Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Review

Activating flux tungsten inert gas welding for enhanced weld

penetration
R.S. Vidyarthy ∗ , D.K. Dwivedi
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttrakhand 247667, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The flux assisted GTAW or A-TIG process developed at the Paton Welding Institute in 1960. Despite
Received 5 January 2016 capable of offering a penetration up to 5–6 mm in a single pass weld, it could not find enough space in
Received in revised form 4 March 2016 industrial applications, primarily due to few inherent unfavorable features: (a) two-step nature of the
Accepted 21 March 2016
process, (b) poor weld-bead and (c) poor electrode life. High penetration capability of A-TIG process has
fascinated researchers and renewed the research interest in last one decade. In the present work, attempts
Keywords:
have been made to analyze and review the literature published with respect to (a) advancement of various
A-TIG
hypotheses to explain the reasons for high penetration achieved using A-TIG, (b) effect of input process
Flux
Weld bead geometry
parameters related to GTAW and A-TIG, (c) effect of chemical composition and various alloying elements
Review paper in steel on penetration achieved by A-TIG, (d) feasibility studies of A-TIG on ferrous and non-ferrous
metals and (e) technological problems associated with A-TIG. In light of the above, the present review
will help in (a) highlighting the future scope of research in A-TIG to enhance its industrial application
and (b) to develop systematic understanding of various technological factors determining the capability
of this process.
© 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2. Mechanism of A-TIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.1. Reversal of the Marangoni convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2.2. Arc constriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3. Methods opted for flux deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4. Factors affecting the A-TIG performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.1. Forces acting in A-TIG welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.2. Welding related process parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.1. Welding current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.2. Welding speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.3. Arc length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.2.4. Electrode geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.2.5. Shielding gas composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.3. Properties of the metal to be welded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.3.1. Thickness of the plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.3.2. Composition of metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.4. Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5. Recent development in TIG process to enhance the depth of penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9548204386.

E-mail address: vidyashanker01@gmail.com (R.S. Vidyarthy).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.03.012
1526-6125/© 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
212 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
1. Introduction
Gas tungsten arc (GTA) or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding pro-
cess is one of the most common fabrication processes employed
for welding of stainless steels, titanium alloys, aluminum alloys
and other non-ferrous metals because of its good quality welds
and low cost equipment. It is popular to weld thin sections and
can be used for various welding positions such as horizontal, verti-
cal and overhead. The process is also popular to produce a smooth
and clean weld. Although the process attributes several advantages,
low weld penetration renders it less appropriate for industrial use.
To overcome the limitation of low penetration in a single pass,
groove design and Multipass is required to weld thick sections
which decrease productivity of the process. Additional costs are
incurred on edge preparation and filler metals required to fill the
groove joints.
Several attempts have been made to improve the productiv-
ity of GTA welding process. Activated flux with GTA welding has
been successfully used to improve productivity of the process. The
process is also known as flux assisted GTAW (F-GTAW) and A-TIG
welding process. Use of fluxes in GTA welding was first proposed by
Paton Electric Welding Institute of National Academy of Sciences,
Ukraine in the mid-1960s [1–13]. In this process a thin layer of
flux is deposited on the surface that is to be welded, followed by
the TIG welding process. Fluxes used in this process are generally
oxides, chlorides and fluorides. Fluxes are deposited on the sur-
face after mixing it with suitable solvent like acetone or ethanol in
proper proportion with the help of a brush or by spraying as shown
in Fig. 1. The width of the layer is generally kept in the range of
10–15 mm [2,3,14].
The first paper on the use of activated flux for welding with tung-
sten inert gas welding in argon shielding (TIG) process appeared in
the literature in the 1950s and 1960s. At that time, these fluxes were
intended for welding of the titanium and its alloys. Initial studies on
use of activating fluxes with tungsten electrodes on titanium were
made for reducing the porosity in the welds by utilizing the fluxes
[7]. Soon after that, it was successfully applied for high strength
steels by Paton Electric welding institute, Kiev. Paton electric weld-
ing institute demonstrated that activating fluxes also affects the
weld fusion zone geometry and penetration depth along with the
enhanced mechanical properties. Towards the end of the 1960s,
the process got popularity in armaments and aircraft industries
[7,14]. Later, activating flux in TIG welding process was successfully
applied on ferrous and non-ferrous materials for deeper penetra-
tion and with equivalent or better mechanical properties. Further,
for many years, the A-TIG welding process had limited applica-
tion in industry for a variety of unknown reasons. The process was
rediscovered in 1990 when experts from E O Paton electric weld-
ing institute presented on A-TIG at TWI (British welding institute)
in Abington, Cambridge. This incident triggered another round of
investigations into the use of A-TIG welding process for the welding
of stainless steel, titanium and nickel alloys [15]. Since then many
articles on the various aspects of A-TIG welding process have been
Fig. 1. Schematic of processing of A-TIG.
published [1–8,10–88]. The detail of the depth of penetration as
reported by various researchers in different materials with A-TIG
welding process is summarized in Fig. 2.
The present work provides an assessment, based on the publi-
cations, merits and limitations in welding different materials with
activating flux. The present work has been organized under the
following headings for better understanding.
1. Introduction
2. Mechanism behind A-TIG
2.1 Reversal of Marangoni convection
2.2 Arc constriction
3. Methods opted for flux deposition
4. Factors affecting the process capability of A-TIG performance
4.1 Forces in weld pool and arc zone
4.2 Welding related process parameters
4.2.1 Welding current
4.2.2 Welding speed
4.2.3 Arc length
4.2.4 Electrode geometry
4.2.5 Shielding gas composition
4.3 Properties of the metal to be welded
4.3.1. Thickness of the metal
4.3.2. Composition of metal
4.3.2.1. Ferrous
4.3.2.2. Non ferrous
4.4 Flux
5. Recent advancement in the A-TIG
6. Conclusion
2. Mechanism of A-TIG
TIG welding with activated flux has resulted in a dramatic
enhancement in the depth of penetration as compared to the con-
ventional TIG process with the same input parameters. Various
forces in arc zone like gravity force, drag force due to arc, electro-
magnetic force due to current flow, etc. should be similar for same
process parameters in both the cases. The mechanism of increased
penetration depth with flux in the weld pool is discussed in the
following section.
The use of flux in TIG welding to improve the properties of tita-
nium alloys in argon-arc welding was first reported by Gurevic
et al. [89,90]. An improvement in the weld penetration of titanium
alloys using an oxygen free activated flux was also reported in same
work. After this, a number of researchers have been published on
the understanding of the mechanism of higher penetration with
constricted weld width during the welding of titanium and steels
with different fluxes [3–7,27,30,91]. However, Tanaka et al. [30] did
not observe any constriction in arc using flux during A-TIG welding
of water cooled copper. It was also seen that the non-arc processes
such as electron beam welding and laser welding produced variable
penetration [25]. Subsequently researchers started to explore the
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 2. Depth of penetration on various materials.
other responsible mechanism for increased depth of penetration.
Then after reversal of Marangoni flow come into consideration in A-
TIG welding. After a thorough exercise on the probable forces that
can affect the penetration, it was concluded that the higher penetra-
tion could be due to changes in fluid flow direction [11–14,25,92].
Thereafter, reversal of Marangoni convection and arc constriction
evolved as the most accepted phenomena for higher penetration
depth during flux assisted TIG welding.
2.1. Reversal of the Marangoni convection
Marangoni convection, also known as surface-tension driven
convection or thermo capillary convection, can have a dramatic
effect on the penetration depth of the weld. This phenomenon was
first proposed by James Thomson in 1855 [93]. The phenomenon
got its name on the name of Carlo Marangoni who further investi-
gated it in 1865 [7]. According to this theory, the direction of fluid
flow depends on the surface tension gradient in the fluid. Fluids
flow from low surface tension region towards the high surface ten-
sion region. The strength of thermo-capillary flow is determined
by the Marangoni number (Ma), which is non-dimensional and
expressed by Eq. (1) where dT/dx is the temperature gradient,  is
the viscosity, a is the thermal diffusivity and L is the characteristics
length [25].
d dT L2
Ma =
dT dx a
The effect of Marangoni forces was first proposed in welding to
understand the problems encountered in the case of “cast to cast”
variations or variable penetration. The problem “variation in pene-
tration” observed during autogenous tungsten inert gas welding of
stainless and ferritic steel was first identified in 1960. This problem
was severe in case of robotic welding due to requirement of higher
weld penetration and repetitive work. It was reported that welds on
some batches of steel exhibit lower penetration than normal while
other batches exhibit higher, despite all batches were meeting the
material specification requirements [25].
A number of attempts had been made to co-relate the “cast to
cast” variation and systematic variations in the concentrations of
specific minor or impurity elements in the metal. It was suggested
that a small amount of impurities or elements in composition of
steel can result in large changes in arc characteristics and the sur-
face properties of the weld pool [14,23,91]. Ishizaki [94] proposed
213
Fig. 3. Variation of surface tension with sulfur content.
that surface tension gradient (d/dT) across the weld pool could
affect the convective flow in the weld pool. The presence of surface
active elements like sulfur and oxygen in the steel causes the alter-
ations in surface tension () in the weld pool illustrated in Fig. 3.
It reverses the surface tension gradient (d/dT) in the weld pool
which makes the surface tension higher at the center of weld pool
that decreases gradually towards outer section [25].
Roper et al. [95] correlated the effect of a small amount of sur-
face active elements on the surface properties of the weld pool with
interfacial energy. Heiple et al. [96] studied the effect of the surface
active elements with the fluid flow motion in the weld pool. And
developed a theory that the direction and the magnitude of thermo
capillary forces decide the fluid flow direction in the weld pool
consequently affect the depth of penetration. The thermo-capillary
forces can be controlled by the concentration of the surface active
elements such as sulfur and oxygen in the metal. It was observed
that as the concentration of the surface active elements exceed a
particular amount (about 50 ppm), the temperature coefficient of
surface tension (d/dT) changes from negative to positive value.
Since the flow of fluid in weld pool occurs from lower surface ten-
sion () region to higher surface tension () region, triggers the
circulation flow in the molten weld pool as shown in Fig. 4. In case
of pure metals, including steels and other iron alloys, with low sul-
fur and oxygen contents the surface tension decreases with increase
in temperature that is a negative surface tension gradient (d/dT).
It promotes the molten metal surface flow in a radially outward
(1) direction which in turn makes the weld bead shallow and wider as
shown in Fig. 4A.
Keene et al. [97] studied the relation between surface tension
and molten metal flow direction in weld pool and indicated that
all systems exhibit a maximum positive surface tension gradi-
ent (d/dT) at some temperature. Further increase of temperature
results gradual decrease in the surface tension, combination of
these produces a complex flow similar to that shown in Fig. 5. Simi-
lar type of study done by other researchers, and reported increased
penetration depth using A-TIG, the same was attributed to reversal
of Marangoni convection in the weld pool [6,30,35].
The above discussion suggests that the trace presence of the
minor alloying elements in the weld pool can reverse the surface
tension gradient in the weld pool; this effect is described by the
name of reversal of Marangoni convection in published literature.
Reversal in Marangoni convection promotes molten metal’s fluid
flow from the fusion boundary to the center of the weld pool. A
combination of fluid flow from the fusion boundary towards the
214 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 4. Proposed fluid flow on and below the weld pool surface: (A) negative surface tension temperature coefficient; (B) positive surface tension temperature coefficient.
Fig. 5. Schematic illustrating the Keene theory for mixed flow.
center and the pressure of the arc turn it in the direction of the
arc as shown in Fig. 4B. These forces combine and work together
to increase penetration by transferring heat from top to bottom
effectively. Further, it was observed that this reversal of Marangoni
convection is effective only up to a limit of temperature after which
complex behavior of fluid is expected in the weld pool.
2.2. Arc constriction
During TIG welding when the TIG torch moved toward the flux
coated surface from bare surface the diameter of the plasma arc
column get reduced. This phenomenon was described as an arc con-
striction in A-TIG welding process. A reduced arc or anode root area
increased the current density and hence the heat density increased,
which produces narrower and deeper weld than conventional TIG
welding.
Tanaka et al. [12] reported the presence of blue luminous plasma
in both with and without flux in TIG welding. This blue luminous
plasma was of metal vapor from the weld pool around the arc. The
peripheral area of the blue luminous plasma in A-TIG was con-
stricted as compared to the conventional TIG [12,30]. Dong et al.
[51] recorded the video during the welding and reported that as
TIG arc approaches the flux coated region a kind of blue vapor rose
from the surface of the weld pool to the electrode. These vaporized
gases encompass the arc plasma and constrict it from the periph-
ery (Fig. 6). Tseng et al. [30] compared the arc constriction caused
by SiO2 and TiO2 during the TIG welding of 316L. More arc con-
striction was observed with SiO2 than in case of TiO2 and the same
was explained on the basis of electronegativity of the fluxes. Sili-
cone (Pauling scale: 1.90) being of more electronegativity than the
Titanium (Pauling scale: 1.54) absorbs more electrons in the outer
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of arc constriction.
region of an arc column, and shaped better constricted arc column
[63].
In general, the electronegativity of the halides and other sur-
face active elements was believed to promote the arc constriction;
however, this concept has also some contradiction. Skvortsov [26]
studied the mechanism of arc constriction and its effect on the weld
penetration depth in TIG welding and explained it with reference of
electronegativity of the flux used. It was reported that the addition
of halides affect the partial pressure of the electron gas in the arc
column shown in Fig. 7. This demonstrated that the halide vapor
absorb the electrons from the arc column. But he raised the other
part also that with the same halide for example fluorine in differ-
ent form (KF, NaF and CaF2 ) effect the partial pressure differently
and also the arc constriction was not same. On the basis of finding,
Skvortsov concluded that it is impossible to shape any quantita-
tive relationship between the ionization of the arc column and its
contraction.
Marya et al. [13] examined the effect of chloride as flux using
bead on plate A-TIG welding of wrought AZ21 magnesium alloy
and depicted that the metal vapor from the anode region spread
sidewise in the presence of chlorides.
From published literature, it can be summarized that absorp-
tion of electrons from the arc column by vapors coming from the
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 7. Variation in partial pressure of electron gas and negative ions of Halides (1
and 5 with “KCl” flux, 2 with “Ti”, 3 and 4 with “KF” flux).
activated fluxes during welding offers two effects (due to the more
electron affinitive character):
(a) Reduction in number of charged particles in arc.
(b) Pushing of the arc column radially inward by more electroneg-
ative charged vapor.
Both these factors in turn lead to arc constriction.
3. Methods opted for flux deposition
The activating fluxes of micro size are mixed with either acetone
or ethanol to form a paste, which is applied on the surface of the
material to be welded. The paste can be applied with a brush or with
an aerosol applicator like a spray shown in Fig. 8(b) [27,92]. Patent
filed by Matthew et al. [98] used a polymeric binder and suggested
that it can be applied to the weld zone as a hot melt, paint, tape,
adhesive, rod, wire or a stick.
4. Factors affecting the A-TIG performance
4.1. Forces acting in A-TIG welding
Four types of forces have been so reported to affect the pen-
etration during A-TIG welding, namely, (a) Marangoni forces; (b)
Electromagnetic or Lorentz forces; (c) Buoyancy forces; and (d)
Aerodynamic drag forces [23,25,91,93].
Marangoni forces: James Thomson (1855) proposed this force in
his article “On certain curious Motions at the Surfaces of Wine and
Fig. 8. Techniques for applying the activating flux in the A-TIG process (a) a brush and (b) a spray.
215
Fig. 9. Marangoni convection in (a) Conventional TIG and (b) A-TIG welding process.
Fig. 10. Direction of (a) Electromagnetic or Lorentz force and (b) Buoyancy force in
molten weld pool.
other Alcoholic Liquors” [93]. Subsequently Carlo Marangoni did his
doctoral work on this force and explained that ‘fluid always flows
from low surface tension region to high surface tension region’ [82].
Due to Marangoni force in weld pool, fluid flow in the centrally out-
ward direction and thus transfer a maximum of its heat to the wall
of the weld pool rather than bottom as shown in Fig. 9. This action
leads it to the high width and low depth of penetration during TIG
welding [14,23,25,91,93,99–101].
Electromagnetic or Lorentz force: Electromagnetic force is caused
by the interaction of the induced magnetic field and that of the
current passes through a conductor. The welding current induces a
magnetic field around the conductor. Resulting Lorentz force acts
toward the weld pool center in the direction of current flow shown
in Fig. 10(a).
Buoyancy force: Buoyancy force is caused by the density differ-
ence of the molten metal in the weld pool. Molten metal density
decreases with the temperature rise. Due to buoyancy force, the
fluid tends to flow from high density to low density (Fig. 10(b)).
During A-TIG welding, it always acts toward the surface of the weld
pool. However, buoyancy forces are generally less effective as com-
pared to other forces during TIG welding of plate up to a thickness
of 10 mm.
Aerodynamic drag: Aerodynamic drag forces produced by the
action of the arc plasma flowing over the surface of weld pool which
induce an outward flow along the surface of the weld pool shown
in Fig. 11.
However, the fluid flow in the weld pool is extremely com-
plicated because, Marangoni, electromagnetic, buoyancy and
216 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 11. Effect of aerodynamic force on the surface of weld pool.
aerodynamic forces can all affect the flow. The condition is addi-
tionally tangled by (1) the front to back fluid flow due to relative
motion of the workpiece and electrode, particularly at high welding
speed and (2) the spin evolved by molten metal under condition
of radially inward flow, which tends to decrease the intensity of
radially inward fluid flow [100].
The mathematical modeling of the relative strengths of the four
forces affecting the fluid flow became a subject of great interest
during 1980s. About twenty models have been reported [14], all
these models concluded that the Marangoni force is predominant
under normal welding conditions and have a major effect on the
weld bead geometry [102,103].
4.2. Welding related process parameters
4.2.1. Welding current
For arc welding process, the amount of heat developed is the
main factor affecting the welding outcome, in terms of weld cross
sectional area, penetration, cooling rate, weld structure and proper-
ties, defect formation tendency, etc. Heat developed during welding
is directly related to the welding current and heat flux density can
be given as
VI
Q =
2 2 
where, ‘’ is the arc efficiency and ‘␴’ the width parameter
(anode root). Heat flux is directly proportional to the close circuit
current. Thus increasing the current would result in an increase in
the heat input, the temperature gradient and the strength of the
thermo-capillary convection. Therefore, an increase in current is
expected to produce better penetration for high sulfur steels and
lower penetration for low sulfur steels. However, Burgard (1986),
Hiraok (1986) and Ishizak (1988) proposed that the situation is
more complex as a larger current would also increase both the
electromagnetic as well as aerodynamic force [18,104–106]. Elec-
tromagnetic force improves the weld penetration, although the
aerodynamic force produces an outward flow and cause widening
of the weld pool. It can be seen from Fig. 12(a) that the surface inten-
sity of the molten metal increases with temperature in case of high
sulfur steel but decreases in case of low sulfur steel. Consequently,
it is also shown in Fig. 12(b) that with an increase in current depth
to width ratio of the weld bead of selenium and sulfur added steel
increased initially than start declining. But in base metal depth to
width ratio showing a continual drop with welding current from
the start. Muthukumaran et al. [47] reported in Fig. 13(a) that the
depth of penetration of 304LN increases with current more effec-
tively in case of flux assisted TIG welding compared to without flux.
Additionally weld width (Fig. 13(b)) in case of the flux assisted TIG
welding has lesser increment compare to conventional TIG welding
with welding current [3,14,18,104,106].
High welding current can influence the nature of molten metal
flow, consequently the geometry of the weld bead by altering the
intensity of the responsible forces operating in the weld pool. In
view of published literature, it can be summarized that increase
in current will result in an increase in penetration, but it is limited
after a maximum value, further increase in current will only lead to
increase in weld width in conventional TIG welding while in A-TIG
it increases penetration as well for a large range of temperature.
4.2.2. Welding speed
Welding speed is the average linear travel speed of the welding
torch over the base plate/pipe to be welded during welding. Weld-
ing speed influence the total heat input per unit length of the weld
and hence has an effective impact on weld fusion zone geometry
also. Net heat at any point during welding can be related to welding
speed with Eq. (3). where, ‘Hnet ’ represents total heat available for
fusion, ‘VI’ represents heat transfer rate to the workpiece and ‘s’ is
the welding speed.
VI
Hnet = (3)
s
Increasing the welding speed reduces heat per unit length for
the fusion of the substrate, and hence an obvious decrease in the
weld pool cross-sectional area should take place, which finely affect
the weld pool geometry. Different investigators reported the effect
of welding speed on the weld pool geometry differently. Burgardt
et al. [18] proposed that with the decrease in welding speed peak
temperature and temperature gradient both would increase, and
also that the D/W ratio for high sulfur steel will increase while
for low sulfur D/W ratio will decrease shown in Fig. 14(a). Ishizaki
et al., Glickstein et al. and Lu et al. reported that an increase in
welding speed caused a reduction in depth (shown in Fig. 14(b)),
width and depth to width ratio of weld pool for both high sulfur
and low sulfur steels [18,65,105]. Lu et al. explained that with low
welding speed the arc has enough time to dissolve oxygen in the
weld pool and hence promote the inward flow in weld pool by
reducing Marangoni convection [65]. Dong et al. state that with
an increase in welding speed, the heat and the current density in
the weld zone gradually decreased. Which in turn will responsible
(2) for comparatively weaker outward Marangoni convection and the
inward conviction induced by the electromagnetic force, produces
a narrow weld width and shallow weld depth respectively [35].
Welding speed affects weld bead geometry by affecting the heat
input rate, peak temperature, Marangoni forces and the electro-
magnetic forces in the weld pool. Narrow and shallow weld bead
formation takes place at high welding speed, while deep and wide
weld bead appear with low welding speed.
4.2.3. Arc length
Arc length is the distance between the workpiece and the tip of
the tungsten electrode. Arc length in the TIG welding process affects
the amount of heat generated and supplied to the work piece for
fusion. An arc in TIG welding is created between the electrode and
workpiece by the ionization of the gases present. An increase in the
arc length will result in
(a) increase in the voltage if current maintained at a constant value;
(b) increase in the anode root (heat distribution) area;
(c) increases in aerodynamic drag force;
(d) reduce the arc efficiency for runs carried out at constant current.
With an increase in arc length the resistance to flow of charged
particle to maintain the arc increases, which in turn result in higher
voltage and subsequently strengthen the heat flux density. Because
of the bell shape of the arc plasma in TIG welding, more the gap
between the electrode tip and work piece, wider will be the anode
VI
root area (). This led to a reduction of heat flux density (Q = 2 )
2 
at the anode surface. With an increase in arc length heat loss from
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228 217

Fig. 12. (a) Surface tension variation with temperature. (b) Weld depth to width ratio of weld as function of welding current for 304 type stainless steel and 304 doped with
sulfur or selenium.

Fig. 13. Variation in weld fusion zone geometry “(a) depth of penetration, (b) weld width” with current, of 304LN austenitic stainless steel welds.

Fig. 14. Effect of weld travel speed on weld geometry with (a) different surface active elements and (b) weld current.

the arc plasma also increases (due to more convection and radi-
ation) hence the overall efficiency () will decrease. Tanaka et al.
[40] founded that arc voltage were also increased during TIG weld-
ing with increases in arc length shown in Fig. 15. In the same work,
Tanaka et al. also reported that at a fix position (assumed 1 mm)
away from the cathode tip on the arc central axis, the electron
temperature was constant value (22,000 K) irrespective of the arc
length. However, the electron temperature recorded at the anode
spots was decreased with higher arc length. Matsunawa et al. [107]
proposed that out of all these four forces aerodynamic drag forces
218 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 15. (a) Schematic of a self-stabilized arc and its root area with anode and (b) Photographs of TIG Arc at 100 A with different arc length.
Fig. 16. Relation between weld ratio d/w and arc length for (a) 304 type stainless steel and 304 doped with sulfur or selenium [28] and (b) various steel casts; each symbol
represents a different steel.
will play dominating role in case of larger arc length (for exam-
ple 8 mm). Later Okada et al. [104] experimentally established this
and stated that at higher arc length beneficial effect of sulfur on
penetration became less effective. The effect of arc length on pene-
tration has been further studied by Burgardt et al. [18] and Ishizaki
et al. [103] the results being shown in Fig. 16(a) and (b), respec-
tively, which corroborate that the d/w ratio decreased with larger
arc length.
With increase in arc length welding voltage, anode root area and
heat loss from the arc column increases. Increase in welding voltage
strengthens the heat flux density; however, the increase in anode
root area weakens it. Initially effect of increase in welding voltage
dominates over the effect of anode root area and the heat loss from
the arc column, but after an optimum arc length further increase
in arc length shows that the combine effect of anode root area and
the heat loss from arc column dominate over the welding voltage.
4.2.4. Electrode geometry
The shape of the arc is greatly affected by the geometry of
the electrode, like the diameter of the electrode, tip type (coni-
cal tipped, Frustum and wedge shaped electrode) and electrode tip
angle. For a set of given parameters like current, voltage and arc
length, electrode geometry may lead to variation of electron den-
sity which can affect the arc pressure and subsequently Marangoni
flow in the weld pool. Electrode geometry influences the weld zone
geometry by influencing (a) the arc root area and (b) the arc pres-
sure (i.e., the aerodynamic drag force).
4.2.4.1. Conical shaped electrode tip. Tsai et al. [107] studied the
electrode tip angle effects on the heat distribution area, taking
5.5 mm of arc length and a current value of 100 A. And stated
through his finding (Figs. 17 and 18) that although the heat distribu-
tion area increased with increase in electron tip angle, but that was
a slight increment (14%) in the heat distribution area over a wide
change of electrode tip angle (30◦ –120◦ ). With this Tsai et al. con-
cluded that theoretically the electrode tip angle should not affect
the heat distribution area significantly. However, Tanaka et al. [40]
examined the axial temperature in the arc plasma, anode spot area
and the heat density on the anode surface variation with the elec-
trode tip angle; and reported that the electron temperature and the
weld cross sectional area attained a maximum value for electrode
tip angle of 45◦ , but a fall in electron temperature was recorded
for either increase or decrease in electrode tip angle (30◦ and 60◦ ),
while the current density changes were little for all three (30◦ , 45◦
and 60◦ ) electrode tip angles taken.
4.2.4.2. Frustum and wedge shaped electrode. Okada et al. [104]
reported that a more uniform current distribution obtained in case
of frustum and wedge shaped electrode compare to conical tip
electrode of angle 45◦ (Fig. 19), which in turn resulted in lower elec-
tromagnetic and thermo-capillary forces. Mills et al. [14] observed
that the frustum and wedge shaped electrode produced much
lower arc pressure (compared to the conical tip electrode) and
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the flat surface,
hence produced lesser diameter of the weld pool surface (Fig. 20).
The arc pressure varies with electrode tip angle and reported max-
imum at  = 45◦ [14,103,104,108,109].
Conical type electrode tip is more effective for the higher pene-
tration compare to the frustum and wedge shaped electrode angles.
Heat density varies with the electrode tip angle and generally
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228 219

Fig. 17. Electron temperature and the cross sectional area with the electrode tip angle.

Fig. 19. Current density obtained with conical tipped and frustum shaped elec-
trodes.

Fig. 18. Heat and the mass distribution with the electrode tip angle.

depends on the arc length. However, the arc pressure was found
maximum at 45◦ in almost all case.

4.2.5. Shielding gas composition

In A-TIG welding process, shielding gases protect the weld zone
and electrode from oxidation and also help to control the temper-
ature of the electrode by cooling effect. Pure argon is commonly
used shielding gas in A-TIG welding process. Different gases have
different ionization potential (IP) and as per their IP, heat flux also
affected during A-TIG welding process. Consequently, it also affects
the fusion zone area
Lambert [14] studied the effect of the different shielding gas
compositions on the weld pool geometry taken Inconel 800 as
base material. Lambert observed during welding that short circuit
voltage were not constant with different shielding gas composi-
tions, which in turn result in different Wb/Wf (Wb = weld width
at the back side of the plate and Wf = front side weld width) ratio
shown in Fig. 21. A number of other shielding gas compositions
were also used by several researchers [2,3,16,18,110,111]. Burgardt
et al. [18] mixed helium (He) with pure argon to TIG weld the AISI Fig. 20. Relation between weld pool diameter and cut (flat) diameter of frustum
304 stainless steel in three conditions (pure, sulfur doped and sele- electrode in stationary arcs.

nium doped). Burgardt et al. reported that the D/W ratio of the pure
AISI 304 without doping reduced with higher percentage of helium,
whereas the D/W ratio of the doped AISI 304 (with sulfur and sele-
nium) stainless steels increased with increased helium as shown
in Fig. 22. Huang [2,3] added the hydrogen as well as nitrogen in
the pure argon and reported that, at the same parameters; depth of
penetration and weld area for both cases (conventional as well as
activating GTAW process) increased with the addition of hydrogen
as well as nitrogen shown in Figs. 23 and 24.
220 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228

Fig. 21. Wb/Wf as function of arc voltage obtained with various shielding gases for Inconel 800.

Fig. 22. Weld ratio d/w as function of helium content of torch gas for 304 type
stainless steel and 304 doped with 76 ppm Sulfur or 47 ppm Selenium.

Fig. 23. Effect of nitrogen addition on the penetration and cross-sectional area of
weld.

The results obtained in the former cases are consistent with the
proposal that the enhanced heat input caused increased tempera-
ture gradients and thermo-capillary flows [M(+) and M(−)], which
resulted in further divergence of the d/w ratios for high and low
sulfur steels.
4.3. Properties of the metal to be welded
4.3.1. Thickness of the plate
It has been seen that the thickness of the plates to be welded also
affect the depth and width of the weld. Pollard [19] investigated the

Fig. 24. Penetration and weld area vs hydrogen content in argon shielding gas.
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228 221

Fig. 25. Effect of strip thickness on the penetration ratio, D/W.

plate thickness effect on the weld geometry, and reported that it

affects the weld penetration adversely. Depth to width ratio of TIG
welded SUS 304 austenitic stainless steel weld decreased with a
Fig. 26. Dependence of soluble oxygen (%O) on concentration of alloying element
higher plate thickness (Fig. 25). (M) in Fe–M–O systems at 1873 K; concentration of O in Fe where d/dT = 0.
The variation in weld bead geometry can be ascertained with the
heat dissipation rate and the area available for the heat dissipation
which increases with the thickness of the plate.

4.3.2. Composition of metal

Literature survey subjects that base metal affects the penetra-
tion depth and width of the weld during A-TIG welding. Materials
can be broadly classified into two categories (a) ferrous and (b)
non-ferrous.

4.3.2.1. Ferrous alloys. Very small amount of surface active ele-

ments such as oxygen in ferrous alloys have a dramatic effect on the
weld penetration. The Heiple-Roper [96] theory suggests that vari-
able weld penetration is a result of the fluid motion in the weld pool
and that this, in turn, is largely controlled by the concentrations
and properties of certain surface active elements, e.g., S (sulfur)
and O (oxygen), present in the metal. However, some metals such
as aluminum, calcium and cerium react strongly with Group VI ele-
ments, and effectively reduce their solubility in the steel. In order
to obtain an understanding of the effect of certain elements on the
fluid flow in the weld pool and the weld penetration, it is necessary
to appreciate their effect on the surface tension of the melt. For this
purpose, elements are classified into following groups, namely, (a)
Fig. 27. Dependence of soluble sulfur (%S) on concentration of alloying element (M)
Surface active elements and (b) Reactive elements. Only soluble ele- in Fe–M–S systems at 1873 K; concentration of S in Fe d/dT = 0.
ments (sulfur or oxygen) were effective to alter the surface tension
of the molten metal. It means compounds of the sulfur and oxygen
present in the metals during welding do not have any effects on the
the surface properties of the weld pool would be similar to those
surface tension of the weld pool. On the basis of the results obtained
of a pure metal (i.e., d/dT is negative).
from the study of various researchers a general relationship can be
proposed between the elements present and the penetration depth
as follows [14,19,24,25,96,108,112]. (a) Surface active elements
The alloy was assumed to be either a Fe–M–O or a Fe–M–S Sulfur: Effect of sulfur addition in 304 and 316 stain-
ternary, where M is the reactive metal, e.g., Al, Ca, etc (the results less steels had been studied several times in various forms
are given in Figs. 26 and 27 respectively, and indicate the maxi- [6,17,25,111,113–117] like elemental form, compound like FeS
mum levels of soluble oxygen (O) or soluble sulfur (S) which can be or FeS2 as flux and SO2 as shielding gas. In all cases it was
obtained with different alloying additions). The horizontal broken observed that addition of sulfur increased the d/w ratio of the
lines in these diagrams represent the critical O or S concentrations weld.
in pure iron at which d/dT = 0. For concentrations above the bro- Oxygen: Like sulfur oxygen has been reported to increase the
ken lines d/dT would be positive, which is good weld penetration. weld penetration during TIG welding with 304 and 316 stain-
For values of O and S below the lines a negative coefficient and poor less steels. Oxygen was added generally either with shielding
penetration would be anticipated. Low levels of Ca or Al are needed gas or in the form of compound (which release “O” after decom-
to reduce the O content to the critical value (Fig. 27), below which position) as a flux [12,34,36,43,45,51,82,112,117,118].
222 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228

Fig. 28. Effect of sulfur content on aspect ratio of weld pool d/w for 304 and 316
type stainless steels.

Fig. 30. Effect of SO2 concentration in shield gas on aspect ratio of weld pool d/w
for 21Cr–6Ni–9Mn stainless steel.

Fig. 31. Effect of various dopant concentrations on aspect ratio of weld pool d/w for
Fig. 29. Effect of oxygen concentrations in shield gas on aspect ratio of weld pool 21Cr–6Ni–9Mn stainless steel.
d/w for 21Cr–6Ni–9Mn stainless steel.

Aluminum: For the Fe–Al–O systems, increase in Aluminum

decreases the percentage of soluble oxygen present, hence con-
Here, one thing is to be pointed out that both Sulfur and Oxy-
sequently increases the amplitude of Marangoni force in the
gen have a positive effect towards penetration, but only up to
weld pool, which in turn result in shallow and wider weld
a limit. Further additions either have no positive influence or
bead. Bennett and Mills [120] pointed out that the addition of
decrease the penetration. The effect can be better understood
Aluminum reduces the penetration shown in Fig. 32 [120].
by the Figs. 28–31.
Silicon and Manganese: Silicon and manganese addition in
Selenium and tellurium: These elements are highly surface
iron up to 1% would not reduce soluble oxygen content to the
active in iron. There are strong indications that positive tem-
critical level where d/dt becomes negative. Oyler [121] pro-
perature coefficients of surface tension are produced by these
posed that the Si (1%) and Mn (2%) levels in 304 steel should be
effects [18,19,24,119]. Heiple et al. [18] have shown (Fig. 23)
reduced to 0.5 ± 0.2% and 1.7 ± 0.3%, respectively. Sundell [24]
that these elements were very effective in improving the weld
and Pollard [19] proposed that small amount of these elements
penetration in 21Cr–6Ni–9Mn stainless steels when using TIG,
(Silicon and manganese) can increase the penetration shown
defocused laser and electron beam welding.
in Fig. 33 and reaches to a peak value of the D/W ratio than fall
(b) Reactive elements
gradually.
During steel making several elements are added to reduce
the Oxygen and Sulfur contents of steels, Silicon and Aluminum
are used for deoxidation and Calcium used for desulfurization. 4.3.2.2. Non-ferrous metals. Variable weld penetration is not
Since the amount of active elements is largely controlled by limited to only ferrous metals; it has also been seen in a case of
these reactive elements so usually these affect the penetration. other metals like zirconium alloys and nickel base alloys.
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 32. Variation of aspect ratio of weld pool d/w with aluminum content in
21Cr–6Ni–9Mn stainless steel.
Fig. 33. Aspect ratio of weld pool d/w as function of manganese and silicon concen-
trations in stainless steels.
Differences in depth to width ratios of up to a factor of 10 dur-
ing welding of Zirconium alloys with GTA welding process were
reported [14,96,122]. Samples of the alloys were produced by dif-
ferent refining processes, and it was found that the highest weld
penetration was obtained with material which had been produced
by melting under inert gas. Without exception, the chlorine and
hydrogen levels in this material were at least twice as high as those
found in vacuum melted material.
Lu et al. [36] mentioned in his published that savage used six dif-
ferent minor elements during the GTA welding of the Inconel 600.
Silicon and Sulfur were the most effective amongst them to increase
the penetration depth. It is also suggested that even Titanium
increased the weld penetration whereas Aluminum had a reverse
effect on penetration of Inconel 600. At low oxygen levels, the d/w
ratio was more for high sulfur Inconel l718 [14,18,20]. The ratio
for this alloy progressively decreased with a reduction in oxygen
content shown in Fig. 34. Huang et al. [123,124] proposed a unique
way to use the different flux layer simultaneously for increased
penetration depth along with quality weld bead appearance.
4.4. Flux
In A-TIG welding process, concept of use of flux was first
introduced by Paton welding institute way back in the 1960s. A
simple process of applying a thin layer of flux over the surface of
the component to be welded before welding showed a spectacular
223
Fig. 34. Variation of aspect ratio of weld pool d/w with oxygen content in shield gas
for low and high S samples of Inconel IN 718.
increment in penetration. These fluxes are generally oxides and
halides. The two most renowned and accepted effects of these
fluxes are arc constriction and reversal of Marangoni convection;
because of which about 100–200% increase in penetration achieved
during TIG welding. These fluxes later also known as activating or
activated flux. These fluxes break down into their constituents and
evaporate during welding and make a cover of fumes (electron
negative in nature) around the arc. These fumes extract electrons
from the outer part of the arc column which in turn left narrow
path to flow the charged ions between the electrode and the
workpiece. Hence increase the energy density per unit area of TIG
welding process. The other effects of these fluxes are related to the
surface tension force of the weld pool. Surface tension gradient
(d/dt) becomes positive by using activated flux and hence fluid
flows radially inward into the weld pool. These changes in arc
and weld pool result increase penetration during A-TIG. Initial
studies on this topic showed that surface active elements like
sulfur and oxygen affect the penetration positively. These works
motivated use of flux after the 1990s. So many researchers worked
for enhancement of penetration by using different types of fluxes,
including combination of different flux compositions. In this
section the author has tried to consolidate the outputs of the
work’s done with different types of fluxes.
A number of fluxes are being used for A-TIG by different
researchers and it was proposed that the effect of these are very
different from each other while keeping other parameters same for
all [6,13,29,38,42,54,55,61,68,125,126]. Paulo et al. [6] studied six
types of fluxes namely Al2 O3 , AlF3 , CaF2 , Cr2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , SiO2 and TiO2
at the same time on SUS 304. It was observed that the high penetra-
tion occurred just after the transition from TIG to A-TIG welding.
Some fluxes (Cr2 O3 , SiO2 and TiO2 ) give exceptionally good pen-
etration. Author, however, did not gave the reason for variation
responsible of these fluxes while keeping all other parameters same
for all fluxes.
Researchers [6,13,35,67] noted in their review of earlier studies
that when fluorine, chlorine and bromine were either present as
trace elements in steels and titanium alloys, or applied in the form
of fluxes to the surface of the metal, systematically better pene-
tration was observed. At the same time arc constriction was also
reported. From the available papers it is clear that chlorine is the
most frequently used halide as an activating flux in various forms
224 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 35. Effect of different chlorides and current on penetration.
Fig. 36. Characteristics of weld geometry produced with and without flux.
to see the effect of the halides on the penetration (Fig. 35). Glick-
stein, Ludwig, Savage and Lundin discussed their findings on the
basis of the surface tension effect while Marya suggested that the
first ionization potential of the element ‘M’ in the chloride ‘MCly ’ is
more important [24,91,112,127].
Dong et al. [35] has taken eight types of composition out of those
five were single component (TiO2 , Cr2 O3 , SiO2 , ZrO2 and AlF3 ), three
were different multi component fluxes on SUS 304. Arc constric-
tion and reversal of Marangoni conviction were reported with these
fluxes in this work. Effect of AlF3 and ZrO2 as an activated flux for
A-TIG was negative as the d/w ratio of weld is obtained using AlF3
and ZrO2 was below than conventional (without flux) TIG weld and
the same was attributed to the fact that the reversal of Marangoni
convection was not found to occur. Tseng et al. [56,128] showed
(Fig. 36) the characteristics of AISI 316 SS TIG welded plate with dif-
ferent fluxes. And stated that all oxides fluxes were not changed the
Marangoni convection mode in molten weld pool. Similar experi-
ments have been done by other researchers also, to develop new
flux and flux compositions for higher penetration and d/w ratio
during A-TIG welding on a variety of materials [10,36,57,79,129].
Tseng et al. [57] used different approaches to see the effect
of flux on the penetration; in his work he studied the effect of a
commercial flux (comprising of SiO2 , TiO2 , Cr2 O3 , MoO3 , MoS2
Fig. 37. Effect of coating density on penetration depth of TIG weld.
and NiF2 developed by NPUST, Taiwan) on the penetration and
d/w ratio of 316L steel by varying its coating density on the metal
surface to be welded. For a given current level, weld penetration
and d/w ratio increases with increase of coating density shown in
Fig. 37. At the current 125 A, penetration increases with coating
density from 0 to 0.92 mg/cm2 , thereafter in case of coating density
up to 4 mg/cm2 did not affect penetration appreciably. Further,
increase in coating density adversely affected the penetration.
Moreover, at 225 A current, penetration increased with increase in
coating density up to 1.86 mg/cm2 . The reduction in penetration
depth at high coating density attributed to the higher heat energy
consumption required to melt the thick flux barrier. Some other
researchers presented the similar trend of the depth of penetration
with the coating density. Many of them stated that penetration
depth first increases than remain unchanged for a wide range
thereafter fall down [67,76,83,130].
Although a large number of study has been done on the flux
assisted welding, but there is not a common proposal that why
these fluxes behave differently to the surface tension and the
arc constriction. However, up to some extent these behaviors are
correlated with different properties of flux like boiling point, den-
sity, thermodynamic stability, and electronegativity, but a linear
relationship between these properties and weld performance is
lacking.
5. Recent development in TIG process to enhance the depth
of penetration
Even though the flux assisted gas tungsten arc welding has been
quite successful to increase the depth of penetration up-to four fold,
the effectiveness of the process is sensitive to the flux coating den-
sity, particle size and coating pattern uniformity on the base plate
[127]. The slag after A-TIG is generally retained on the weld sur-
face, which is not desirable for the weld efficiency and weld quality
[65]. To overcome these limitations, some researchers have been
also looking for alternate processes such as mixed gas TIG welding,
double shielded TIG process and double electrode TIG welding.
In mixed gas TIG welding, the surface active gases were
mixed with regular shielding gases to implement on the weld
pool. The process has been explored with SO2 by Hieple et al.
[18], with hydrogen by Hsieh et al. [131], with CO2 by Lu
 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
Fig. 38. Schematic of double shielded TIG welding torch nozzle.
et al. [42] and also with other gases by different researchers
[2,3,12,36,46,86,111,117,132,133]. All these work have been
reported increased depth of penetration as compared to TIG weld-
ing process with partial elimination of the A-TIG welding process
limitation. The drawbacks of the mixed gas TIG welding were also
reported and some of them are mentioned here. Addition of O2 in
He–Ar shielding gas gave higher penetration but was sensitive to
cast to cast materials [2]. The effect of the mixed gas TIG welding
was base metal property dependent [27]. The SO2 is toxic active
gas while O2 and CO2 reduce the life of tungsten electrode through
oxidation.
A double shielded TIG welding torch nozzle was designed in such
a way that two different gases or gas mixture could flow simulta-
neously without mixing. A schematic of the nozzle is shown in the
Fig. 38. From the schematic it is clear that the nozzle was designed
to such as extent that the active gas could reach to the weld pool
without affecting the tungsten electrode, which was shielded by
the lesser active or passive gas. Fujii et al. [43] used O2 and CO2 as
active and He as a passive gas during double shielded TIG welding
of SUS 304 austenitic stainless steel. They reported 9.4 mm pen-
etration depth with almost non-degraded tungsten electrode at
welding current 160 A, welding speed 0.75 mm/min and 1 mm of
electrode gap. Li et al. [4,118,134] used He and He + O2 as active
and pure argon as passive gas during the welding of 0Cr13Ni5Mo
martensitic stainless steel. Lu et al. [133] demonstrated the effect
of the Ar + CO2 on the penetration depth while welding of the SUS
304 austenitic stainless steel. The active gas used in the process
was successful in reversing the Marangoni flow direction without
affecting the electrode life, and thus increased depth of penetration
was achieved as compared to TIG welding [4,43,65,118,133,134].
A double electrode TIG welding is a recently developed variant
of TIG welding process in which the arc is initiated through the
coupling of two arcs generated from two insulated electrodes in
the same welding torch shown in Fig. 39 [135]. However, some
researchers used the 2nd electrode to by-pass the current in
different torch [136]. Use of two electrodes simultaneously in TIG
welding was first reported by Kobayashi et al. [40,135,137] and
successfully demonstrated in different welding positions. Leng
et al. [138] and Ding et al. [139] performed the two-dimensional
measurement of coupling arc pressure during double electrode TIG
welding and reported that arc pressure distribution was different
from the axial symmetrical distribution of the traditional single arc
TIG welding. A three dimensional mathematical model for double
electrodes TIG welding was extended to include the anode melting
and the weld pool formation [140]. This model demonstrated that
the unequal welding current through the different electrodes had
a significant effect on the arc behavior and weld pool dynamics,
whereas it has a little effect on the weld shape and size. As the
double electrode TIG welding process is very novel and has not been
225
Fig. 39. Double electrode TIG welding torch.
explored effectively, very less information is available about the
behavior of the process and its effect on the weldment properties.
6. Conclusions
(a) Arc constriction and the reversal of the Marangoni convection
are the two most accepted mechanisms for the tremendous
increase of the penetration depth during the A-TIG welding.
The vapor of the flux evaporated during the welding is elec-
tronegative in nature and hence it constricts the arc plasma ion’s
path toward the center of the arc. Flux applied on the surface
decreases the surface tension of the weld pool and, it reverses
the surface tension gradient from negative to positive, which in
turn responsible for fluid flow from the fusion zone boundary
toward the weld pool center.
(b) Oxides and halides are frequently used fluxes to enhance the
penetration, while the information obtained from the published
papers are also showing that all these fluxes are not useful to
enhance the penetration depth; i.e., the effectiveness of the flux
is chemical and physical property dependent of the material.
Any kind of relationship to select flux for different material is
not being proposed till now.
(c) The depth of penetration of A-TIG weld increases with the
increase of flux coating density, and achieved maximum for an
optimum value of flux coating density than being constant for
a wide range, subsequently further increase in coating density
will result in a reduction in penetration depth. The optimum
value of flux coating density increases with the welding current.
However there is need of dynamic study to define the limits.
(d) Sulfur and oxygen (soluble) also have positive effects to increase
the penetration depth by altering the surface tension gradient.
These surface active elements can be provided in the weld pool
either through shielding gases or by injecting in the materials at
the time of casting. Aluminum has adverse effect on the depth of
penetration; though with silicone and magnesium it increases
first then starts falling.
(e) Arc length and the welding speed have a negative effect on the
penetration depth, while the welding current promotes it. Elec-
trode tip geometry has little effect on the weld pool geometry.
Depth of penetration increases first with electrode tip vertex
angle and usually a maximum at about 45 degree then decreases.
The weld penetration depth also decreases with increased thick-
ness of the plate to be welded.
(f) Surface degradation of the A-TIG weldment may be a conceiv-
able problem. However, because of its easiness and superior
result, it has great potential to increase the productivity of the
fabrication industries.
226 R.S. Vidyarthy, D.K. Dwivedi / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 22 (2016) 211–228
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