EL1- Chemical elements

Relative atomic mass= Atomic mass x Relative abundance

m Total abundance

Mass spectrometry

1. Sample ionised by knocking off 1 or 2 electrons

2. Ions are accelerated so they all have the same kinetic energy
3. Ions are deflected by a magnetic field, more charged= more deflection
4. Beam of ions deflected is detected electrically along with their relative abundance

 Ions need a vacuum so they have a free run without hitting air molecules

EL2- Spectroscopy
Absorption spectroscopy
 Chromosphere- region by a stars surface containing ions, atoms and small molecules
 The chromosphere absorbs some of the emitted radiation from the star
 These absorption lines are black on the spectrum because those frequencies have been
absorbed

Emission spectroscopy

 When the ions and molecules in the chromosphere absorb energy, they raise to higher energy
states
 They lose this extra energy by emitting electromagnetic radiation
 These appear as coloured lines on a black background
 Each element has a unique emission spectrum
 The intensities of these lines measure the elements abundance

Bohr’s Theory

 Electrons can only exist in definite energy levels

 A photon of light is emitted or absorbed when the electron changes electron level
 The energy of the photon= difference between energy levels
 EL3- Electron configuration

EL4- Periodic Table

 The modern periodic table is based around one proposed by Mendeleev in 1869
 He arranged elements by Relative Atomic Mass but now we use Atomic Number (protons)
 As you go across a period, atomic radius decreases and ionisation energy increases

Ionisation energy- amount of energy required to remove an electron

Atomic radius- distance between nucleus and outer electron

EL5- Covalent bonding

 VSEPR Theory- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
 Shells containing similar charges repel as far as possible
 VSEPR leads to molecular shapes e.g. H₂O as a bent molecule

2 lone pairs
2 covalent bonds

 VSEPR only for covalent bonds

 Includes dative covalent bonds

Dative covalent bond- where one of the bonding pairs is donated from ONE of the atoms

Triple bond with dative

covalent bond.
 EL6- Measuring substances
 32g of Oxygen gas= 1 mol of O₂ molecules or 2 moles of oxygen

Avogadro’s constant- 6.02 x 10²³ formula units per mole

EL7- Salts
Ionic bonding- electron transferred between atoms, usually metal to a non-metal

Precipitate- the solid formed in an ionic equation

Covalent network- series of covalent bonds to form a larger molecule e.g. diamonds, oxygen

Acid + base salt + water

Acid + metal salt + hydrogen

Acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water

EL8- Group 2 elements

 2nd ionisation energy- energy to remove a 2nd electron
 Generally higher than 1st ionisation energy

Shielding- more electrons between the outer electron and the nucleus, causing it to be removed
more easily

 When you create a new orbital, the first electron will be unstable and ionisation energy will
be low
EL9- Neutralisation
 Silicon dioxide shares similar properties to diamond
 A H+ ion is a proton
 A base is a proton acceptor, producing water and a salt
 An acid is a proton donor
 H+ ions are donated to water in an aqueous solution
 The negative pole of the water (the oxygen atom) is attracted to the H+ ion

Oxonium ion- H₃O+, formed by an acid dissolved in water

Amphoteric- substance that acts as both an acid and a base

C₁V₁ = C₂V₂ N = CV

HCl (aq) + H₂O (l) H₃O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)