ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES PROJECT
ON

WATER
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE : MD MAJID IQBAL

CU.ROLL & NO. : 171126-21-0605
CU.REGISTRATION NO. : 126-1111-0888-17
COLLEGE ROLL NO : 933
SECTION :F
UMESCHANDRA COLLEGE
13, SURYA SEN STREET
KOLKATA-700012
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to the divine power for showers of
blessings throughout my project work entitle “Water Conservation And
Management” to complete the assignment successfully.

Then, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to University Of Calcutta,

Umeschandra Collage for the opportunity.

I would also like to say thanks to Dr. Md. Tofazzal Haque, Principal of
Umeschandra Collage, Prof. P R. Das, HOD, Prof. Md. Fahad Haque and other
professors, teachers, printing and binding agency for their active cooperation
and guidance.

I am extremely grateful to my parents for their love, prayers, caring and

sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future. I am very much
thankful to my sister and brother-in law for their love, understanding, prayers
and continuing support to complete this research work. Also I express my
thanks to non-teaching staff of my collage as well as university, members of
college students union, classmates, peer group, friends, cousins, relatives and
neighbors for their valuable prayers.

A big “Thank you!” also goes out to everybody who participated in this
project. My thanks go to all platforms and people who have supported me to
complete the research work directly or indirectly.

Signature of the student

Date:
 SL. No CONTENTS PAGE
1 INDRODUCTION 4-8
2 IMPORTANCE OF WATER CONSERVATION AND 9-14
MANAGEMENT
3 STRATEGIES ADOPTED FOR WATER CONSERVATION 14-17
4 TRADITIONAL WATER CONSERVATION SYSTEMS 18-21
5 WATER CONSERVATION SYSTEM AND 21-24
MANAGEMENT IN KOLKATA
6 LEGISLATIVE MEASURE S RELATED TO WATER AND 25-28
MANAGEMENT
7 GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER QUALITY 29-30
ASSESSMENT
8 Conclusion 31
9 BIBIOGRAPHY 31-32
 Water Conservation and Management

C hapter: - 1 Introduction

1.1. Importance of Water: -

Water is life. Water is an essential nutrient and plays a key role in the human body. We can
survive up to several weeks without food, but only a few days without water. Every system in the
body, from cells and tissues, to vital organs requires water to function.
We all need to drink water to keep our bodies hydrated; not just any water, but clean
water. It is recommended that adults should consume at least 8 glasses of water per day. This is
how we maintain that 70% of body water volume.
According to kid’s health, water helps the body get rid of waste in urine, sweat, and solid
waste. It is also found in the lymphonodes, where it helps the body build up and sustain the
immune system.
Some basic importance of water: -
 Water is the most important fluid on this earth.
 Human body majorly consists of water.
 Water is the basis of life of all human-beings, animals and plants.
 Water is essential for our bodies to function properly.
 People need water while cooking our food.
 Water carries nutrients to all cells in our body and oxygen to our brain
 Water allows the body to absorb and assimilate minerals, vitamins, amino acids, glucose
and other substances
 Water flushes out toxins and waste
 Water helps to regulate body temperature
 Water acts as a lubricant for joints and muscles

Water has been used since antiquity as a symbol by which to express devotion and purity. Some
cultures, like the ancient Greeks, went as far as to worship gods who were thought to live in and
command the waters. Whole cities have been built by considering the location and availability of
pure drinking water.
1.2. What is water Conservation? Why is it so necessary? How
can the resource be managed in an efficient manner?

Water conservation: -
Water conservation is the practice of using water efficiently to reduce unnecessary water
usage. According to Fresh Water Watch, water conservation is important because fresh clean
water is a limited resource, as well as a costly one.

Conserving water has become a prime environmental concern. Clean water is

becoming increasingly scarce globally. With deforestation, surface run-off increases and the
sub-soil water table drops as water has no time to seep slowly into the ground once the
vegetation is cleared.

As many areas depend on wells, it has become necessary to dig deeper and deeper wells.
This adds to the cost and further depletes underground stores of water. This could take years to
recharge even if the present rate of extraction is reduced, which seems hardly possible in most
situations.

Necessity of water conservation: -

When we waste water, we do not realise that it affects all of us so many different ways.
Water has to be equitably and fairly distributed so that household use, agricultural and industry all
get a share of the water. The overuse and misuse of water due to various activities and the
resulting pollution has led to a serious shortage of potable drinking water. Thus, water
conservation is linked closely with overall human well-being.

Water resource management: -

Whatever the use of freshwater (agriculture, industry, domestic use), huge saving of water
and improving of water management is possible. Almost everywhere, water is wasted. Traditional
system of collecting water and using it optimally has been used in India for many generations.
These have been forgotten in the recent past. Conserving water in multiple small percolation tanks
and jheels was an important feature of traditional forms of agriculture. Villages all over the
country had one or more common talabs or tanks from which people collected or used water
carefully.

Basic efficient manners to manage the water resource are as bellows:

1. Install water-saving shower heads or flow restrictors
2. Put a plastic bottle in your toilet tank
3. Turn off the partially filled tub during showers
4. Turn off the water while shaving
5. Turn off the water while brushing your teeth
6. Check faucets and pipes for leaks
 7. Use your automatic washing machine only for full loads only
8. Don't let the faucet run while you clean vegetables
9. Keep a bottle of drinking water in the refrigerator
10. If you wash dishes by hand, don't leave the water running for rinsing
11. Check faucets and pipes for leaks
12. Water your lawn only when it needs it
13. Deep-soak your lawn
14. Water during the cool parts of the day
15. Don't water the gutter
16. Use a broom to clean driveways, sidewalks and steps
17. Plant drought-resistant trees and plants
18. Put a layer of mulch around trees and plants.
19. Don't run the hose while washing your car
20. Tell your children not to play with the hose and sprinklers
21. Check for leaks in pipes, hoses faucets and couplings

1.3. Water crisis and its impact on a fast

growing metropolitan city (e.g. Kolkata)
Water crisis: -

Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet water demand. There is a
water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs. It is
a crisis of managing water so badly that billions of people - and the environment - suffer
badly.

Impact of water crisis in Kolkata: -

Kolkata, the capital city of West Bengal, is the most important city in eastern India.
The core Kolkata city is spread over around 200 square kilometres and has a population of
4.5 million people. The greater urban conglomeration includes 41 other cities and hosts
nearly 15 million, making it the third largest city area in India. It is has also been one of the
most water-rich cities of India, is becoming water stressed due to bad planning and
criminal activities.

Kolkata is blessed ecologically because it has, the Ganga flowing beside its western
end, traditionally huge groundwater reserve and wide wetlands area in its eastern fringe
which naturally treats its waste water and turns that as raw water for fishery and
agriculture. Despite these advantages the city is now increasingly running into trouble.

Officially 15% of core Kolkata’s water come from groundwater sources and rest from
surface water, with the entire city, excluding a newly added 25 square kilometre area in the
couth, being supplied water through pipelines. In reality up to 25% to 30% of the water used
in households is groundwater.

Kolkata officially has about 17,000 stand posts (as water hydrants are referred to in
the city), 12,000 hand tube wells and around 2,500 large tube wells mainly catering to multi-
story buildings, but the actual figures are far higher. In the same vein, although officially
commercial establishments and industries account for around one-fifth of the city’s water,
the actual consumption is significantly higher.

While the rich withdraw water from the ground, the situation for the poor is starkly
different. More than 315 million gallons of drinking water daily is withdrawn daily from the
KMC area, with a per capita consumption of nearly 200 litres per day. But there is a hidden
catch in the numbers because this figure includes water withdrawn by both public and
private sources. Nearly 35% of the city population lives in slums, who have limited access to
public sources, and very rare access to private ones. They generally only receive drinking
water through a few stand posts.

Most water is actually seized by the city’s middle and upper class as well as
commercial establishments and the floating population – largely composed of migrant
workers – of more than 5 million for various needs. The government policy of not charging
people for water effectively means the poor subsidise the wealthy.

Supplying drinking water has become a big business in and around Kolkata,
especially in areas with unsafe groundwater. For example, Madhusudhankati is a small
hamlet at the northern fringe of Kolkata Metropolitan Area where groundwater is
contaminated with arsenic. In the village nearly 200 families pay ten rupees every day to
buy 20 litres of safe drinking water provided by non-profit Sulabh International. Rates are
much higher in other areas where private companies operate.

The drinking water supply also gets contaminated by leaking sewerage pipes.
Industrial pollutants including heavy metals also leak into groundwater supplies. There was
an effort from the state pollution control board to ensure that industries treat effluent
before disposing it into the sewer line but we have to accept that virtually nothing has been
done on the ground.

With all these problems, the city is running towards an imminent water crisis. There
is a limit to supply of treated surface water if you do not introduce water charges and
minimise water waste. With increasing demand the pressure will be more on groundwater,
which in turn will further affect the quantity and quality of groundwater especially in
context to continually decreasing water recharge due to increasing concretization, no doubt,
despite traditionally having good water reserves we are entering into an era of water
starvation in city.

1.4. Present status of water availability in Kolkata and the near

future.
Not only for Kolkata the chief minister of West Bengal , honourable Mamata Banerjee, on
August 1, 2019, urged civil societies and educational institutions in the state, to create
campaigns for the conservation of water. She was speaking in Kolkata, after a programme
on the theme ‘Save Green, Stay Clean’. And said all stakeholders should work towards the
‘dream of a green and clean Bengal’. Her voiced also concern over the scanty rainfall in
south Bengal in July 2019.i Apart from this the projects under phase - 1 of the Ganga Action
Plan are almost complete. A summarized account of the number of projects in towns both
within and outside Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) is furnished below:

Town SEW STP Lcs Crema RFD Other Total

KMC 6 3 4 4 3 1 21

HMC 2 1 0 1 1 0 5

Municipal Towns within

21 9 16 10 16 0 72
KMA

KMA Sub-Total 29 13 20 15 20 1 98

Municipal Towns outside

2 2 2 2 4 - 12
KMA

Total 31 15 22 17 24 1 110
C hapter: - 2 I mportance of water conservation & Management

2.1. To combat deepening water crisis in the present times

Clean, fresh water is a limited resource. With all the severe droughts happening in
the world, the limited supply of fresh water is becoming one of our most precious resources.
Every person on earth needs water to survive. Without it, many of us would get sick and
even result in death.
While almost 70% of the Earth is made up of water, many parts of the world suffer
from clean water shortage. Conserving water is important because it keeps water pure and
clean while protecting the environment.
Conserving water means using our water supply wisely and be responsible. As every
individual depends on water for livelihood, we must learn how to keep our limited supply of
water pure and away from pollution. Keeping our water supply safe and pure will protect
the water for the generations to come.

According to the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) report released by the
Niti Aayog in 2018, 21 major cities (Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad and others)
are racing to reach zero groundwater levels by 2020, affecting access for 100 million
people.
However, 12 per cent of India’s population is already living the 'Day Zero' scenario,
thanks to excessive groundwater pumping, an inefficient and wasteful water
management system and years of deficient rains. The CWMI report also states that by
2030, the country's water demand is projected to be twice the available supply,
implying severe water scarcity for hundreds of millions of people and an eventual six
per cent loss in the country's GDP.
The Union government recently formed a new Jal Shakti (water) ministry, which aims
at tackling water issues with a holistic and integrated perspective on the subject. The
ministry has announced an ambitious plan to provide piped water connections to
every household in India by 2024.
This indicates that there is a clear disconnect between water, society and economy.
Currently, we are interested in laying large networks, constructing huge storage dams,
fetching water from 150 kilometres and above, which involves a huge carbon
footprint.
We are valuing land more than water, neglecting our local water bodies, which have
either gone dry or encroached. Also, in many Indian cities, water is not properly
distributed. Some areas of mega cities like Delhi and Mumbai are privileged to get
more that than the standard municipal water norm of 150 litres per capita per day
(lpcd) while other areas get 40-50 lpcd.
 Aggravating the problem is that the water being supplied currently is of drinking water
standards.
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that an individual requires around 25
litres of water daily for meeting his/her basic hygiene and food needs. The rest is used
for non-potable purposes like mopping and cleaning. This indicates that for most of
the non-potable uses, a quality lower than drinking water is required. Thus, for
economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, water must be treated and
supplied according to usage.
To top this, are issues of leakage losses, water pricing and metering of water. Lack of
proper maintenance of existing infrastructure causes further losses of almost 40 per
cent of piped water in urban areas.

2.2. It helps to preserve our environment.

Water for the environment helps to restore a more natural flow regime to rivers,
creeks and wetlands.
The construction of dams and weirs has provided a more reliable source of water for
people but disrupted the natural flow cycle needed for healthy rivers and wetlands.
Growing demand for river water has also seen an overall reduction in the amount of
water available to support these floodplain habitats.
Water for the environment is used to target specific outcomes for plants or animals by
providing the right amount of water at the right time for them to feed, breed and
grow.
It is a critical tool to support the health of rivers and wetlands and in doing so support
the communities that rely on them.

2.3. To protect different communities of the world against the

perils of water scarcity.
Nearly 1.8 billion people in seventeen countries, or a quarter of the world’s
population, appear to be veering towards a water crisis—with the potential of severe
shortages in the next few years.Of the 17 nations, 12 are in the Middle East and North
Africa, according to an analysis released on Tuesday by Washington D.C.-based World
Resources Institute’s Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas. Two countries– India and Pakistan–
are in Asia. The remaining hotspots are San Marino in Europe, Botswana in Africa and
Turkmenistan in Central Asia.
17 countries, mostly in the Middle East, face the risk of extremely high water stress.
While the Middle East and North Africa region is hot and water supply can be low to
begin with, rising demand has pushed countries into extreme stress, according to WRI.
 Qatar, the most at risk from water scarcity, depends heavily on seawater desalination
systems to supply drinking water to people and industries.
The economic impact of severe water shortages came to the fore earlier this year in
the south Indian city of Chennai, home to 7.1 million people. Heat waves and a
monsoon delay in the summer months saw some of Chennai’s freshwater lakes dry up,
triggering protests and violence, as well as business interruptions, with tech
companies asking employees to work from home.

2.4. Water is slowly becoming an economic commodity. Its proper

management is of utmost importance now.
This report articulates the close link between water and the economy and makes the
case that investing in water management and sanitation services is absolutely
essential for the eradication of poverty and for enabling sustained economic growth.
The report also brings to the forefront direct and indirect costs related to inaction, the
costs of action and cost-benefit comparisons.
Key points regarding importance of water management on economical perspective
written as below:
 Improved water supply and sanitation and improved water resources
management boost countries’ economic growth and contributes greatly to
poverty eradication.
 The economic benefits of improved water supply and – in particular –
sanitation far outweigh the investment costs, surprisingly good news for
Northern and Southern decision makers who often view investments as mere
costs.
 National economies are more resilient to rainfall variability, and economic
growth is boosted when water storage capacity is improved.
 Investing in water is good business – improved water resources management
and improved water supply and sanitation contributes significantly to
increased production and productivity within economic sectors.
 The overall public and private investment needs for improved water supply
and sanitation and improved water resources management are considerable.
However, at the country level, meeting such investment challenges is highly
feasible and within reach of most nations.
2.5. Water is a central component in the long-term well-
functioning of society with nature.
Society and nature both are correlated. Recreational fishing, tourism, agriculture,
industry and public health all benefit from robust and productive river systems.
Water for the environment supports the health of the river so that it can in turn
provide for human needs.
As water moves onto the floodplain, it releases carbon that energises the food web.
River pulses trigger fish breeding and movement. Juvenile fish find safe haven in
floodplain wetlands where they can feed and grow before returning to the river to
continue their life cycle.
Rivers deposit sediment on the floodplain, nourishing soils and providing grazing
habitat for native animals and livestock.
Waterbirds flock to healthy wetlands. This makes rivers and wetlands a focal point for
birdwatchers.
Wetlands are the kidneys of the waterways. Aquatic plants help to filter water as it
moves through the system, slowing flows and performing an important nutrient
cycling function.
These plants flower and set seed during watering events, providing food and shelter
for a range of insects, frogs, reptiles and mammals.
Woodland birds also respond to a healthy wetland environment. They feed, breed and
move out into the surrounding landscape helping to pollinate plants and control pest
insects.
Wetlands are also a magnet for migratory water birds, some of which travel thousands
of kilometres to feed and/or breed during times of inundation.
Water for the environment is vital to help maintain a healthy, productive and resilient
river system for the benefit of plants, animals and people.

Below are some of the main reasons it is important to conserve water.

 It makes water available for recreational purposes. It's not just swimming pools,
spas, and golf courses that we have to think about. Much of our freshwater
resources are also used for beautifying our surroundings—watering lawns, trees,
flowers, and vegetable gardens, as well as washing cars and filling public fountains at
parks. Failing to conserve water now can mean losing out on such uses later on.
 It minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages. Even though our need for
fresh water sources is always increasing because of population and industry growth,
the supply we have stays constant. Even though water eventually returns to Earth
through the water cycle, it's not always returned to the same spot, or in the same
 quantity and quality. By reducing the amount of water we use, we can better protect
against future drought years.
 It guards against rising costs and political conflict. Failing to conserve water can
eventually lead to a lack of an adequate water supply, which can have drastic
consequences. These include rising costs, reduced food supplies, health hazards, and
political conflict.
 It helps to preserve our environment. Reducing our water usages reduces the energy
required to process and deliver it to homes, businesses, farms, and communities,
which, in turn, helps to reduce pollution and conserve fuel resources.
 It builds safe and beautiful communities: Fire-fighters, hospitals, gas stations, street
cleaners, health clubs, gyms, and restaurants all require large amounts of water to
provide services to the community. Reducing our usage of water now means that
these services can continue to be provided.

Chapter: -3 Strategies adopted for water conservation

As our world faces serious water shortage, every drop of water we can use efficiently
becomes great in value. The following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water:
Decreasing run-off losses:

Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over the land
surface, and is a major component of the water cycle. Runoff that occurs on surfaces before
reaching a channel is also called overland flow. A land area which produces runoff
draining to a common point is called a watershed.

Type of the runoff can be defined as the

portion of the precipitation that makes it’s way
towards rivers or oceans etc, as surface or
subsurface flow. Surface runoff can be generated
either by rainfall, snowfall or by the melting of snow,
or glaciers. Runoff is that portion of the rainfall or
irrigation water which leaves a field either as surface
or as subsurface flow. When rainfall intensity
reaching the soil surface is less than the infiltration
capacity, all the water is absorbed in to the soil.

Process of surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows
over the land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle. When runoff flows
along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants such as petroleum, pesticides, or
fertilizers that become discharge or overland flow

Terrace farming:

Terrace farming is a type of farming that was invented by the Inca people who lived
in the South American mountains. This farming method has made cultivation of crops in hilly
or mountainous regions possible. It is commonly used in Asia by rice-growing countries such
as Vietnam, Philippines, and Indonesia. In fact, the terraces of rice found in the Philippine’s
Cordilleras have been acknowledged as UNESCO World Heritage Site. Apart from rice
cultivation, terraces are also used to grow rice, potatoes, and maize. Terrace farming is also
commonly used in islands such as the Canary Islands,
because they have hilly terrains.

Terrace farming is a method of farming whereby

“steps” known as terraces are built onto the slopes of hills
and mountains. When it rains, instead of rain carrying
away the soil nutrients and plants down the slope, they
flow to the next terrace. Every step has an outlet which
channels water to the next step. This helps in keeping
some areas dry and others wet. On very high altitudes, other crops apart from rice can be
grown. This is because rice does not do well on high altitudes. There are two types of
terracing known as graded terracing and level terracing. A graded terrace may have either
constant or variable grades along its length. On the contrary, the level terraces follow a
contour line and are best suited for permeable soil.

Contour cultivation:
On small furrows and ridges across the slops trap rainwater and allow time for
infiltration. It is applicable on relatively short slopes up to about 8 percentages, steepness
with fairly stable soils. By planning across the slopes, rather up and down a hill, the contour
ridges slow or stop the downhill flow of water, water is held in between these contours,
thus reducing water erosion and increasing soil moisture.
Rainwater harvesting:
In many parts of the world, especially in very dry areas this has been the traditional
practice. However, the stored water has to be kept pollution-free and clean so that it can be
used as drinking water. Stored water can grow algae and zooplankton which can be
pathogenic and cause infections. Thus,
keeping the water uncontaminated is of great
importance.
 Current technologies of rainwater harvesting require that all roof and terrace water
passes down into a covered tank where it can be stored for use after the monsoon. This
practice is most advantageous in arid areas where clean water is very scarce. However,
there are practical difficulties such as constructing large storage tanks which can be
expensive.
Another way to using rooftop rainwater harvesting is to collect the rainwater so that
it percolates into the ground to recharge wells instead of flowing over the ground into
rivers. Thus, by reaching the groundwater by water harvested from rooftops, the water
table rises and the surrounding wells retain water throughout the year.

Reducing evaporation losses: -

This is more relevant in humid regions. Horizontal barriers of asphalt placed below
the soil surface increase water availability and increase crop yield by 35-40%. This is more
effective on sandy soil but less effective on loamy sand soils. A copolymer of starch and
acrylonitrile called ‘super slumber’ has been reported to absorb water up to 1400 times its
weight. The chemical has been found to be useful for sandy soils.
Reuse of water: -
Water reuse represents a major Opportunity to support our nation’s communities
and economy by bolstering safe and reliable water supplies for human consumption,
agricultural, business, industry, recreation and
healthy ecosystems.
Water reuse reclaims water from a variety
of sources then treats and reuses it for beneficial
purposes such as agriculture and irrigation,
potable water supplies, groundwater
replenishment, industrial processes, and
environmental restoration. Water reuse can
provide alternatives to existing water supplies
and be used to enhance water security,
sustainability, and resilience.
Water reuse can be defined as planned or unplanned. Unplanned water reuse refers
to situations in which a source of water is substantially composed of previously-used water.
A common example of unplanned water reuse occurs when communities draw their water
supplies from rivers, such as the Colorado River and the Mississippi River, that receive
treated wastewater discharges from communities upstream.
Planned water reuse refers to water systems designed with the goal of beneficially
reusing a recycled water supply. Often, communities will seek to optimize their overall
water use by reusing water to the extent possible within the community, before the water is
reintroduced to the environment. Examples of planned reuse include agricultural and
landscape irrigation, industrial process water, potable water supplies, and groundwater
supply management.
W atershed management: -
Watershed is that land area which drains or contributes runoff to a common outlet.
Watershed is defined as a geo-hydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of
drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land
and water area, which contributes runoff to a common point.
Watershed management implies an
effective conservation of soil and water resources
for sustainable production with minimum non-
point resources (NFS) pollutant losses. It involves
management of land surface and vegetation so as
to conserve the soil and water for immediate and
long term benefits to the farmers, community
and society as a whole.

Watershed is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use pattern.

a. Macro watershed: 1000 -10,000 ha

b. Micro watershed: 100 -1000 ha

c. Mini watershed: 10 -100 ha

d. Mile watershed: 1- 10 ha
The objectives, of watershed management, are: -
a. Producing of food, fodder, fuel.
b. Pollution control.
c. Over exploitation of resources should be minimised.
d. Water storage, flood control, checking sedimentation.
e. Wild life preservation.
f. Erosion control and prevention of soil, degradation and conservation of soil and
water.
g. Employment generation through industrial development dairy fishery production.
h. Reaching of ground water to provide regular water supply for consumption and
industry as well as irrigation.
i. Recreational facility.

Components of watershed are: -

a. Soil and water conservation.
b. Water harvesting and water management.
 c. Alternate land use system.
Watershed management involves determination of alternative land treatment measures
for, which information about problems of land, soil, water and vegetation in the watershed
is essential. In order to have a practical solution to above problem it is necessary to go
through four phases for a full scale watershed management.
a. Recognition phase
b. Restoration phase
c. Protection phase
d. Improvement phase

C hapter: - 4 Traditional water conservation system

India has various kinds of terrain which is challenging prospect when it comes to
water conservation. Having a varied terrain India poses a challenging prospect when it
comes to water conservation and water usage. One particular solution is thus not applicable
to different areas of the country. In addition, while the use of technology and advancement
of science can provide ready solutions, sometimes, traditional time-tested ways can help
fulfil the requirements of people in a much more effective way. Here are some traditional
methods that are still used.

KUL: -
Kuls are diversion channels that carry water from a glacier to village. Often
spanning long distances, with some over 10 km long, kuls have been around for
centuries. They are the lifeline of people of spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and in
Jammu too.
Kul starts at the glacier, which is to be tapped.
Keeping the head clear of debris is achieved by lining
the sides of kul with stones which ensure that there is
no seepage or clogging. The water is drawn from here
are per the need of the village.

Bamboo Drip Irrigation System: -

The system of water conservation and usage of stream and stream and spring
water is done using bamboo pipes. Practised in Meghalaya, Its primary purpose is to
irrigate plantations. This 200 year old system involves 18-20 liters of water entering
the bamboos of various sizes and reduces the
output to 20—80 drops per minute, which is
splendid for betel leaf and black pepper crops.
 The whole irrigation system is made up of different forms of bamboo pipes of
varying cross sections which take the water from perennial springs on the tops of the
hill. The flow of water is controlled by the changing pipes positions. The method is so
efficient that it enables the water to be dropped at the base of the plant to ensure
there is no runoff and wastage.

Jalaras: -
Alwar district of Rajasthan is one of the driest
regions in India with water scarcity being a common
occurrence. After the drought of the 1980s, the
villagers attempted to revive the traditional method.
Jalaras, a crescent shaped small check dam built form
earth and rock to intercept and conserve rainwater,
was thus reinvented. This helps to improve percolation
and increases groundwater recharge.
By recharging the aquifer below the surface, Jalaras have helped increase
agriculture in the area. Usage of Jalras has also helped increase the flow of river
Arvari, making it a perennial river now. It earlier used to dry off after the monsoon.

Zabo: -
Zabo means impounding water.
Known locally as the Ruza system, this
system is a unique combination of
water conservation with animal care,
forests and agriculture. Mostly
practised in Nagaland, Zabo is used to
deal with a lack of drinking water
supply. During monsoon, rainwater that
falls on the hilltops is collected into the pond like structures that are carved out on
the hillsides. The water is then passed onto cattle yards below from where enters the
paddy fields rich in manure.
The paddy fields can be used to rear fishes as well thus giving a yield of about 50-60 kg/
hectare as extra output. Quite a few medicinal plants and herbs are also grown nearby.
These ponds are made in such a way that water distribution is uniform.
Eri: -
One of the oldest water conservation systems in India, ERI of Tamil Nadu is
still widely used around the state. With
over a third of irrigation in the state being
made possible due to Eri, the traditional
water harvesting system plays an
important part in the agriculture. They
also have other advantages such as
prevention of soil erosion, recharge of
groundwater, and flood control.
Eri can either be fed through channels
that divert river water, or rain-fed ones. They are usually interconnected to balance
the water in case of excess or lesser supply.

Khadin: -
Khadin is a water conservation
system designed to store surface
runoff water for the purpose of
agriculture. It entails an embankment
built around a slope, which collects
the rainwater in an agricultural field.
This helps moisten the soli and helps
in preventing the loss of topsoil.
Additionally, spillways are provided to
ensure that excess water is drained off.
The system of water conservation is common in the areas of Jaisalmer and
Barmer in Rajasthan. A dug well is usually made a bit further from khadin to
additionally take advantage of groundwater recharging that happens around the
structure.
Zings in Ladakh: -

Zings, found in Ladakh, are small tanks that

collect melting glacier water. A network of guiding
channels brings water from the glacier to the
tank. A trickle in the morning, the melting waters
of the glacier turn into a flowing stream by the
afternoon. The water, collected by evening, is used in the
fields on the following day. A water official called a Chirpun is
responsible for the equitable distribution of water in this dry region that relies on
melting glacial water to meet its farming needs.

Ahar pines in South Bihar

Ahar Pynes or Ahar Pines are traditional

floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to
South Bihar. Ahars are reservoirs with
embankments on three sides that are built at the
end of diversion channels like pynes. Pynes (or
Pines) are artificial rivulets led off from rivers to
collect water in the ahars for irrigation in the dry
months. Paddy cultivation in this relatively low
rainfall area depends mostly on ahar pynes (or Ahar Pines ).

Kunds: -
With the look of an upturned cup nestling in
a saucer, these water conservation structures are
built to harvest rainwater. Usually dotting the areas
of Rajasthan and Gujrat, they have a saucer shaped
catchment area sloping towards the centre to where
the well is situated.
To prevent debris from falling into the well, a
wire mesh is used while the sides of the well pit are
covered with lime and ash, which act as a disinfectant. Usually, the depth and
diameter of these kunds depend upon the purpose of use i.e. drinking or for

domestic usage.
C hapter: - 5 Water Conservation system and management in Kolkata

5.1. What are the current systems operating in relation to water

conservation and management in Kolkata?
Ans. River Hugli remains the main source of water supply for Kolkata. The water is
treated at three main water treatment plants. The oldest is the Indira Gandhi Water
Treatment Plant of capacity 260MGD at Palta. Water from Palta is sent to Tallah
pumping station for onward distribution to the city through four zonal mains which
feed a distribution network of 3,800 kilometres. The other water treatment plants
include a 135MGD capacity plant at Garden Reach and another one of 120MGD
capacity at Dhapa, for the arsenic contaminated eastern fringe area. Dhapa Water
Treatment Plant now functions at 30MGD. Jorabagan and Wattgunge have smaller
plants of capacities with respective capacities of 8MGD and 5MGD (Table 1). The
total capacity of the water treatment plants in 2015 is 438MGD and supply to the
city is 315MGD. Power driven tube wells supply another 30MGD in areas not
covered by surface water supply. The average per capita availability of water is
130litres per day.
Below mention two tables are indicating different feature of existing water
conservation and management system of Kolkata

Table-1ii
Location of Water Treatment Plant Capacity Supply
Indria Gandhi Water Treatment Plant at Palta 206 200
Garden Reach Water Treatment Plant 120+ 15 82+15
Jorebagan 8 5
Wattgange 5 3
Dhapa 30 10
Total 438 315
Groundwater 30 30
Total 468 345

35 per cent of the total urban population, however, are not covered by municipal
water supply. Another 20-25 per cent is served by single tap connections in their
 houses. 8000 stand posts provide water to40-50 per cent of the population living in
slums or squatter colonies without access to piped water.

Daily hours of supply vary between 6.5 hours in the city proper to 4.5 hours in the
peripheral areas (Table 2). Residents in most parts of the city, except the main city,
have their own ground water sources to supplement municipal water supply. Ground
water is also the main source of drinking water in areas proposed to be covered by
Dhapa Water Works.

Table-2iii

Water Supply in the City Water Treatment Supply Hours

of Kolkata Area Plant
Main city Palta, Jorabagan, 3.5 hours in morning
Wattgange 3.0 hours in the afternoon
and evening
Southern fringe Garden Reach 3.0 hours in morning
1.5 hours in the afternoon
Eastern periphery Dhapa
Uncovered by piped water Ground water
supply

Questionnaire survey was conducted by the author at household level in 100

households from each of the three peripheral areas and from the central city to
assess water stress and response of the community. The survey revealed that the
hours of supply are low. The supply is also highly erratic. In the south and east
peripheral wards served respectively by Garden Reach and Dhapa Water Works, the
duration of supply is not more than 4 hours in a day.
5.1 Discuss about the growing need to improve water resource
management as well as management of certain subsystems in
relation to water supply.

Ans. The challenge facing mankind is to make cities resilient to future urban
growth and ecological degradation. With origin in ecological sciences, resilience is
considered as the capacity to absorb external shocks without significant deformation
(Cutter et.al. 2008). It refers to urban systems bouncing back to equilibrium in the
aftermath of shocks such as natural disasters as well as the adaptive capacities of
systems to long-term stressors or shifts such as climate change (Leichenko, 2011;
 Lankao and Qin, 2011:). The broader socio-ecological notion focuses on learning,
innovation, adaptive capacity and transformation (Folke, 2006). With the widespread
realisation of the significance of global warming and climate change, urban
communities are seeking resilience to existing and future uncertainties in urban
water supplies brought about by a combination of climate variability, population
growth and climate change (Wong and Brown, 2009).The Water Provision Resilience
was thus developed for urban water system. Built on the ‘percent of the population
with access to safe water’ the indicators evaluate the ability of an urban water
system to maintain or improve the current level and quality of access over the next
50 years (Milman and Short, 2008).Critical aspects of urban water supply systems
that impact water system resilience include supply, finances, infrastructure, service
provision, water quality and governance (Milman and Short, 2008).
A resilient water supply system in the city of Kolkata should address governance
issues and climatic variability. Aiming to increase coverage and per capita supply,
immediate measures would be to increase the number and efficiency of booster
pumping stations, revamping the zonal mains, controlling the backflow from stand
posts, providing piped water supply to the urban poor and managing demand. The
long term measures would be to discontinue the use of stand posts, shift to surface
water, increase capacity of treatment plants, recharge ground water and undertake
rainwater harvesting at institutions and residential complexes, aim at cost recovery
through domestic water meters and resource mobilization.
5.2 How can awareness about water conservation be spread
among the general public.
Awareness about water conservation is truly a vital issue in today’s society. On this
regards water conservation day is celebrated on 22nd of March. Water
conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably manage
the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet the
current and future human demand.
Next to air, water is the most important element for the preservation of life. Water is
a finite commodity which, if not managed properly, will result in shortages in the
near future. Water conservation can go a long way to help alleviate these impending
shortages.
Common approaches regarding awareness generation for general public are written
below:
I. Check the toilet for leaks.
II. Stop to use toilet as an ashtray or wastebasket
III. Put a plastic bottle in toilet tank
IV. Take shorter showers
V. Install water-saving shower heads or flow restrictors
VI. A partially filled tub uses less water than all but the shortest showers.
 VII. Turn off the water while brushing teeth
VIII. Turn off the water while shaving
IX. Check faucets and pipes for leaks
X. Using automatic dishwasher for full loads only
XI. Using automatic washing machine only for full loads only
XII. Don't let the faucet run while the clean vegetables
XIII. Keep a bottle of drinking water in the refrigerator
XIV. In the time of washing dishes by hand, don't leave the water running for
rinsing
XV. Check faucets and pipes for leaks
XVI. Water lawn only when it needs it
XVII. Deep-soak lawn
XVIII. Water during the cool parts of the day
XIX. Don't water the gutter
XX. Plant drought-resistant trees and plants
XXI. Put a layer of mulch around trees and plants.
XXII. Use a broom to clean driveways, sidewalks and steps
XXIII. Don't run the hose while washing car
XXIV. Tell children not to play with the hose and sprinklers
Check for leaks in

C hapter: - 6 Legislative measures related to water and management

6.1 Water prevention and control of Pollution Act, 1974.

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water
by industrial, agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our
water sources. Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands,
rivers, lakes, wells as well as the sea are serious health hazards.
Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different pollutants is
one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do
several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals
for household use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying
polluting sources at work places and in industrial units where oil are or other
petroleum products and heavy metals are used.
Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital
wastes can also pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to
inform authorities to appropriate actions against different types of water
pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than trying to cure the
problems it has created, or punishing offenders.
 The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and
abatement of water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the
wholesomeness of water. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish
polluters. The Central Government and State Government have set up PCBs to
monitor water pollution.
The Water Act, 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive
legislation with more than sixty sections for the prevention and control of
water pollution. Among other things, the Act provides for constitution of
central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take water
samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals,
revision, minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders,
offences by companies and Government departments, cognizance of offences,
water laboratories, analysis etc.
Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or
‘consent administration’ procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by
obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to any condition they
specify. Any person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot,
however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought by, or with
the sanction of the State Board.

6.2 The Water prevention and control of Pollution Cess Act,

2003.
Basically The Water prevention and control of Pollution Cess Act, 2003 is an
amendment of the earlier Act in 1977 and includes: Amendment of Section 2
This includes redefinition of what constitutes industry and namely includes
"operation or process, or treatment and disposal system, which consumes
water or gives rise to sewage effluent or trade effluent, but does not include
any hydel power unit"
Modification of Section 16:The modification areas are as written below:
Notwithstanding anything contained in section 3, the Central Government may,
by notification in the Official Gazette, exempt any industry, consuming water
below the quantity specified in the notification, from the levy of water Cess.
(2) In exempting an industry under sub-section (1), the Central Government
shall take into consideration:
(a) the nature of raw material used;
(b) the nature of manufacturing process employed;
(c) the nature of effluent generated;
(d) the source of water extraction;
(e) the nature of effluent receiving bodies; and
(f) the production data, including water consumption per unit production, in
the industry and the location of the industry."
6.3 The River Boards Act, 1956.
The act to provide for the establishment of River Boards for the regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river valleys empowers the Central
Government, on a request received in this behalf from a State Government or
otherwise, by notification in the Official Gazette, to establish a River Board for
advising the Governments interested in relation to such matters concerning the
regulation or development of an inter-State river or river valley or any specified
part thereof.
The Board may be empowered under sub-section (1) of section 14 to perform
all or any of the following functions, namely -
Advising the Governments interested on any matter concerning the regulation
or development of any specified inter-state river or river valley within its area
of operation and in particular, advising them in relation to the coordination of
their activities with a view to resolve conflicts among them and to
achieve maximum results in respect of the measures undertaken by them in the
inter-State river or river valley for the purpose of -

 conservation, control and optimum utilization of water resources of

the inter- State river ;
 promotion and operation of schemes for irrigation, water supply or
drainage;
 promotion and operation of schemes for the development of hydro-
electric power;
 promotion and operation of schemes for flood control;
 promotion and control of navigation;
 promotion of a forestation and control of soil erosion;
 prevention of pollution of the waters of inter-State river;
 such other matters as may be prescribed.
Preparing schemes, including multi-purpose schemes, for the purpose of
regulating or developing the inter-State river or river valley and advising the
Governments interested to undertake measures for executing the scheme
prepared by the Board;
Allocating among the Governments interested the costs of executing any
scheme prepared by the Board and of maintaining any works undertaken in the
execution of the scheme;
Watching the progress of the measures undertaken by the Governments
interested;
 Any other matter which is supplemental, incidental or consequential to any of
the above functions.

6.4 National water Policy - Ministry of Water Resources

(2002)
Government is planning to come out with an updated version of the National
Water Policy (NWP) with key changes in water governance structure and
regulatory framework. Plans are also afoot to set up a National Bureau of
Water Use Efficiency. Building consensus among the states within the
constitutional framework is a precondition for making these changes.
NWP was formulated to govern the planning and development of water
resources and their optimum utilization. The first NWP was adopted
in September, 1987. It was reviewed and updated in 2002 and later in 2012.
A brief review of National water Policy 2002 is as written below:
i. Perspective for Water Resources Planning: National perspectives.

ii. Information System: Standardized national information system.

iii. Water Resources Planning: Hydrological unit such as a drainage basin

as a whole, or a sub-basin.

iv. Project Planning: Water resource development projects should as far

as possible be planned and developed as multipurpose projects.

v. Environmental Flow in Rivers: Minimum flow should be ensured in

the perennial streams for maintaining ecology and social
considerations.

vi. Ground-water development: Exploitation of ground water resources

should be so regulated as not to exceed the recharging possibilities, as
also to ensure social equity.

vii. Access to safe drinking Water: Adequate safe drinking water facilities
should be provided to the entire population both in urban and in rural
areas.

viii. Inter-basin transfer: Water should be made available to water short

areas by transfer from other areas including transfers from one river
basin to another, based on a national perspective, after taking into
account the requirements of the areas / basins.

ix. Water Use Efficiency: Efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of
water should be optimized and an awareness of water as a scarce
 resource should be fostered.

x. Flood management: Emphasis on non-structural measures, such as

flood forecasting and warning, flood plain zoning and flood proofing,
so as to reduce the recurring expenditure on flood relief.

xi. Gap between Irrigation Potential created and utilized: Concerted

efforts should be made to ensure that the irrigation potential created
is fully utilized. For this purpose, the command area development
approach should be adopted in all irrigation projects.
Shallow aquifer
Chapter- 7 Ground Water And Surface Water Quality Aassessment

Ground waters and surface waters are truly interconnect, before intervention the issue it is
required to clear the definition ground water and surface water.

Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is
stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.

Water beneath the surface can essentially be divided into three zones: 1) the soil water zone,
or vadose zone, 2) an intermediate zone, or capillary fringe, and 3) the ground water, or saturated
zone

Surface water is any body of water found on the Earth’s surface, including both the saltwater in the
ocean and the freshwater in rivers, streams, and lakes. A body of surface water can persist all year
long or for only part of the year.

All types of liquid surface waters are considered—rivers, reservoirs, lakes, bogs. The basic terms
used to describe these water bodies are defined. Their types and classifications are given, and data
are presented on the largest rivers, lakes and reservoirs.

Water quality can be measured by collecting water samples for laboratory analysis or by using
probes which can record data at a single point in time, or logged at regular intervals over an
extended period.

We use water quality information to assess current condition and patterns over time and space in
order to understand and manage the influence of factors such as land use and climate change. This
is a complex task requiring consideration of numerous factors.

Regarding the issue of assessment different procedures are available, but basis characteristics
of measurement as written below:

 Physical characteristics – e.g. temperature, colour, light, sediment suspended in

the water
  Chemical characteristics – e.g. dissolved oxygen, acidity (pH), salinity,
nutrients and other contaminants
 Biological characteristics – e.g. bacteria and algae.

The Water Quality Assessment Methodology (WQAM) is a screening procedure for toxic and
conventional pollutants in surface and ground waters and is a collection of formulas, tables,
and graphs that planners can use for preliminary assessment of surface and ground water
quality in large river basins. These desktop procedures are appropriate for hand calculators
or for implementation as spreadsheet calculations on personal computers. The manual
includes a discussion of the environmental chemistry of synthetic organic chemicals and
metals; a chapter on waste source estimation techniques; and simple methods for
assessment of pollutant fate in rivers, lakes, estuaries and ground water. Stream analysis
techniques are included for conservative substances, water temperature, biochemical
oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, coliform bacteria, nutrients, and
toxic organic chemicals and metals. Lake analysis procedures include thermal stratification,
sediment accumulation, toxic organic chemicals, phosphorus budget, eutrophication
potential, and hypolimnion dissolved oxygen. Estuarine analyses include estuarine
classification, temperature, biochemical oxygen demand, and dissolved substances. Ground
water procedures include aquifer characterization, the groundwater flow regime, pollutant
transport processes, methods for predicting the fate and transport of conventional and toxic
pollutants, and interpretation of results.
Conclusion: -

From the project of “WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT” we learn that

water is essential in our life. So we should always try to save water and conserve water as
much as possible, we should take that much water which are needed in our day to day life
not more than that if we take more water then after use those much water will be in our
tank we should conserve that water for next days use d not waste. We should also conserve
rainfall water and utilize those water as drinking by purified and also another purpose like
households and agricultural purpose. We should also follow traditional water conservation
system. How long day ago our Indian person conserve water and they utilize those water in
water crisis time and in summer days. So we should follow our traditional water
conservation system for conserve water in future use because day by day water is waste. If
water waste will be continue then one day will come that there will be no water to drink in
the world. If there will be no water then how person survive in the world. So to save world
and for future generation we should take steps now because now also have enough time in
our hand to save water for save world. So we should keep in our mind that we should not
waste one drop of water.

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