gravel Only. For all traffic conditions.

2. Gravel with oil. For light traffic (driveways, parking).

3. Concrete on gravel base. For medium to heavy traffic.

4. Asphalt on gravel base. For light to medium traffic.

5. Paving brick or tile. on sand, gravel, concrete, or asphalt base, for very light to light
traffic conditions

6. soil-cement mixtures. For airport runways and ramps, reservoir linings, and similar heavy
construction functions
 The quality of asphalt paving is determined by achieving the right combination of two
complex properties:
1. Durability, which is a function of the resistance of the asphalt cement to oxidation
and volatilization, as well as to physical wear and tear, and the ability of the cement
to adhere to the aggregate particles and thus to bind them together. You can test its
durability by doing such tests. If the asphalt could last until its due then therefore it is
durable.
2. Curing time, which is determined by a combination of rate of Evaporation of the
volatile solvents in the asphalt mix, the temperature of the mix and the surrounding
atmosphere, the surface area exposed to weather, and wind speed and chill factors.
In concrete paving , to have a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean , hard,
strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could
cause the deterioration of concrete.
Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected , characteristics that
are considered include :
 Grading
 Durability
 Particle shape and texture
 Abrasion resistance
 Unit weight
 Absorption and surface moisture
A key element of good design involves provision of adequate drainage below, around,
and on top of the paving surfaces. Because if it has poor drainage design it may result in flood or
ponding of water in suface and washout of the base and it could lead also in road destruction. In
paving, workers or we, engineers must pay attention to the provision of proper base courses and
the development of level or sloping surfaces to direct the flow of water off the paving.
Other aspects of good design include the following:
1. The necessity to allow for expansion and contraction of the paving under normal
anticipated use.
2. The location and quality of drainage frames and gratings.
3. The texturing of paving surfaces to provide for good traction and appearance.
 4. The sealing of surfaces to retard deterioration from chemical and physical influences
(spilled gasoline, tire, skids, etc.).
5. Proper procedure and conditions to ensure correct curing of the paving mixture.

Related work:
1. Drainage (gratings)
2. Cast-in place Concrete (pavings and curbs)
3. Rough carpentry (wooden curbs)
4. Ceramic and Tile Work (pavings)
5. Painting and Decorating (traffic markers)

2.1 MATERIALS

The materials used for asphalt paving are as follows

• Aggregate , coarse

• Aggregate, fine

• Asphalt basic

• Asphalt cut-black

• Mineral Fillers

• Road Oil

• Seal Coat

Aggregate, Course - Crushed stone, gravel or slag confirming the specifications of the
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the Canadian Standard Association (CSA).
Aggregate, Fine - Natural sand or fine gravel, conforming to CSA or ASTM specifications.

Asphalt, basic – Are dark brown or jet black cement like bituminous material, occasionally
occurring normally, but more often synthetically produced through the petroleum cracking
process.

Asphalt cut-back - Asphalt cement diluted with one of three solvents having different rates of
volitilization:

• Heavy lubricating oil: slow curing

• Kerosene or diesel oil: medium curing

• Petroleum distillate: rapid curing

Mineral Fillers - Are very finely graded materials, such as pulverized cement, limestone, mica,
sand and sometimes asbestos fibers.

Road Oil - A slow curing grade of heavy petroleum oil.

Seal coat - A fine asphalt mixture thinly applied to the surface of existing asphalt paving.

2.2 ACCESSORIES

There are very few accessories used in connection with this work.

CURBS - Made of asphalt, concrete, sand, or wood.

Gratings - Heavy-duty cast iron covers and frames;

Marker paint - Heavy-duty rubberized paint.

 The word “gradation” refers to the proper sizing of the aggregate particles used to make
the asphaltic concrete mix.

4. DRAINAGE
Drainage is the natural or artificial
removal of a surface's water and sub-surface
water from an area. The internal drainage of
most agricultural soils is good enough to
prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic
conditions that harm root growth), but many
soils need artificial drainage to improve
production or to manage water supplies.

Drainage involve pipes of various types, manholes and covers, cleanouts and catch basins.

Manholes a small covered opening in a floor, pavement, or other surface to allow a

person to enter, especially an opening in a city street leading to a sewer.
 A Plumbing Clean-out is a location where a home’s sewer line can be accessed for
the purpose of clearing clogs. The Clean-Out is located on the lawn close to the house and
often look like those below. Clean-Outs have a removable cap.

A catch basin or storm drain is a curbside drain with the sole function of collecting
rainwater from our properties and streets and transporting it to local waterways through a system
of underground piping, culverts and/or drainage ditches. Storm drains can also be found in
parking lots and serve the same purpose. In county and city areas, that water never goes to the
sewer treatment plant to be cleaned, but flows directly into our creeks, rivers, and lakes.

Simple drainage systems can be distinguish from more complex systems involving sumps,
pumps, wells, and well-point drainage.

A sump pump is a pump used to remove water that has accumulated in a water-
collecting sump basin, commonly found in the basements of homes. The water may enter via the
perimeter drains of a basement waterproofing system, funneling into the basin or because of rain
or natural ground water, if the basement is below the water table level.

A sump is a low space that collects often undesirable liquids such as water or chemicals.
A sump can also be an infiltration basin used to manage surface runoff water and recharge
underground aquifers.[1] Sump can also refer to an area in a cave where an underground flow of
water exits the cave into the earth.

One common example of a sump is the lowest point in a basement, into which flows
water that seeps in from outside. If this is a regular problem, a sump pump that moves the water
outside of the house may be used

A typical wellpoint system consists of a series of small diameters wells (known as

wellpoints) connected via a header pipe, to the suction side of a suitable wellpointpump. The
pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe, drawing water up out of the ground

Related work:

Field of engineering

Dewatering

Earthwork

Paving

Materials

Drainage pipes are usually made of one of three materials : clay, concrete, or plastic.
Asbestos pipes are no longer used; metal pipes are usually classified with plumbing work.

Clay. These pipes, also known as agricultural tiles, are first dry-pressed in a mold, then
fired in a kiln, as for bricks. They are available with plain butt or collared ends, and are usually
unglazed, in contrast to sewer pipes.
ASTM C301 - 13

Standard Test Methods for Vitrified Clay Pipe

These test methods cover the equipment for, and the techniques of, testing vitrified clay
pipe prior to installation. Tests using whole pipe determines the resistance to crushing and
hydrostatic forces. Tests using pipe fragments measure the amount of water absorption of the
pipe body and the quantity of acid-soluble material that may be extracted from it.

NOTE —The following standards also apply to clay pipe and can be referenced for further
information.

CONCRETE PIPE

A porous pipe, fabricated of concrete, used primarily for subsoil drainage.

ASTM C497 - 17

Standard Test Methods for Concrete Pipe, Manhole Sections, or Tile

These test methods cover production and acceptance tests for concrete pipes, manhole
sections, and tiles. Tests include procedures for evaluating external load crushing strength, flat
slab top, core strength, absorption, hydrostatic, permeability, manhole step, cylinder, gasket
lubricant, joint shear, alkalinity, and gasket measurements. Aside from the procedures, this
standard also details the significance and use of and the required test apparatus for each test.
ASTM C118M - 15

Standard Specification for Concrete Pipe for Irrigation or Drainage (Metric)

This specification covers the specification for the nonreinforced concrete pipe to be used
for the conveyance of irrigation water with working pressures, including hydraulic transients,
and for use in drainage. The design, joint, and concrete mixture of the pipe is detailed. The
acceptability of the pipe shall be determined by the results of the tests prescribed in this
specification, such as external load test, absorption test, and hydrostatic test.

Plastic pipe is a tubular section, or hollow cylinder, made of plastic. It is usually, but not
necessarily, of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow—liquids
and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids.

ASTM D2412 is a testing standard used to determine the stiffness and load deflection of
plastic pipe. This summary is intended to help you understand the basic procedure and
equipment required to complete this test with accuracy. For a complete description of the test,
please refer to ASTM D2412.

Two main headings:

Sanitary drains and storm drains

Sanitary drainage involves raw sewage passing through closed but vented pipe systems
with air traps to septic tanks or treatment plants.
 Sanitary drainage defined above falls under the jurisdiction of plumbing work ( in
division 15 of MasterFormat).

Storm drainage involves fairly fresh rainwater runoff passing by gravity through
untrapped pipes or open ditches to some off-site disposal area.

The primary object of any storm drainage system is to stabilize soil conditions by
controlling moisture content in earth. Such control can reduce water tables, hydrostatic pressures,
and possible soil movements, while increasing the bearing capacity of the soil to sustain loads
transmitted to it through foundations.

There are two major categories of storm drainage:

 Temporary drains are often necessary to keep the building site reasonably free of water
during the construction period; they usually involve open ditches and French drains

Permanent drains are usually required to permit the building to function properly for the
purposes intended during its life span.