Soilmechanics I: Asst. Prof. Dr. Qassun S. Mohammed Shafiqu

SOILMECHANICS I
Asst. Prof. Dr. Qassun S.

Mohammed Shafiqu
MECHANICS I SOIL
Introduction
Definition of Soil
In civil engineering, soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of
mineral particles formed by the weathering of rocks, the void space between the
particles containing water and/or
air.
Based on its method of formation, a soil

is:
1- Residual : when the products of weathering remain at their original

location.
2- Sedimentary : when the individual particles were created at one location,

transported, and fully deposited at another
location.
3- Fill : when it is a man-made soil deposit.
What is Soil Mechanics ?
The term “ Soil Mechanics” was coined by Late Dr. Karl Terzaghi, who is
recognized as the father of soil mechanics. Soil mechanics deals with the
engineering properties and the behavior of soils under

stress.
Why Studying Soil Mechanics

?
As the civil engineering projects are either seated on soil (e.g. buildings
and
roads) or retaining soil (e.g. walls) or constructed of soil (e.g.

embankments)
or passing through soil (e.g. tunnels). Soil mechanics becomes an

important
subject in civil engineering studies.
CHAPTER ONE
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

1.1 The Nature of Soils
The nature of soils depends upon the type of destructive process in the formation
of
soil from rock. This process may be physical or

chemical.
In the physical process the resultant soil particles retain the same composition as
that
of the parent rock. The structural arrangement of particles is described as “Single
Grain Structure”, each particle being in direct contact with adjoining particles,
without there being any bond or cohesion between them as shown

below.
Chemical weathering results in the formation of groups of crystalline particles of
colloidal size (<0.002mm) known as the clay minerals. Most clay mineral
particles
are of plate-like form having a high specific surface (i.e., a high surface area to
mass
ratio).
The basic structural units of most clay minerals consist of a silica tetrahedron
and an
alumina octahedron. The basic units combine to form sheet structures (a silica
sheet
or an alumina sheet). The various clay minerals (i.e., Kaolinite, Illite and
Montmorillonite) are formed by the stacking of combinations of the sheet

structures
with different forms of bonding between the combined

sheets.
Figure (1.1) Single grain structure
2
The surface of clay mineral particles usually carry residual negative charges
which
result in cations (positive ions) present in the water in the void space being
attracted
to the particles. Also, layers of water molecules are held around a clay mineral
particle by hydrogen bonding and by attraction to the negative charged

surfaces.
There are two types of forces act between adjacent clay
particles:
1- Repulsive forces due to like charges on the surface of particles. Net

repulsive
gives a dispersed structural form of

particles.
2- Attractive forces (Van Der Waals forces) due to electrical moments existing
within the units. The forces of attraction are responsible for the cohesive
nature
Figure (1.2) Clay minerals basic units
Figure (1.3) Clay minerals: (a) kaolinite, (b) illite and (c)
montmorillonite.
2
of soils containing a significant proportion of clay mineral particles. Net
attraction gives a flocculent structural form of

particles.
Figure (1.4) Particle size ranges Particles sizes in soils can vary from over
100mm to less than 0.001mm. In British
Standards the size ranges as detailed below. According to this classification the
terms
“clay”, “silt”, etc. are used only to describe the sizes of particles between
specified
limits regardless of their mineralogical

condition.
All clay size particles are not necessarily clay mineral particles. If clay mineral
particles are present, they usually exert a considerable influence on the

properties of
soil, an influence out of all proportion to their percentage by weight in the

soil.
1.2 Particles Size

Analysis
The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining the percentage
by
weight of particles within the different size

ranges.
Soils consisting of particles mostly in the gravel size are sand size ranges are
referred
to as coarse-grained. The particle size distribution of such soils can be

determined by
the method of sieving. The soil is passed through a series of standard test sieves
having successively smaller mesh

sizes.
Soils consisting of particles mostly in the silt size and clay size ranges are
referred to
as fine-grained. The particle size distribution of such soils can be determined by
the
2
method of sedimentation using the hydrometer analysis. The method is based on
stockes’ law which governs the velocity at which spherical particles settle in a
suspension; the larger the particles the greater are the settling velocity and vice
versa.
The size of a particle is given as the diameter of a sphere which would settle at
the
same velocity as the particle.The particle size analysis is usually presented in the
form
of distribution curve, this curve is obtained by plotting particle diameter against
percent finer.
Figure (1.5) Particle size distribution curves (Example 1.1)
The size such that 10% of the particles are smaller than that size is denoted by
D10. Other
sizes such as D30 and D60 can be defined in a similar way. The general
slope and
shape of the distribution curve can be described by means of the
coefficient of
uniformity, Cu and the coefficient of curvature, Cz defined as:
60
CU D10
= D ,
2
C Z = DDD 106030 1.3 Plasticity of Fine-Grained Soils
The term plasticity describes the ability of soil to undergo unrecoverable
deformation
at constant volume without cracking or crumbling. Plasticity is due to the
presence of
clay minerals or organic material.
Depending on its water content a soil may exist in the liquid, plastic, semi-solid or
solid state. The water contents at which the transitions between states occur are
called
Atterberg limits.
2
Note: All plastics soils at liquid limits passes a constant value of shearing
resistance.
It has been found by means of direct shear tests of different types of clays that
the liquid limit corresponds to a shearing strength of about 27gm/cm2 (2.65kPa). It
is
noticed that the constant shear strength occurs at 25 blows, that way the 25
blows is
chosen.
The upper and lower limits of the range of water contents over which a soil exhibit
plastic behavior are defined as the liquid limit, wL, and the plastic limit, wP,
respectively. The water content range itself is defined as the plasticity index, IP,
wwI = -
P L P The natural water content, w, of a soil relative to the liquid and
plastic limits can be
represented by means of the liquidity index, IL,
I L =
ww - I
P P The degree of plasticity of the clay size fraction of soil is expressed by the
ratio of the
plasticity index to the percentage of clay size particles in the soil; this ratio is
called
the activity.
The transition between the semi-solid and solid states occurs at the shrinkage
limit,
defined as the water content at which the volume of the soil reaches its lowest
value
as it dries out.
1.4 Soil Classification
The object of soil classification is to divide soils into groups such that all the soils
in a
particular groups have similar characteristics, by which they may be identified,
and
exhibit similar behavior in giving engineering situations. Soil classification,
however,
should be regarded as the first step only in the evaluation of a soil.
Most soil classification systems divide soils into a number of groups each
denoted by
a group symbol. A soil is identified and allocated to the appropriate group on the
basis of particle size distribution and plasticity, these characteristics being
determined
either by standard tests in the laboratory or by simple, and less accurate, visual
and
manual procedures in the field. In addition, a general description of the soil and
its in-
2
situ condition should be given depending on the experience of the site engineer.
For
example;
‘Reddish-brown, dense, homogeneous, well-graded, clean sand consisting

of
subangular particles’.
‘Dark-grey, firm, silty clay of low plasticity with small fissures and silt
inclusions’.
In the unified soil classification system (USCS) the group symbols consist of a
primary and secondary descriptive

letter;
Primary Letter Secondary Letter
G Gravel W Well graded

S Sand P Poorly graded
M Silt M Non-plastic fines
C Clay C Plastic fines
O Organic L Low plasticity
Pt Peat H High plasticity
The unified soil classification system refers to the plasticity

chart.
A procedure is recommended for field classification which includes the manual

tests;
dilatancy (reaction to shaking), dry strength, and

toughness.
Figure (1.6) Plasticity chart

2
Figure (1.7) Flowchart of Unified Soil Classification
System.
2
Example 1.1
The results of particle size analyses of four soils A, B, C and D are shown in
Table
below. The results of limit tests on soil D

are:
Liquid limit Cone penetration (mm) 15.5 18.0 19.4 22.2 24.9 Water content (%)
39.3 40.8 42.1 44.6 45.6 Plastic limit Water content (%) 23.9 24.3 The fine
fraction of soil C has a liquid limit of 26 and a plasticity index of 9. (a)
Determine the coefficients of uniformity and curvature of soils A, B and C. (b)

Allot
group symbols, with main and qualifying to each

soil.
solution:
The particle size distribution curves are plotted in Figure below. For soils A, B
and C
the sizes D10, D30 and D60 are read from the curves and the values of Cu and Cz
are calculated:

2
For soil D the liquid limit is obtained from Figure below: The percentage water
content, to the nearest integer, corresponding to a penetration of 20mm is the LL

and
is 42. The PL is the average of the two percentage eater contents, and is 24.
PI=LL-
PL= 18.
Soil A: Coarse fraction=99%, coarser than 2mm=76%, 76/99=77%

˃50%
Gravel GW Soil B: Coarse fraction=98%, coarser than 2mm=2%,
2/98=2% <50%
Sand SP Soil C: Coarse fraction=66%, coarser than 2mm=41%,
41/66=62% ˃50%
Gravel GM Soil D: Using the plasticity
chart CL
1.5 Phase
Relationships
Soils can be either of two or three-phase composition. In dry soil there are two
phases, namely the solid particles and pore air. A fully saturated soil is also two
phase, being composed of solid particles and pore water. A partially saturated
soil is
three phase, being composed of solid soil particles, pore water and pore air.The
components of a soil can be represented by a phase diagram as shown in Figure

(1.8)
below.
2
Figure (1.8) Phase diagrams
The water content, w or moisture content, m: ratio of the mass of water to the
mass of
solids in the soil
M
w= MwsThe water content is determined by weighing a sample of the soil
and then drying the sample in an oven at a temperature of 105o-110oC and
reweighing. A drying period of
24hr is normally adequate for most soils.
Degree of saturation, Sr: ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of void
space.
w
S r = V
V vVoid ratio, e: ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.
V
e = VvsPorosity, n: ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.
V
n = Vv n =

e1
e, =
+e n1 - n
Air content, A: ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of
the soil.
V
A = Va Bulk density, ρ: ratio of the total mass to the total volume.
2
M
Vρ = Specific gravity of the solid soil particles, Gs.
=
G s
VM ws
=
ρ s ρ s ρwρ w =
ρ of water
Assume the volume of solids is 1 unit, then the volume of voids would be e units.
M,GM = ρ = wG ρ V, = wG = wG
s ws w wws s S r es For fully saturated
soil, Sr=1, then e=wGs
A = wGe
- e1+s = S1n ( - r ) ρ =
1
w1G s ( e
( ++ ) ) ρ w ρ = eSG
e1 rs
+ +ρ w
For a saturated soil: ρ s at = eG
e1 s
++ ρ w For
a dry soil:
ρ d =
s
G
e1 + ρ w

2
W Mg
Vγ = V=
the above equations for ρ are valid for γ.
e.g. γ
= w1G
s e1
( )
++ γ w = eSG

++ γ ww , γ = m/kN8.9 3 For a fully saturated soil, the buoyant uit
e1 rs
weight, γ′ i s,
γ ′
wws

=G
γ - γ += s - e1 +γ w Relative density, RD, is used to express the

= γ sat - γ w
actual density of a soil relative to the
maximum and minimum possible densities;
max
e maxe min 1G e1
-- e Procedures are recommended for determination of the maximum

RD = e
and minimum void
ratio of a soil sample.
Example 1.2 In its natural condition a soil sample has a mass of 2290gm and a
volume of 1.15×10- 3m3. After being completely dried in an oven the mass of the
sample is 2035gm. The

value of Gs for the soil is 2.68. Determine the bulk density, unit weight, water
content, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation and air content.
ρ=M =
solution: Bulk density, V 1015.1 290.2

× -
=
3 )m/Mg99.1(m/kg1990 3 3 Unit weight, γ = Mg
V= 1990
× 8.9
=
m/kN5.19m/N19500 3 = 3 Water content, w

=
M -
Mw s= 2290 2035 2035 = %5.12or125.0 Void ratio, w1Ge
=
s ( + ) ρ ρw - 125.168.21 = ⎛ │⎝× × 1000

1990 ⎞ -│⎠52.01 = Degree
of saturation, Air content, %1.12or121.0355.034.0S1nA =
S r ( - =
r = es = 68.2125.0
) wG
×=
52.0 × = %5.64or645.0
2
1.6 Soil Compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the

particles
closer together with a reduction in the volume of air; there is no significant

change in
the volume of water in the soil.
Field compaction means

are:
1. Rollers:
a. Smooth-wheeled
b. Sheepsfoot Depending on the type of soil.

c. Pneumatic-tyred
d. Drum
2. Vibrators coarse grained soils.
3. Rammers small areas and where access is difficult.
Figure (1.10) a drum-type roller

Figure (1.9) a sheepsfoot roller
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density, i.e. the
mass
d=
ρ
of solids only per unit volume of soil. ρ w1 + The dry density after
comaction depends on the type of soil, the water content and the
effort supplied by the compaction

equipment.
Laboratory compaction tests

are:
1. Proctor test.
2. Modified AASHTO test.

2
3. Vibrating hammer test.
Dry density is plotted against water content as shown

below.
The curve shows that for a particular method of compaction (i.e., a particular
compactive effort) there is a particular value of water content, known as the

optimum
water content, wopt, at which a maximum value of dry density is obtained. If

all
the air in a soil could be expelled by compaction, the soil would be in a state of
full saturation. The maximum possible value of dry density is referred to as the
‘zero
air voids’ dry density or the ‘saturation’ dry density so

that,
In general:
Figure (1.11) Dry density-water content
relationship
The calculated relationships between ρd and w for different air contents can be
obtained.
2
Figure (1.12) Dry density-water content curves for different compactive
efforts
Figure (1.13) Dry density-water content curves for a range of soil

types.
Laboratory compaction tests are not directly applicable to field compaction; they
provide only a rough guide to the water content at which the maximum dry
density
will be obtained in the field. The main value of laboratory tests is in the
classification
and selection of soils for use in fills and

embankments.
2
Relative compaction: percentage of the field dry density after compaction
relative to
the maximum dry density in a particular laboratory test.
A number of methods for measuring bulk density in the field are recommended
elsewhere. The required standard of field compaction may be specified in terms
of
relative compaction; for example a specification may state that the dry density
should
not be less than 95% of the maximum dry density in the BS 2.5kg rammer test.
Example 1.3 Natural water content of a soil in the borrow areas is 8% and its
bulk density is 1.6 gm/cm3. This soil is to be used in construction of an
embankment. The specification
for embankment compaction require its water content to be 10% and dry density
of 1.65 gm/cm3. Compute the quantity of soil to be excavated per 100m3of the
s
embankment. The value of Gs is 2.7. solution:
ρ = w1G

e1 ( +
+ ) ρ w 6.1
=
08.017.2 e1 ( ++ b
)
e
=
V V
V Vv sV, s =
e v but V is constant (
s
) f or the borrow and embankment 6363.0

8225.0ρ w ⇒ 8225.0e b = ρ d
= e1G
s
+ ρ w 65.1, =
e1 7.2
+ ρ
w ⇒ 6363.0e e = e )V(
ev = v b , )V(

(V

bv v
) e =
8225.0 6363.0 = 2932.1
n
=
e1
n, e
+e
= 6363.1
V
6363.0 = 3888.0 = ( Vv ) e =
8225.1
V
= 4513.0 = (
V
Vb ) for 100m3 of embankment ( v) e = m88.38 3 ∴

× = m28.50 3
( 2932.188.38V
v ) b 4513.0 =
28.50 V
b∴ V b =

m41.111 3 e
n
b
8225.0 v b
2
CHAPTER TWO
SEEPAGE
2.1 Phase Relationships
The pressure of the pore water is measured relative to atmospheric pressure, and
the
surface within the ground at which the water is at atmospheric pressure is called
the
water table or more generally the phreatic surface. Artesian conditions may exist
sometimes.
Above the water table, water can be held at negative pressure by capillary
tension and
the zone affected by it is called the capillary zone. The soil between the ground
surface and the capillary zone forms the zone forms the zone of aeration. In this
zone
the soil is also able to retain small droplets of water, surrounded on all sides by
air.
This water known as contact moisture. The negative pressure of water in the
capillary
zone results in attractive forces between particles; this attraction is referred to as
soil
suction.
Bernoulli’s theorem applies to the pore water seeping through soil:
h
V
= g22 + γ
p
w
The velocity head can be neglected, thus
+Z
h
u = +
Z w γ h=total head, u=pore water pressure, γ w=9.8 kN/m3, Z=elevation
head above a
chosen datum.
2
2.2 Permeability
Darcy’s empirical law assuming a fully saturated soil and in one dimension.
Aki q
vq
=
Aki == q=volume of water per unit time, A=cross sectional area of soil ,
k=coefficient of
permeability, i=hydraulic gradient, v= discharge velocity.
k depends primarily on the average size of pores and for a given soil k is a
function of
void ratio.
k varies with temperature upon which the velocity of the water depends.
γ
k = ηwK η=viscosity of water, K= absolute coefficient depending only on the
soil skeleton.
Table (2.1) Coefficient of permeability (m/s) (BS 8004; 1986).
k values for different soils are within expected ranges for sands approximately.
mminD),s/m(D10k = 2-
10 2 10 The
average velocity at which the water flows
the soil pores is obtained by dividing
the volume of water flowing per unit time by the average area of voids. Av, on a
cross
section normal to the macroscopic direction of flow, this velocity is the seepage
velocity, V′:
v
q v
nA
ki
Av
nnv q
V A
An, v V′ ==≈ v ′ = = = Determination of the coefficient of permeability:
2
1. Laboratory methods:
a) Constant head permeability test for coarse-grained

soils:
• Disturbed specimen at the appropriate density is contained in a Perspex
cylinder of cross-sectional area A; the specimen rests on a coarse filter

or a
wire mesh.
• A steady vertical flow of water, under a

constant total head, is maintained through
the
soil and the volume of water flowing per unit
time (q) is measured.
• Tappings from the side of the cylinder enable

the hydraulic gradient (h/l) to be
measured.
• From Darcy’s law:

kiAq =
ql
k h lkq, =
Ahi = h lA =
b) Falling head permeability test for fine-grained
soils:
• Undisturbed specimens are normally tested and the containing cylinder in
the
test may be the sampling tube
itself.
• The length of the specimen is (l) and the cross-sectional area

A.
• Acoarse filter is placed at each end of the specimen and a standpipe of

internal
area (a) is connected to the top of the
cylinder.
• The water drains into a reservoir of constant level.
• The standpipe is filled with water and a measurement is made of the time (t1)
for the water level (relative to the water level in the reservoir) to fall from ho to
h1.
• At any intermediate time t the water level in the standpipe is given by h and
its
rate of change by (-dh/dt).
• At time t the difference in total head between the top and bottom of the
specimen is h. Then applying Darcy’s
law:
2
l-
h
dh
a dt = Ak -
a
h∫ 1∫ 1 dt h
o
∴ = = • Precautions must be taken to ensure that the degree of saturation

remains close to 100%.
• A series of test should be run using different
values of ho and h1 and/or standpipe of different

diameters.
c) Consolidation test:
2. Insitu methods:
a) Well pumping test
• This method is most suitable for use in homogeneous coarse soil strata.
• The procedure involves continuous pumping at a constant rate from a well,
normally
at least 300mm in diameter, which penetrates to the bottom of the stratum under
test.
• A screen or filter is placed in the bottom of the well to prevent ingress of soil
particles.
• Perforated casing is normally required to support the sides of the well.
• Steady seepage is established, radially towards the well, resulting in the water
table
being drawn down to form a cone of depression.
• Water levels are observed in a number of boreholes spaced on radial lines at
various
distances from the well.
• The test enables the average coefficient of permeability of the soil mass below
the
the cone of depression to be determined.
• Analysis is based on the assumption that the hydraulic gradient at any distance r
from the center of the well is constant with depth and is equal to the slope of the
water table.
dh
h= Ak
lt0
k
Atal 1
o
h
ln h
h o
13.2 At al
1 l
og h 1
2
rh2A, i
r
= dh drr = π rhk2q
= π dh
drq r ∫ 2r 1
dr r=hdhk2 π h2∫ h
1
lnq
=
r r12
- ( ( 22 1 2- For a confined stratum of thickness H, the

π=
π 22 hhk
( hh
)
area through which seepage takes place is rH2π , where r is variable and H is
constant. Then
()
( ) ( 12 ) 1 2 ) k
dh
r/rlogq3.2 12 ) r Hk2q = π dr∴
q
r∫ 2r 1
dr r= dhHk2 π h2∫ h

1
lnq
r r12
∴
= hhHk2 π 12 -
k
=
r/rlogq3.2 hhH2 π 12 - b) Bore hole tests
• The general principle is that water is either introduced into or pumped out of a
borehole which terminates within the stratum, the procedures being referred to as
inflow and out flow tests respectively.
• A hydraulic gradient is thus established causing seepage either into or out of the
soil
mass surrounding the borehole and the rate of flow is measured.
• In a constant head test (Fig, a), the water level is maintained throughout at a
given
level.
• In a variable head test (Fig, b) the water level is allowed to fall or rise from its
initial
position and the time taken for the level to change between two values is
recorded.
2
• The tests indicate that the permeability of the soil within a radius of only 1-2m
from
the center of the borehole.
• A problem in such tests is that clogging of the soil face at the bottom of the
borehole
tends to occur due to the deposition of sediment from the water. And to alleviate
the
problem, the borehole may be extended below the bottom of the casing (Fig, c),
increasing the area through which seepage takes place. The extension may be
uncased or supported by perforated casing depending on the type of soil. Another
solution is to install within the casing a central tube perforated at its lower end
and
set within a pocket of coarser material.
• Expressions for k depend on whether the stratum is unconfined or confined, the
position of the bottom of the casing within the stratum and details of the drainage
face in the soil.
• If the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability and if the borehole extends
below the bottom of the casing (Fig, c), then the horizontal k tends to be
measured.
• If the casing penetrates below soil level in the bottom of the borehole (Fig, d)
then
vertical k tends to be measured.
• For constant-head test
Fhq
k= c F=intake factor with values published by Hvorslev
• For a variable head test,

k=
ttF
h
( A3.2
12 - ) log
1
h
2.
• k for a coarse soil can also be obtained from insitu measurements of seepage
velocity. The method involves excavation uncased boreholes or trial pits at two
points A and B (Fig, e). Seepage taking place from A towards B. (i) is given by
the
difference in the steady-state water level in the boreholes divided by the distance
AB. Dye or any other suitable traced is inserted in to A and the time taken for the
Dye to appear in B is measured. The seepage velocity is then the distance AB
divide
nv ′
by the time. k = i, n=porosity from density tests.
2
2.3 Seepage theory
Assume soil is homogeneous and isotropic and the seepage is in two dimension
(X-Z
h h
plane). x k kiv x x ∂∂ - = = z k kiv z z ∂∂ - = =
Total head h decreasing in the direction of vx and

vz. Assume
a fully saturated
element dx dy dz.
q(entering the element)=vxdydz+vzdxdy q(leaving

the element)= dxdy dz zv v
dydz dx xv v z z x x │⎠⎞ │⎝

⎛
∂
∂ + │⎠⎞ │⎝⎛
∂
∂ +
Assume no volume change in the element and incompressible water then:
q(entering)-q(leaving)=0
v
0 zv x zx
= ∂∂ + ∂∂ (equation of continuity) ...(1)
2
dV Assume a volume change in the element per unit time= dt : ⎛ │⎝dV dt
v ∂
∂ x ∂x+ ∂v zz ⎞ │⎠dxdydz = Consider a function φ (x,z) called the
potential function such that,
∂∂φ x
∂h
= kv x = - ∂x∂ φ∂z
∂h
= kv z= - ∂z....(2) ∂∂ zx 2
φ 2+ ∂ ∂2 φ 2= 0 Upon integration of equation (2): φ )z,x(kh)z,x( = -
+constant
If the )z,x(φ i s given a constant value it will represent a curve on the x-z plane
along which the value of total head is constant. If )z,x(φ i s given a series of
constant values ( φ 321 etc...,,, φ

φ ) a family of curves is specified along
each of
which the total head is a constant value (h1,h2, h3,...etc). These curves are
called
equipotentials. Consider a second function ψ ( )z,x called the flow function
such that:
-
ψ
∂ ∂ x
∂h
= kv z = - ∂z-
∂h
∂ ∂ψz =
kv x= - ∂xd ψ=
∂ ∂ψ x dx
+ ∂ ∂ψ z dzvdxvdz
= - z + x If ψ ( )z,x is given a constant
dz v
0 ∴
value ψ 1, then dψ = dx = v
z
x ...(3)
2
The tangent at any point on the curve represented by ψ ( )z,x = ψ 1specifies

the direction of the resultant discharge velocity at that point: the curve represents
the flow path. If the function ψ
( )z,x is given a series of constant values ( ψ
321 etc...,,,
ψ ψ ) , a second family of curves is specified, each representing a
flow path. These curves are called flow lines.
∆
q
= ψ∫2ψ 1
( - dzvdxv z
+ x )
=
ψ
∫ 2ψ 1
dx ∂ dz
⎛ │⎝∂ ∂ψ x + ∂ψ z =
ψ
∂ =
ψ =
12 - constant dzvdxv
⎞ │ d ∂ φ
⎠ φ = ∂ x dx + ∂ φ dz
z
I f
+
)z,x(φ x is z constant then φd = 0
dz v
dx= -
vxz...(4) from equations (3) and (4) the flow
lines and the equipotentials interest
each other at right angles.
∂ x ∂
sinvv,cosvv x = α =
s z s α ∂ φ
∂
x s= ∂ φ
∂ ∂ zs+ ∂φ ( )()
s
z ∂
∂s=
=
cosv
xα + sinv z α =
cosv
s
=
2 α sinv s 2 α
+
v
∂ψ
s ∂
∂ x ∂ ∂ z
xn= ∂ψ ∂ ∂ zn+ ∂ψ ∂ n =
- sinv
z
- α + cosv x α =
- sinv s
α - sin α = cosv s 2 α v
2
∂
sn ∴ ∂ ∂ψ = ∂φ or approximately ∆
∆ψ sn = ∆
∆φ 2.4 Flow Nets
A flow net is a family of flow lines and a family of equipotentials. The flow net is
used to solve seepage problems.
In construction of a flow net:
1. Every intersection between a flow line and an equipotential must be at right
angles.
2. It is convenient that ψ∆ =
constant, φ∆ = constant
3. It is also convenient that:
∆ ns = ∆ (curvilinear square formed by flow lines and equipotentials).
h
Since ∆ ∆ ∆∴ ψ = ∆ φ s∆ ψ = ∆ ∆ φ = ∆ ∆∴ = ∆
∆ψ sn = ∆ φ i
h=difference in total head between the first and last equipotentials.
Nd=number of equipotentials drops, each representing the same total head loss
h∆ ,
Nh
Nf=number of flow channels, each carrying the same flow q∆ , ∆
h= d,q
∆
hkqhk = ∆and
h f
kNhkNqNq = f ∆ = f ∆ = Nd ∴
N f
khq = Nd
2
Example (1.2)
The figure shows a line of sheet piling driven 6m in to a stratum of soil 8.6m thick,
underlain by an impermeable stratum. On one side of the piling the depth of water
is
4.5m; on the other side the depth of water (reduced by pumping) is 0.5m. Draw
the
flow net and calculate the seepage
rate (q).
solution:
∆
h
h
= N d
h= 124 = m33.0 khq

=
N f Nd= 36.04k × × 3
γ
( ( ) ) =
γppw

( zh
+

) impervious boundary
upstream downstream
=
k44.1
m
sstream
h
p
=
d
N dh =
n 10 12× 4 = m33.3 u
pwp
=
h - - z p 1st trial
after several trials
not squares but the length to breadth ratio should be constant within the flow channel
2
Example 2.2
The section through a sheet pile wall along a tidal estuary is given in figure below.
At
low tide the depth of water in front of the wall is 4m; the water table behind the
wall
lags 2.5m behind tidal level. Plot the net distribution of water pressure on the
piling.
solution:
At level 4:
12m21.05.2 hb m83.15.2 = 128 × = f= × = The net pressure on the

h1
back of the piling is
-
9.155.521.08.95.583.18.9uu fb
= ( + ) - ( + ) = kN
m2
2
Example 3.2
A river bed consists of a layer of sand 8.25m thick overlaying impermeable rock;
the
depth of water is 2.5m. Along cofferdam 5.5m wide is formed by driving two lines
of
sheet piling to a depth of 6m below the level of the river bed and excavation to a
depth of 2m below bed level is carried out within the cofferdam. The water level
within the cofferdam is kept at excavation level by pumping the flow of water into
the cofferdam is 0.25m3 /hr per unit length. Find k of sand and I below excavated
surface.
solution:
df
N/Nh ( q
25.0 k =
) = 6010/65.4
s/m106.2
×× =
2 × - 5
s∆ b etween the last two equipotentials=0.9m

i =
h
∆ ∆s= 9.010
5.4 × =
5.0
2
Example 4.2
The section through a dam is shown in figure below. Determine the quantity of
seepage under the dam and plot the distribution of uplift pressure on the base of
the
dam. The coefficient of permeability of the foundation soil is s/m105.2 .
× 5-
solution:
)mper(s/m101.3 khq
=
N f Nd= 105.2 × -

7.4
5 × 0.4 × 15=
× -
35
2
2.5 Anisotropic soil conditions
kmax=maximum k value in the direction (x) of stratification k min=minimum k value in
the direction (z) normal to that of stratification k x=kmax and kz=kmin
h
ikv x = xx = - k x ∂ ∂h xkikv, z = zz = - ∂ z ∂z
in a direction s inclined at
angle α t o the x direction
h h ∂ h
kv s = - ∂ s ∂s∂ ∂ s= ∂
x∂
x ∂ h
∂ s+ ∂
∂
z
z v s
∂s ks=
kv
x z
xcos α

+ k zsin α sinvv,cosvv x =
v z =
s α ∴
s α
1
k s = cos
2α

+ x2
α k s 2
z∴ k
x 2
s= k x
z
+ k
2
v
zthe directional variation of permeability represent an ellipse ∂
x
∂x+ ∂ ∂v
equation of continuity
zz = 0
k kx zsin k
2
2
x 2z 2⎛ ││⎝h 0 ⎞ ││⎠∂∴ k ∂ ∂xh + k ∂ ∂z+ ∂ ∂= h = 0 ∂ 2

h
2
2 2xassume:
z
xx t = k kx∂ 2
h 2
∂x2t+ ∂ ∂z
h 2= 0 equation of continuity for an isotropic soil in the xt, z
2
This equation provides a scale factor in the x-direction which transforms a given
anisotropic flow region into a fictitious isotropic flow region.
A flow net may be drawn for the transformed section and then obtained for the
natural
section by applying the inverse of the scaling factor if the latter is necessarily
required.
Consider an elemental flow net field through the x-direction drawn to the
transformed
and natural scales.
kv
x
∂h h
= - ′ ∂∂ xh t =
- k x ∂x∂ ∂xt
= ∂ h
k z kx∂
k
∂=
z kx=
xk kk zx k/k
xz kk ′ = x k z kx∂ x kk
′
x
= ∂ x/h ∂
∂
z
/h k ∂ x x/h = kk
k
x zx k′is the equivalent isotropic coefficient which is the
value of the permeability
coefficient applying to the transformed section.
2.6 Non-homogeneous soil conditions
Assume that the two layers to be a single homogeneous anisotropic layer of
thickness
(H1+H2) in which the coefficients in the directions parallel and normal to that of
stratification are kandk x z respectively.

=
k
x
∂ ∂ x/h
2
1) Horizontal seepage
the equipotentials in each layer is vertical on the boundary H1=H2, then the
vertical line
through the two layers should be a common potential, thus ix is also
common. ikHkHikHHq
x =
( 1 +
xx2 ) (
= 11 + x22 ) k x = kHkH
11 HH
2 +2 2) Vertical seepage

1 + 2
The discharge velocity through each layer and the equivalent single layer should
be
the same to satisfy continuity:
ikikikv = = = i is the average I over (H
z 2211zz z 1+H 2)
i 1 = k z k1i z and i 2 = kk 2z i z loss

in head over (H1+H2) is equal to sum of
HiHi)HH(i + = +
losses in H1 and H2 1z 2 2211 =
ik
⎛ │ H ⎞ │
zz │⎝ k11 + H k22 │⎠∴
/HHk
H 1
1 2 ) ⎛ │
2
z (
= + k2 ⎞ ││⎠Similar procedure may be applied for
│⎝ k1 + H
any number of layers. Note that k xmust
always be greater than k zk x =

kHkHk 2211 + + 33
H1 ( H + ...... ) . ...HHHH = 1 +
2 +
3 +
k
z =
( k/Hk/Hk/H 11 ) + ( H 22 ) + ( 33 ) + ...... Tranfer condition:

If seepage takes place diagonally across the boundary between two isotropic
soils 1
and 2 having coefficient of permeability k1 and k2 respectively.
2
φ = - ,hk φ = - hk
22 1 211 at B , h1=h2: φ kk
1
1=
φ 2
1
2differentiating along the boundary, s sk1 ∂ ∂φ 1
1
= sk 2
∂ ∂ v v
φ 2 ∴ ks1 1=
1v
ks2 2for continuity of flow across the boundary ; vv
n1 =
n2
s1
k1 vn1=
1
k
vv
2
s2
n2
∴ tan

tan αα
1 k
2= k
1
2∆ = ∆
ψ ∆n
n hk
s ∆ φ

, ∆∴ = ∆ s ∆ If on both sides of the boundary each of q∆ and
q ∆
h∆ are equal.
∆
⎛ │⎝1 1
∆
n ∆s2 2 ⎞ │⎠k = ⎛ │⎝ n ∆s⎞ │⎠k curvilinear squares ⎛
∆
│⎝ ∆n
⎞ │ =
s ⎠ are possible in only one soil ∴ ⎛
1 1

∆n kk
│⎝ ∆s⎞ │ ⎠
2 =

1
22.7 Seepage through earth dams

In previous problems the boundary conditions were completely defined by the
physical boundaries of the problem. Sometimes the seepage is unconfined and
one
boundary of the flow region being a pheriatic surface (free surface flow) on which
the
pressure is atmospheric.
For example, the homogeneous isotropic earth dam on an impermeable
foundation.
2
On CD (top flow line) the total head is equal to the elevation head and there must
etween points of intersection with equipotentials.The boundary
be equal z∆ b
condition
of the flow region.
The function of the filter is to keep the seepage entirely within the dam; water
seeping
out onto the downstream slope would result in the gradual erosion of the slope.
2.8 Flow net of earth dams
Since the uppermost flow line (line of seepage) is phreatic, it cannot be
determined by
the physical boundaries. Therefore it should be located before the flow net can be
constructed.
Assume the flow lines to be confocal parabolas with the same focus at A, and the
equipotentials lines are conjugate confocal parabolas. The two families of
parabolas
satisfy the requirements of a flow net.
To locate the phreatic surface CD, make use of the property that the distance AP
from
the focus to any point P is equal to the distance PM from the point P to the
directrix.
xx2zx
22
+ = o - xxx4x4zx
22
+ = o 2 - o +
2 zx4xx4
o
= o 22
-∴
xx
= o
z 2
- x4 o
2
The known point of this parabola is at C because of the boundary condition. At C:
2
x1 ( )lhl lx2lh,lxandhz
= = - 22
+ = o + ∴
o= 2 +
2 - with x oknown, the various points on the basic parabola may be
calculated and the
flow net then drawn.
kx2q =
Using the complex variable theory: o It is recommended to take the initial
point at G where GC=0.3HC. The coordinates of

point G is then substituted in the equation to find x oand then plot the basic
parabola.
A correction CJ is made using personal judgment. The flow net can then be
completed.
If the discharge surface AD is not horizontal then the filter is neither a flow line
nor
an equipotential. A correction to the basic parabola must be made as in the figure
and
table below.
Table (2.2) Downstream correction to basic parabola. Reproduced from A.
Casagrande (1940) ‘Seepage through dams’, in Contributions to Soil Mechanics
1925-1940. by permission of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers
2
2.9 Seepage control in earth dams
High hydraulic gradients caused by seepage through the earth dam may erode
channels within the dam. The process of internal erosion is referred to as piping.
Thereby, a central core of low permeability may be used to reduce the volume of
seepage.
Erosion may take place at the downstream boundary if the core due to the high
exit
gradient. A chimney drain (filter) may provide a barrier to soil particles from the
core
also serves as an interceptor keeping the downstream slope in an unsaturated
state.
If the foundation soil is more permeable than the dam, use an impermeable
cut-off
such as grout curtain or an impermeable upstream blanket.
Most earth dams are non-homogeneous due to zoning therefore the transfer
condition
(
tan tan αα 1

k
2=
1
k2) must be satisfied at all zone boundaries.
2
2.10 Filter requirements
1) Small size for the pores to prevent particles being carried in from the adjacent
soil.
2) High k to allow rapid drainage.
Criteria
D
f=soil of filter , s=soil adjacent to filter (
) ( D85

) s 5to4

15 f 〈 ⇒to prevent piping (
D
) ( D15
D
) s 15 f 〉 5to4
(
) ( D50

) s 25
to ensure a sufficiently high k 50 f 〈
for drainage purposes
Filters comprising two or more layers with different grading can also be used:
such
arrangement is called a graded filter.
2.10 Frost heave
• Increase in volume of water due to freezing is 9% ⇒ V vincrease 9%, the
overall increase in volume of soil is 2.5%-5% depending on e.
• A greater increase in V may occur due to the formation of ice lenses.
• Water freezes initially in large pores, higher soil suction develops and water
migrates towards the ice in the larger voids where it freezes and adds to the
volume of ice causing the formation of ice lenses. The process continuous only
if the bottom of zone of freezing is within the zone of capillary rise.
• After thawing the soil contains an excess of water making it soft with a
reduced strength.
• The worst conditions for water migration occur in soils having a high
percentage of silt-size particles.
2
2.11 Grouting
• Grouting is the process used for reducing the permeability of coarse-grained
soils.
• The process consists of injecting suitable fluids, known as grouts, into the pore
space of the soil; the grout subsequently solidifies, preventing or reducing the
seepage of water.
• Grouting also results in an increase in the strength of the soil.
• Fluids used for grouting include mixes of cement and water, clay suspensions,
chemical solutions, such as sodium silicate or synthetic resins, and bitumen
emulsion.
• Injection is usually effected through a pipe which is either driven into the soil
or placed in a borehole and held with a packer.
• The particle size distribution of the soil governs the type of grout that can be
used.
Example 5.2
A homogeneous anisotropic embankment dam section is detailed in figure below,
k in
the x and z directions being
105.4 × - 8 and s/m106.1 , respectively. Construct the flow net and

× 8-
determine the quantity
of seepage through the dam. What is the pore water pressure at point P.
solution:
2
kz
6.0 kx= 6.1 5.4= The equivalent isotropic permeability is
k ′ = ( kk zx ) = ( 106.15.4 × ) × - 8 = s/m107.2 × - 8
m1.80.273.0HC3.0GC = = × = the coordinates of G are 0.18z,8.40x
= - = + -∴ x8.40
= o - 0.18 x4 o 2 Hence: m9.1xo =

using equation:
xx =
2
o
- x4z ox 1.9 0 -5.0 -10.0 -20.0 -30.0
z 0 3.8 7.24 9.51 12.9 15.57
hkq =

′ N f Nd= 107.2 × -
8 × 18 ×
-
8.3 18= s/m100.1 × 37
s/m100.19.1107.22xk2qor = ′ o = × × - 8 × = × - 37 Level AD is selected
as datum. An equipotentials RS is drawn through P. By
inspection the total head at P is 15.6m. At P the elevation head is 5.5m, so the
pressure head is 10.1m and the pore water pressure , uP is
m/kN991.108.9u P =

× = 2
2
CHAPTER THREE
EFFECTIVE STRESS
3.1 Introduction
solid particles incompressible
Soil water incompressible

air compressible
• Volume reduction is through escape or compression of air in the voids
provided there is scope for particle

rearrangement.
• In fully saturated soil, reduction is only possible if water is allowed to escape
from the voids.
• Shear stresses are resisted only by solid particles through forces developed
at
the inter-particle contacts.
• Normal stresses are resisted by solid particles and also by water in fully
saturated soil.
3.2 The principle of effective

stress
The principle which applies only to fully saturated soils relates the following three
stresses: 1) the total normal stress (σ ) on a plane within the soil mass, being
the force per unit
area transmitted in a normal direction

across
the plane. 2) the pore water pressure (u ) ,

being the
pressure of the water filling the void space
between the solid particles. 3) the effective

normal stress (σ′) on the
plane representing the stress transmitted

P
through the soil skeleton only. A , AN =
′ = ′ ∑ σ σ If point contact is assumed
between
particles, the pore pressure will act on the
2
plane over the entire area A (the total contact area is normally 1-3% of A)
∴ ,uANP
P ′
= ∑+′ A= ∑ AN + u It σ s hould =

be u
σ +′
understood that σ′does not represent the true contact stress between two
here a
particles, which would be the random but very much higher stress a/N′ w
is
the actual contact area between the particles.
Effective vertical stress due to self-weight of soil: σ v =
γ sat z
u will be
hydrostatic since the void space between the solid particles is continuous, zu
=
γ
w
σ
GS WT ∴ v
σ
′= v - u
=
( γsat
- γ w ) zz
= γ ′ z
where γ′is the buoyant unit weight of soil
3.3 Response of effective stress to a change in total stress
lateral confinement
increment of an increase in total vertical stress
immediate equal increment of increase in pore water pressure (excess u)
(no arrangement of particles due to lateral confinement) (undrained
condition)
transient flow (drainage) of pore water towarissipation of u)ds a
free-draining boundary until reaching a steady-state pore water pressure
rearrangement of particles with a resulting increase in the inter- particle
forces (increasing σ′)
ill be carried entirely by the soil skeleton (equal
increament of σ w
incremental increase in σ′) (drained condition)
2
• Particle rearrangement is largely irreversible upon a reduction in σ ( small
elastic strain is ignored), however limited expansion may occur specially if
appreciable proportion of clay minerals exist, this cause a negative u, the
process called swelling.
3.4 Consolidation
analogy
• The mechanics of the one-dimensional consolidation process can be
represented by means of a simple spring

analogy.
• The spring representing the compressible soil skeleton, the water in the
cylinder the pore water, the bore diameter of valve the permeability of the
soil.
• The cylinder itself simulates the condition of no lateral strain in the soil.
Assuming water to be
incompressible.
• If load applied on the piston with the valve closed, the load will be carried by
the water. The situation with the valve closed corresponds to the
undrained
condition in the soil.
• If the valve is now opened, water will be forced out through the valve at a
rate
depends on bore diameter. The piston will move and the spring will
compressed as load gradually transferred to

it.
• Eventually all the load will be carried by the spring and the piston will come
to
rest, this corresponding to the drained condition in the

soil.
• At any time, the load carried by the spring is the effective stress in the soil,
the
pressure of water in the cylinder the pore water pressure and the load on
the
piston the total stress.
• The movement of the piston represents the change in volume of the soil and
is
governed by the compressibility of the

spring.
2
3.5 Partially saturated soils
• In the case of partially saturated soils part of the void space is occupied by
water and part by air.
• The pore water pressure (uw) must always be less than the pore air pressure
(ua) due to surface tension.
• Unless the degree of saturation is close to unity the pore air will form
continuous channels through the soil and the pore water will be
concentrated in
the regions around the interparticles

contacts.
• The effective stress equation for partially saturated soils: ( ) wa a uu

u--
+′ = χ σ σ where χ =a parameter, to be determined experimentally, related
to Sr of the
soil. ( ) wa uu
- =a measure of the suction in
the soil.
• For a fully saturated soil( )1Sr = , χ =1; and for a completely dry soil, χ =0, (
)0Sr = . Example 1.3
A layer of saturated clay 4m thick is overlain by sand 5m deep, the water table
being
3m below the surface. ( ) sat γ of the clay and sand are 19 and 20 3 m/kN ,
respectively; above the water table ( ) γ of the sand is 17 3 m/kN . Find the
values of
total vertical stress and effective vertical stress against depth. If sand to a height
of
1m above the water table is saturated with capillary water, how are the above
stresses
affected.
solution:
The alternative calculation of vσ′ at depths of 5 and 9m is as

follows:
3
γ γ ′ = buoyant of
sand = m/kN2.108.920 = -
2
3
γ γ ′ = buoyant of
clay = m/kN2.98.919 = -
= × + × = ′σ
At 5m depth: ( ) ( ) 2 v m/kN4.712.102173
At
9m depth: ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 v m/kN2.1082.942.102173

=×+×+
× = ′σ
Effect of capillary rise: The only effect of 1m capillary rise, therefore, is to

increase
3
f sand between 2 and 3m depth from 17 to 20
the tγ o m/kN , an increase of 3
3m/kN . vσ nd vσ′ below 3m depth are therefore increased by

a
2
m/kN0.313 = × , u b eing unchanged.
3.6 Influence of seepage on effective

stress
u u
h z z ,h hh A wA B wB A B ∆-
+ = + ∆-
= γ γ
│ ⎞ │ ⎛ u
│ ⎠ │ ⎝ ∆- - + = hzz u BA

wA wB γ γ ( )hzz uu BAwA B ∆-

-
- ( )h
+ = γ θ sinbzz BA =
sinb uu wA B ∆-
+ = ∴ θ γ
( uu C = wA + γ sinb θ + cosb θ ∆- )h uu D = wA + γ cosb θ ∴ uuuu

AB - = wDC - = γ ( s inb θ ∆- )h uuuu AD - = wBC - = γ cosb θ boundary
water force on BC = γ
=
w (
s inb θ

∆ - )

b h
= γ
w sinb
2 θ

∆ - bh γ
w boundary water force on C
D
γ

γ w cosb 2 θ if there is no seepage, the forces would be γ w sinb2 θ and w

cosb2 θ
the resultant
γ
w
242sinb
( θ + cos 2 θ ) = γ w b 2 ∴seepage

force, bhJ = ∆ γ w(acting in the direction of flow)

seepage force: the frictional drag on the solid particles, acting in the direction of
flow,
caused by the water seeping through pores.
i=∆ bh J, = ∆ 2 VibiJ = γ w 2

bh γ wb = γ w , Vis the volume of soil
element seepage pressure j i s the
ij = γ , j d epends on i
seepage force per unit volume w
The resultant body force:

1) Total (saturated) weight + resultant boundary water force, or
2) Effective (buoyant) weight + seepage force
The quick condition:
Critical hydraulic gradient, i c: the value of hydraulic gradient corresponding to
zero
γ
resultant body force. VVi wc = γ ′ ∴ i c = γγ
′
w = 1G e1
-
s +
2
if i cis reached the soil would be in the quick condition and the sand surface will
appear to be boiling, the effective normal stress on any plane will be zero.
Conditions adjacent to sheet piling:
i
m
=
hh DC - d AB = 0h

=h i i
DC d - i m dm F = i c
m exit ii ∆h s)AEFG( F =
= eie = ∆
icePractically no significant difference between
the two factors of safety (average h along the
boundary CD is hm) calculation

of the resultant body force
(combination of gravity and seeping forces):
1) total weight (ABCD) =
1 d 2
2γ sat CDonu =γ mw ( )dh + Boundary water force on CD = d
γ 2w
)dh( m + ∴
Resultant body force of
2
( ABCD =
2(
1 2γ sat d 2 - d ) dh m + ( ) γ w )
1 2d 1
2dh=
1 2γ
+′ γ w d 2 - 1 2ddh m + 2 γ w =
γ
′ 2 - wm γ or
2) effective weight )ABCD( =

2
1 2γ′ d
average i through ABCD = h
dm Seeping force on ABCD =
h d
dm γ w 22
=1
2dhwm γ Resulting body force of ABCD = 1 2γ ′ d 2 - 1

2dhwm γ , heaving
1 d 2 γ
will take place
when 1 2dhwm γ

= 2γ ′ ∴ F = d5.0 ′ 2 dh5.0
wm
γ= γ
′dh
i
wm
γ= i
e
m
Example 2.3 The flow net for seepage under a sheet pile wall is shown in figure
below, the
3
saturated unit weight of the soil being 20 m/kN . Determine the values of σ′ vat
A
and B. Determine also F against failure by heaving adjacent to the downstream
face
γ = m/kN20 3 of the soil.
of the piling. sat
2
solution:
1- considering the combination of total weight and resultant boundary water
force. m5.58 A = × = m7 zA - = , (

122.8 h ) ( ) 2 AAwA
m/kN12275.58.9zh u = + = - =γ
boundary water force on
bottom surface= kN122
net vertical boundary water force= kN8339 122 =

-
total weight of the column= kN220
vertical component of resultant body force= kN137 83 220

=-
2 A m/kN137
= ′σ
or
2 w sat A m/kN259
39 220 4 11 = + = + = γ
γσ
2 A m/kN122
u = 2 AA A m/kN137
122 259 u =
- = - = ′ σ σ 2 wat sat B m/kN1308.9120
16=
- = + = γ γ σ m7 hB - = ( ) ( ) 2 BBwB
m/kN8476.18.9zh u = + = - =γ
2 BB B m/kN4684
130 u = - = - = ′ σ σ
2- considering the combination of effective weight and seepage
force.
number of equipotential drops between D and

A=3.8
loss in total head between D and A m5.28 128.3
=×=
Average value of vertical component of seepage pressure between D and A,
acting in
3
the same direction as gravity m/kN3.28.9 115.2 =
×=
γ′of soil, ′γ = m/kN2.108.920 - = 3 for column AD, of unit area, resultant body
force = ) = ′σ A = m/kN137 2 for point B:
kN1373.22.1011 ( +
loss in total head between B and C = 4.2

12× m6.18
= Average
value of
vertical component of seepage pressure between B and C, acting in
3 ′σ =
the opposite direction to gravity = 6.1
6× m/kN6.28.9 = hence, B
m/kN466.22.106 - = 2
( ) Now the stability of the soil mass EFGH is
analyzed
c
3.2 6= 39.0 i = γγ
5.3 12× m3.28 = im =
hm =
′= =
w 2.10 8.9 04.1 F
=
i
i mc = 04.1 39.0
= 7.2
2

Soilmechanics I: Asst. Prof. Dr. Qassun S. Mohammed Shafiqu

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Soilmechanics I: Asst. Prof. Dr. Qassun S. Mohammed Shafiqu

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SOILMECHANICS I

Asst. Prof. Dr. Qassun S.

In civil engineering, soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of

Based on its method of formation, a soil

1- ​Residual : when the products of weathering remain at their original

2- ​Sedimentary : when the individual particles were created at one location,

3- ​Fill : when it is a man-made soil deposit.

What is Soil Mechanics ?

engineering properties and the behavior of soils under

Why Studying Soil Mechanics

roads) or retaining soil (e.g. walls) or constructed of soil (e.g.

or passing through soil (e.g. tunnels). Soil mechanics becomes an

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

soil from rock. This process may be physical or

of the parent rock. The structural arrangement of particles is described as “Single

without there being any bond or cohesion between them as shown

Montmorillonite) are formed by the stacking of combinations of the sheet

with different forms of bonding between the combined

particle by hydrogen bonding and by attraction to the negative charged

1- Repulsive forces due to like charges on the surface of particles. Net

gives a dispersed structural form of

attraction gives a flocculent structural form of

limits regardless of their mineralogical

particles are present, they usually exert a considerable influence on the

soil, an influence out of all proportion to their percentage by weight in the

1.2 Particles Size

weight of particles within the different size

to as coarse-grained. The particle size distribution of such soils can be

having successively smaller mesh

uniformity, ​C​u ​and the coefficient of curvature, ​C​z ​defined as:

represented by means of the liquidity index, I​L​,

‘Reddish-brown, dense, homogeneous, well-graded, clean sand consisting

primary and secondary descriptive

Primary Letter Secondary Letter

G Gravel W Well graded

M Silt M Non-plastic fines

C Clay C Plastic fines

O Organic L Low plasticity

Pt Peat H High plasticity

The unified soil classification system refers to the plasticity

A procedure is recommended for field classification which includes the manual

dilatancy (reaction to shaking), dry strength, and

Figure (1.6) Plasticity chart

below. The results of limit tests on soil D

Determine the coefficients of uniformity and curvature of soils A, B and C. (b)

group symbols, with main and qualifying to each

content, to the nearest integer, corresponding to a penetration of 20mm is the LL

Soil A: Coarse fraction=99%, coarser than 2mm=76%, 76/99=77%

components of a soil can be represented by a phase diagram as shown in Figure

soil, S​r​=1, then e=wG​s

the above equations for ρ are valid for γ.

γ ​- ​γ ​+= s​ ​- e1 ​+​γ w ​ ​Relative density, RD, is used to express the

​ ​-​- e ​Procedures are recommended for determination of the maximum

sample is 2035gm. The

m/kN5.19m/N19500 3​ ​= 3​ ​Water content, ​w

s​ ( ​+ )​ ​ρ ​ρ​w ​- 125.168.21 = ⎛​ ​│⎝× × 1000

Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the

closer together with a reduction in the volume of air; there is no significant

the volume of water in the soil.

Field ​compaction means

b. Sheepsfoot Depending on the type of soil.

2. Vibrators coarse grained soils.

3. Rammers small areas and where access is difficult.

1- Residual : when the products of weathering remain at their original

2- Sedimentary : when the individual particles were created at one location,

3- Fill : when it is a man-made soil deposit.

uniformity, Cu and the coefficient of curvature, Cz defined as:

represented by means of the liquidity index, IL,

soil, Sr=1, then e=wGs

γ - γ += s - e1 +γ w Relative density, RD, is used to express the

-- e Procedures are recommended for determination of the maximum

m/kN5.19m/N19500 3 = 3 Water content, w

s ( + ) ρ ρw - 125.168.21 = ⎛ │⎝× × 1000

Field compaction means

Laboratory compaction tests

water content, wopt, at which a maximum value of dry density is obtained. If

) f or the borrow and embankment 6363.0

• Disturbed specimen at the appropriate density is contained in a Perspex

• A steady vertical flow of water, under a

• Tappings from the side of the cylinder enable

• The length of the specimen is (l) and the cross-sectional area

• Acoarse filter is placed at each end of the specimen and a standpipe of

• The water drains into a reservoir of constant level.

∴ = = • Precautions must be taken to ensure that the degree of saturation

values of ho and h1 and/or standpipe of different

- ( ( 22 1 2- For a confined stratum of thickness H, the

dr r= dhHk2 π h2∫ h

• For a variable head test,

Total head h decreasing in the direction of vx and

q(entering the element)=vxdydz+vzdxdy q(leaving

dydz dx xv v z z x x │⎠⎞ │⎝

constant values ( φ 321 etc...,,, φ

The tangent at any point on the curve represented by ψ ( )z,x = ψ 1specifies

h= 124 = m33.0 khq

12m21.05.2 hb m83.15.2 = 128 × = f= × = The net pressure on the

s∆ b etween the last two equipotentials=0.9m

N f Nd= 105.2 × -

kmax=maximum k value in the direction (x) of stratification k min=minimum k value in

x 2z 2⎛ ││⎝h 0 ⎞ ││⎠∂∴ k ∂ ∂xh + k ∂ ∂z+ ∂ ∂= h = 0 ∂ 2

xz kk ′ = x k z kx∂ x kk

stratification are kandk x z respectively.

2 +2 2) Vertical seepage

i 1 = k z k1i z and i 2 = kk 2z i z loss

always be greater than k zk x =

( k/Hk/Hk/H 11 ) + ( H 22 ) + ( 33 ) + ...... Tranfer condition:

22.7 Seepage through earth dams

tan tan αα 1

105.4 × - 8 and s/m106.1 , respectively. Construct the flow net and

= o - 0.18 x4 o 2 Hence: m9.1xo =

the plane. 2) the pore water pressure (u ) ,

′ = ′ ∑ σ σ If point contact is assumed