Platinum-Group Metals
Overview
The Extractive Metallurgy of South
Africa’s Platinum Ores
L.A. Cramer
The extraction technology for platinum-
group metals (PGMs) has changed dramati-
cally in the last 80 years, and the changes are
likely to continue for years to come. This
article will review advances in PGM extrac-
tion, including developments in semi-autog-
enous and fully autogenous milling; flota-
tion equipment applications for treating high-
chrome ores; increases in power densities for
future smelting furnaces, and new methods
for meeting rising environmental standards.
INTRODUCTION
Platinum-bearing ores were first dis-
covered in South Africa in the lode de-
posits of the Waterburg District in 1923
by Adolf Erasmus and then on the
Maandagshoek farm by Andries
Lombaard in 1924. Hans Merensky iden-
tified the platinum-iron alloy from
Lombaard’s panning, and, shortly after-
ward, the Merensky reef was discovered
within the broader Bushveld Igneous
Complex (BIC). That complex today
hosts the world’s largest reserves of plati-
num group metals (PGMs). The Bushveld
ores contain platinum, palladium,
rhodium, gold, ruthenium, iridium and
osmium (the PGMs), as well as nickel,
copper, and cobalt in economically re-
coverable quantities.
Three broad ore types are found within
the BIC and exploited for their PGM
values: the Merensky reef, the UG2 reef,
and the Plat reef. The first two reefs are
found in relation to one another with the
generally wider UG2 reef lying below
the Merensly reef by anywhere from 15
meters to 330 meters.1 These two reefs
outcrop on both the eastern and the west-
ern edges of the oblong saucer of the
BIC. Exploitation has been focused on
the western edge of the complex, where
the grades were found to be highest in
the Merensky reef.
The high demand for platinum jew-
elry in the 1920s created boom condi-
tions that quickly spawned a large num-
ber of mining companies. Today, only
two of these survive within Anglo Plati-
num Corporation: Waterval (Rusten-
burg) Platinum Mines, Ltd. and Pot-
gietersrust Platinums Ltd.
In the last 80 years, PGM extraction
technology has evolved from crude mill-
ing and gravity concentration to highly
computer-controlled large-capacity mill-
ing and flotation circuits in the minerals-
14
processing area. Within the pyrometal-
lurgical field, the early blast-furnace tech-
nology has been replaced with electric
submerged-arc furnaces. In refining, the
classical “bucket chemistry” has moved
to solvent extraction and molecular-rec-
ognition technology. From 1920 to 1990,
the technology also moved from Europe
to South Africa; all of South Africa’s
PGMs were refined in the country for
the first time in the early 1990s. The
future of the industry holds further tech-
nical challenges that will undoubtedly
lead to even more development in the
next 20 years.
ORE DEPOSITS
The Bushveld Igneous Complex
stretches from Rustenburg and the
Pilanesburg Mountains in the west to
the Lydenburg District in the east. The
eastern and western edges of the saucer
are well delineated, but in the center, the
existence of the layered mafic rocks at
depth is questionable. Part of the com-
plex has dislodged and lies north at
Potgietersrus; this area is home to the
Plat reef. The local equivalent of the
Merensky reef, the Plat reef is substan-
tially thicker and somewhat more vari-
able in its characteristics due to the dif-
fering degrees of reaction between the
ore and its footwall rocks during forma-
tion. The Merensky and UG2 reefs, which
outcrop for large distances, have been
traced for 150 km in the east and 200 km
in the west.2 The reefs dip into the earth
at typically 9 to 23 degrees. Associated
with these reefs are a number of chrome
reefs, such as the MG1/2 and the LG6;
these reefs are exploited solely for their
chrome value. With chrome-to-iron ra-
tios of 1.5–1.6, a competitive grade of
ferrochrome can be produced from these
ores. Only recently has the lower quality
chromitite, with Cr/Fe ratios of 1.35,
from the UG2 reef, been utilized as a feed
source for ferrochrome smelters.
The sulfide and PGM mineralogy in the
BIC is complex. A large number of sul-
fides, arsenides, tellurides, and alloys have
been identified. The primary base metal
minerals are chalcopyrite, pendlandite,
and pyrrhotite. The PGM association with
the base metal sulfides, the various ox-
ides, and the silicates is significant in
determining minerals-processing recov-
eries. Across the reef types and the geog-
raphy of the BIC, the predominant PGM
mineral types and the PGM associations
can vary significantly3–5
The Merensky reef is a fairly regular,
tabular orebody of 60–90 cm width in
the west and 100–300 cm in the east.
Grades vary from 3–9 grams per tonne
(g/t) PGMs with associated nickel and
copper values. Nickel can assay as high
as 0.2% with copper at 0.1%, however,
some of the nickel is non-sulfide nickel,
and it is, therefore, not recoverable by
current flotation techniques. The orebody
is marked by small chrome bands and so
is easily identified underground; these
bands hold a high concentration of the
PGMs. Mining is done by rather labor-
intensive, hand-held drilling and blast-
ing techniques due to the limited scope
for automated machinery in such nar-
row slopes (typically 85 cm in height).
The more common PGM minerals in the
Merensky reefs are braggite [(PtPdNi)S],
cooperite (PtS), moncheite
[(PtPdNi)(TeBiSb) 2], and kotulskite
[(PtPdNi)(TeBiSb)2].6 Later mineralogi-
cal investigations found less moncheite
and kotulskite but more laurite
[(RuFeOsIrPt)S2] and Pt-Fe alloy.7 Some
of the less common base metal sulfide
minerals are mackinawite (FeS), vallerite
(Cu3Fe4S7), cubanite (CuFe2S3), bornite
(Cu2S~CuS~FeS), and pyrite (FeS2).
The UG2 reef, which dips similarly to
the Merensky and the UG2, tends to be
somewhat thicker than the Merensky in
the west at 65–150 cm. Unlike the
Merensky, which widens significantly
in the eastern limb, however, the UG2
reef is of similar thickness in the east and
west. The thinnest UG2 reefs are found
within the Rustenburg area. Grades vary
from 3–8 g/t PGM, with generally much
poorer nickel and copper values than
the Merensky reefs.8 Mining methods
are similar to those used for the Merensky
reefs; but recently the room and pillar
methods of chrome mining have been
used effectively by some companies for
the shallower parts of the UG2 reefs.
Reef widths of at least 1.6 meters are
necessary in these areas. The PGM and
base metal mineralogy in the UG2 reef
parallels the Merensky reef but at much
lower levels. Valuable minerals also have
significantly smaller average grain sizes
and require fine milling for full libera-
tion. The potential for valuable mineral
JOM • October 2001
enclosure in the chromites and silicates
is generally higher with consequent ROM Ore
Crushing & Primary Secondary
negative minerals processing perfor- Screening Comminution Comminution
mance. UG2 reefs typically contain 25–
50% more rhodium than the Merensky
reefs, and in the eastern BIC, the plati- Rougher Scavenger
num-palladium ratio falls from the 2.5 Flotation Flotation
found in the western BIC to 1.
The Plat reef in the northern area near
Potgietersrus is much wider, reaching Cleaning Cleaning
widths of 50–90 meters in places and
outcropping with a steep dip of 40–45
degrees. As a result, this reef is easily PGM Gravity
mined by open-pit methods, albeit with Smelting
Refining Concentration
rather high stripping ratios of 7 or more.
Grades are lower on average, at 2– 5 g/t,
Figure 1. A typical concentrator flowsheet.
but with higher nickel and copper grades
of 0.2–0.3% and 0.15–0.20%. The PGM
mineralogy is more complex and tellu- used initially to treat the Merensky ores. can designs and utilizes an 8.56 m diam-
rides and arsenides are more common Because these ores did not screen easily eter by 3.06 m SAG mill for primary
than in the Merensky or UG2 reefs. Sper- dry, the installed wet-screening opera- comminution.9 Typically, Merensky ores
rylite (PtAs2) is the most common PGM tion created a separate flotation circuit are milled to about 60% passing 74 mi-
mineral. Platinum-palladium ratios are to treat crusher fines. Semi-autogenous crometers. When PGM prices are high,
typically 1:1 within the Plat reef. Be- (SAG) milling developments in the South however, it is often good business to
cause the host rock for the Plat reef min- African gold industry brought these maximize revenue by milling at higher
eralogy is more varied than in the milling circuits to the Merensky ores. A than designed capacities while sacrific-
Merensky/UG2 reefs, the rock hardness few circuits are single-stage milling op- ing recoveries. Merensky ores have bond
and competency and the associated erations (Impala Platinum), but most cir- work indices of about 21 kW h/t at the
gangue mineralogy varies considerably. cuits have two stages of milling and, in coarser sizes and up to 25 kW h/t at the
This has obvious impacts upon the min- some cases, a third regrind operation finer 200 mesh size. Mills as small as 2.45
erals-processing operation. has been added. Circuits with several m ¥ 3.06 m (450 HP) are still in daily use,
stages of milling also follow each stage but the newer installations are utilizing
COMMINUTION
with a flotation step to recover any liber- the larger units, some with diameters of
A wide variety of comminution cir- ated minerals. While most SAG milling up to 7.11 m (3.5 MW).
cuits are used across the South African operations are based on the typical South Some UG2 circuits have evolved from
PGM industry as a result of the various African gold practice of mills with length a simple conversion from the conven-
ore characteristics and the historical tech- to diameter (L/D) ratios of greater than tional Merensky circuits, thus retaining
nical developments. Conventional wet 1, Northam Platinum Mines has success- crushing and ball milling. However, UG2
screening, crushing, and ball milling was fully applied the pancake North Ameri- ores are more amenable to a primary
fully autogenous (AG) milling stage, as
Table I. Typical Comminution Circuit Data these ores consist of the more friable
Final Grinds chromitite proportion and a variable
Sizing BWI @300 mm BWI@ 75 mm Mill (% Passing number of competent norite stringers. In
Ore Type Mill Circuits Device Kwhr/tonne Kwhr/tonne Sizes 74 mm) most instances, this material is sufficient
Merensky SS SAG, Cyclone 21 25 450 HP 55–65 for grinding media in the primary stage.
C/BM/BM, to Thus, new UG2 circuits have tended to
C/BM/BM/BM, 3.5 MW be AG primary milling and secondary
SAG/BM ball milling. Flotation is again done in
UG2 C/BM/BM, Cyclones 18 21 350 HP 50–65 stages between the milling circuits. A
AG/BM, to recent exception to this has been the
C/RM/BM 3.2 MW Kroondal operation, where the primary
Plat Reef AG/BM/BM, Cyclones 18–25 23–27 2.6 MW 55–75 comminution stage uses a rod mill. Here
C/BM/BM to
and at one other conventional plant,
6.5 MW
dense media separation is used to sepa-
Note: Some Merensky and UG2 circuits have a fines-removal circuit in the crushing/screening plant that separates the
higher-grade fine PGMs for a separate flotation treatment. rate the barren norite stringers from the
heavier chromite reef before milling and
flotation. In one of the older converted
Table II. Typical Flotation Circuit Data plants, mills as small as 2.45 m ¥ 2.45 m
Main Stream Mass Typical PGM (350 HP) are still in regular use, but the
Flotation Residence Pull Recoveries more modern plants are utilizing larger
Ore type Circuits Times* Cell Sizes (%) (%) units of up to 4.89 m in diameter (3.2
Merensky R/S/Cl/ReCl, 30 to Wemco 56 to 2.5–4 85–90 MW). The recovery of chromite slimes in
R/Cl/RCl & 60 minutes Outokumpu the flotation concentrate is a potential
S/Cl/RCl 130 m3 problem during the smelting operation
UG2 R/S/Cl/ReCl, 30 to Wemco 56 to 1–3 80–85
such that the UG2 primary grinds are
R/Cl/RCl & 60 minutes Svedala 30 m3;
S/Cl/RCl OK 70 & 130 kept coarse and the bulk of the finer
being installed PGMs are floated into a high-grade, low-
Plat Reef R/S/Cl/ReCl, 40 to 30–50 m3 3–5 Plus 80 chromite concentrate before secondary
R/Cl/RCl & 80 minutes milling and flotation. According to the
S/Cl/RCl mineralogy, final grinds for the opti-
*Typical pulp densities are 30–40% solids in roughing and sscavenging and 10–20% solids in cleaning circuits. mum flotation of the UG2 ores should be

2001 October • JOM 15


Flotation Flash or
Concentrates Spray Dying
Slow-Cooling
of Matte
Base Metal
Refinery
PGMs
Figure 2. A typical pyrometallurgical flowsheet.
Nickel Pressure
Matte
Leach
Copper Pressure
Leach
PGM's
Copper EW
Cu Cathode
Evaporation
Ammonium Sulfate
Figure 3. The Impala Platinum-Base Metal Refinery.
finer than for Merensky ores. 10,11 In prac-
tice, most operations have final grinds
that are not significantly different than
for Merensky ores and tend toward 60%
minus 200 mesh. In some circuits,
chromite is removed between the pri-
mary and secondary milling stages and
sold into either the ferrochrome or
chrome chemicals markets; in these cases
the effective final grind on the ore is
somewhat coarser. Typical bond work
indices are 18 kW h/t at 300 mm and 21
kW h/t at 75 mm.
Plat Reef ores are similar to the
Merensky ores in many ways but, as
noted earlier, footwall geological pro-
cesses have brought the reef into contact
with different host rocks, such as dolo-
mites, granites, quartzite, ironstone,
gneiss, and shale. These contacts have
altered the ore hardness and compe-
tence to a degree such that the milling
characteristics are both highly variable
in some areas and also significantly
harder than in the Merensky ores. Work
indices of greater than 25 kW h/t are
frequently encountered. The primary
milling activity in the Plat reef area
(Potgieterust Platinums Ltd.) has missed
designed throughputs as a result of un-
expected hardness and competency
problems. The initial AG/BM/BM cir-
cuits have never performed fully satis-
16
S02 to
Atmosphere
Electric Arc
Furnace
Slag Milling
& Flotation
Matte
Converting
Tailings
Acid Plant
S02 to
Atmosphere
Ammonia
Solution Purification
H2
Hydrogen
Impurities
Reduction
Cobalt Briquetting
Recovery & Sintering
Co Metal Ni Metal
factorily and the addition of a pebble
removal and crushing facility did not
solve the problems completely. Newer
circuit additions have reverted to the
tried and tested crushing and two-stage
ball-milling circuits with good success.
The newer mills are 6.73 m in diameter at
6.5 MW, and the older mills range from
4.28 m to 6.11 m in diameter. Final grinds
are finer than for the Merensky Reefs at
75% passing 75 mm.
CONCENTRATION METHODS
A wide variety of flotation circuitry is
in use across the South African PGM
industry as the primary method of val-
ues recovery. Often interspaced with the
comminution steps, the primary rough-
ing and scavenging operations are
complemented by several cleaning
stages. To minimize the chromite car-
ried forward into the pyrometallurgical
operations, UG2 ores frequently have
more cleaning stages than Merensky ores
or Plat reefs. Even so, UG2 concentrates
are high in Cr2O3, at about 3%. Because
flotation concentrates of less than 1%
Cr2O3 are desirable in smelting, most
operators carefully blend Merensky
and/or Plat reef concentrates with UG2
concentrates to achieve 1% or less in the
overall smelter feed. Flotation is most
commonly performed at a pH of about 8;
however, some cleaning circuits have
practiced lower pH conditions as an aid
to gangue rejection. Low-pH scaveng-
ing of the final tailings streams is not
practiced, but has been considered by
most operators at one time or another as
a means of increasing the recovery of the
slow floating pyrrhotites. Various col-
lectors, activators, frothers, and depres-
sants are in use. Xanthates (sodium isobu-
tyl, sodium-normal propyl, and sodium
ethyl) and dithiophosphates (ethyl, bu-
tyl, and isobutyl) are the most common
collectors. Copper sulfate is used exclu-
sively as an activator for the slower float-
ing pendlandite and pyrrhotite miner-
als. Depressant and frother use varies
enormously with the particular gangue
mineralogy; the most common depres-
sants being the carboxymethyl cellulose
and guar based reagents.
The use of gangue and, particularly,
talc depressants can have a significant
impact upon not only concentrate grades
but also upon PGM recoveries. In the
past, gravity concentration (corduroy
tables) was used as a primary recovery
technique for the heavy PGM minerals
in the Merensky ores. Although this pro-
cess was discontinued in the 1970s, high-
grade gravity concentrates were still re-
covered from the flotation concentrates
and bypassed the smelting and base
metal refining operation. Anglo Plati-
num is the only operator that still uses
this technique and sends so-called
metallics direct to its PGM refinery. Typi-
cal flowsheets are appended in Figure 1.
Depending upon the age of the flota-
tion plant, a wide range of flotation equip-
ment can be in use. Recent trends have
been to use larger cells in the tank cell
design. Impala Platinum’s new
Merensky circuit uses the largest cells at
present–—Outokumpu 130 m 3 tank
cells—as roughers/scavengers. The high
specific gravity of the UG2 ores and the
coarse primary grinds have limited the
use of such large tank cell designs in
UG2 circuits, but 70 m3 tank cells are
planned for such duty in the soon-to-be-
commissioned Anglo Platinum UG2
plant in Rustenburg. The same plant will
use 130 m3 tank cells on the finer grinds
in the scavenger section. Long residence
times are typical of the flotation plants
because of the high value of the recov-
ered material; residence times greater
than 60 minutes in the main stream of
flotation are not uncommon. Cleaner
residence times have also been increased
in some cases and have improved con-
centrator recoveries. With higher power
inputs in the flotation cells, at least one
company has specified power intensi-
ties of no less than 3 kW /m3 for rougher
and scavenger applications.
SMELTING
The early smelting techniques used
the Rustenburg area utilized four blast
JOM • October 2001
 trates from the three ore types has a large
Milling Mag Sep Leach PGM's impact on the percentage of matte aris-
ing from each tonne of concentrate (matte
fall) and the consequent furnace matte
Cu Removal Primary Secondary Residue compositions. However, typical furnace
Matte
matte grades are 10–20% Ni, 10–15% Cu,
0.5% Co, 30–40% Fe, and 20–30%S. The
Pb Removal Smelter Se Removal
iron- and sulfur-rich nature of the mattes
requires a costly converting step. Fur-
Co Removal Co Sulfate nace slags are normally granulated,
milled and floated to recover any pos-
sible PGM values; at one operation the
Nickel EW Ni Cathode Copper EW converter slag is also milled and floated
rather than returning the various spinels
Sodium to the electric-arc furnace. This practice
S Removal NaOH Cu Cathode has been one of the ways in which the
Sulfate
pyrometallurgical operations have con-
Figure 4. The Anglo Platinum-Base Metal Refinery. tained the shift toward more UG2 ore
treatment and the resultant higher
chromite grades in the furnace feed
HCI & Cl2 Gold SX Au streams. Smelting UG2 concentrates
PGM Pressure poses two basic problems: the low level
Concentrate Leach of matte-forming materials (giving rise
Palladium Pd
to high slag losses) and the refractory
nature of the chrome spinels in the fur-
Platinum Pt
Residue nace operations. Most furnace opera-
Recycle tions have at one time or another met
Ru Ru with difficulty in managing the furnace
during periods of high UG2 concentrate
Iridium SX Ir treatment; the spinels (magnetite and
Waste
chromite from the converter slag return
Values and/or from the feed materials) tend to
Rhodium IX Rh
Recovery
lie between the matte and slag layer.
Metal Preparation This can lead to conductivity problems
in the melt and to a frozen furnace if not
handled correctly and quickly.
Figure 5. A typical solvent extraction flowsheet for PGM refining. CONVERTING
Pierce Smith converters are currently
furnaces and Great-Falls-type convert- furnaces utilized at present are the 39 preferred for iron and sulfur removal.
ers. In the 1960s, electric submerged arc MVA six-in-line copper-cooled furnaces Anglo Platinum, however, is in the pro-
furnaces became the preferred technique at Impala Platinum and Rustenburg cess of changing to Ausmelt furnaces for
because of difficulties of preparing com- Platinum Mines. These measure about the converting operation. High-sulfur
petent pellets for the blast furnaces and 8.2 m ¥ 25.9 m and can process about mattes, produced from the furnace
the higher temperatures needed to main- 35,000 tonnes per month of concentrates; mattes, typically contain 46–48% Ni, 27–
tain fluidity of the relatively high MgO theoretical power requirements are 900 28% Cu, 1–3%Fe, 1% Co and 22–23% S.
slags. Typical concentrate compositions kW h/t for Merensky concentrates and Anglo Platinum continues treat its con-
are listed in Table III. 1,100 kW h/t for UG2 concentrates.13 In verter mattes with the slow-cooling pro-
Temperatures of up to 1,450∞C are practice, the larger furnaces have oper- cess; this process, developed in conjunc-
required in slags, with even higher tem- ated at as low as 650 kW h/t for mixed tion with Johnson-Matthey in the 1960s,
peratures needed for pure UG2 concen- concentrates, but a typical design figure allows a high percentage of the PGMs to
trates. Rectangular six-in-line furnaces is 750–850 kW h/t depending upon fur- be collected into a magnetic alloy. The
and circular three-electrode furnaces are nace size and heat losses.14 Plans are in slightly higher iron and sulfur levels in
both in use, although the six-in-line is place for a 160 MVA six-in-line furnace the matte for slow cooling also improve
more popular. Although power densi- at Pietersburg to service the eastern limb cobalt recoveries across the smelter sig-
ties of up to 180 kW /m2 are normal, with of the Anglo Platinum expansion. nificantly. This magnetic PGM-rich al-
the increasing amount of UG2 concen- Slags are tapped from the furnaces loy is collected at high efficiency after
trates being treated, higher power den- continuously, while mattes are tapped matte crushing, milling, and wet mag-
sities (as much 400 kW /m2) are being intermittently for transfer to the con- netic separation such that PGMs are re-
considered in new designs. Soon to be verting operation. Limestone or burnt moved before base-metal leaching. The
commissioned is the Lonhro 12 m diam- lime is added as a flux to most opera- other SA producers leach the total matte
eter 27 MVA circular three-electrode fur- tions, and concentrates for feeding are stream and the PGMs are recovered in
nace designed at a maximum of 250 kW either flash dried or spray dried before the base metal refining residue.
/m2 and reported capable of handling pneumatic transfer to the furnaces. The Converter off-gases are cleaned prior
feeds of up to 4% Cr2O3. The largest amount of base metals in the concen- to acid manufacture at two of the four
operating smelters; at the smaller smelt-
Table III. Concentrate Compositions ing complexes, sulfur dioxide from the
Concentrate % SiO2 %MgO %FeO %CaO %Al2O3 %Cr2O3 converting process is emitted directly to
Merensky* 30–40 10–20 25–35 <5 <5 <1 the surrounding atmosphere. All future
UG2 40–50 20–30 10–15 <5 <5 <5 installations in SA will be expected to
* Plat Reef concentrate is similar to Merensky concentrate.12 achieve much higher environmental

2001 October • JOM 17

standards. The bulk of the sulfuric acid
produced is utilized to manufacture
ammonium phosphate based fertilizers.15
Overall smelting recoveries are in the
range of 97–99% for most PGMs16 and
typically 95–97% for copper and nickel.
Cobalt recoveries are as low as 20% or as
high as 50% for the higher iron mattes. A
brief pyrometallurgical flowsheet is ap-
pended in Figure 2.
BASE METAL REFINING
There are four base metal refining
operations in South Africa, and each is
tied to a particular PGM producer. Anglo
Platinum’s unit has a capacity of 21,000
tonne per annum of nickel, Impala’s unit
has capacity for about 12,000 tonne per
annum nickel, and the Lonhro and
Northam units are much smaller (3,000–
5,000 tonne per annum) and only pro-
cess to the final products of copper metal
and nickel sulfates. All of these leach
operations are sulfate-based and are
hybrids of the Sherrit-Gordon sulfuric-
acid pressure leach process. Impala Plati-
num has opted for hydrogen reduction
for nickel metal, thus producing an am-
monium sulfate waste stream. Anglo
Platinum uses nickel electrowinning and,
thus, produces a sodium-sulfate waste
stream. Brief flowsheets are appended
for the Impala and Anglo Platinum op-
erations in Figures 3 and 4. The now
closed Hartley Platinum operations
opted for a sulfate leach using
Outokumpu technology for the nickel
leach and copper technology from the
SA platinum operations.17
The primary issues driving the base
metal refining economics are the reagent
consumptions for sulfur removal, the
selection of hydrogen or electric power
as the nickel production method, and
the treatment of PGMs. Security issues,
pipelines, and losses to residues requir-
ing retreatment or recycling are impor-
tant because of the relative value of PGMs
in these circuits.
With typical recoveries for the base
metals in the high 90 percent range, there
is little room for improvement. Metal
quality is generally suitable for the stain-
less-steel market, but the electrowon
metal is generally of a higher purity than
the hydrogen-reduced metal. Copper
quality cannot compete with the high-
grade solvent extraction-electrowinning
circuits in the copper industry.
Refining capacities are under review
at several of the SA PGM producers
currently to align the base-metal opera-
tions capacities with the major PGM pro-
duction expansions planned over the
next several years. The opportunities for
technological improvement and reduced
unit costs are important considerations.
PRECIOUS METAL REFINING
The details of the South African Pre-
cious Metal Refining processes are highly
18
confidential. Each of the three major PGM
operators—Anglo Platinum, Impala
Platinum, and Lonhro Platinum—have
developed a unique approach to refin-
ing the individual PGMs. PGMs from
Northam Platinum are being refined in
Europe. Anglo’s refinery is based on
solvent-extraction developments done
in conjunction with Johnson Matthey in
the 1970s. The Lonhro and Impala refin-
eries are based more upon the classical
PGM chloride chemistry and involve
repeated precipitation and dissolution
steps to purify the metals. However, the
use of the new molecular recognition
technology is reported to have improved
palladium extraction circuits at the Im-
pala Platinum refinery. A typical
flowsheet (Figure 5) for the solvent ex-
traction process18 is appended; the pre-
vious classical chemical approach has
been documented elsewhere.19
Feed materials typically contain 30–
50% PGMs in the base metal refining
residue. Anglo Platinum’s gravity con-
centrate is somewhat lower in PGM con-
tent than the typical refinery feed.
Metallurgical efficiencies are very high
for all methods, as might be expected for
such high value products. Although re-
coveries exceed 99.5%, for some of the
elements, particularly ruthenium,
rhodium, and iridium, the level of re-
cycle is very high. Therefore, inventories
of the precious metals can be extremely
high and pipeline times of one to six
months are common, depending upon
the metal.
High-purity products are produced
to meet market expectations; most refin-
eries routinely produce metal that is
99.99% pure. Even 99.999% pure metal is
produced for some applications. The
bulk of the metals are produced as finely
divided sponge, but Good Delivery bars
and grain are also prepared.
The rise of syndicated crime within
the South African society has lead to
increasingly tight security measures at
all refineries. Anglo Platinum’s refinery
is designed in three increasing levels of
security and all access to the processing
area is only through a strip-search facil-
ity. Video cameras, searches, airlocks,
and control procedures are used to pre-
vent theft.
BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES AND
FUTURE CONCERNS
To remain competitive, the South Af-
rican PGM producers must maintain a
metallurgical focus on their area of high-
est loss, that is, in the concentrator op-
erations, and on their high precious metal
inventories in the refineries. The deple-
tion of the low-cost Merensky reserves
and the increasing exploitation of the
UG2 reefs also challenges metallurgists
to develop suitable cost-effective meth-
ods for treating high-chrome concen-
trates from the flotation process. This
must be done against the background of
increased flotation recoveries if the op-
erations are to remain competitive. Sev-
eral potential treatment routes have been
documented and are worth more de-
tailed examination. Both pyrometallur-
gical20 and hydrometallurgic21–23 routes
can be considered.
References
1. I.J. Corrans et al., “The Recovery of Platinum-Group
Metals from Ore of the UG-2 Reef in the Bushveld Complex,”
XIIth CMMI Congress Johannesburg (Johannesburg: South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1982), p. 629.
2. C.B. Beath, C.A. Cousins, and R.J. Westwood, “The Exploi-
tation of the Platiniferous Ores of the Bushveld Igneous
Complex with Particular Reference to the Rustenburg Plati-
num Mines,” VIIth CMMI Congress (Johannesburg: South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1961), p. 221.
3. K.S. Liddell, L.B. McRae, and R.C. Dunne, “Process Routes
for Beneficiation of Noble Metals from Merensky and UG-2
Ores,” Extraction Mmetallurgys ’85 (London: IMM, 1985), p.
796.
4. C.F. Vermaak and L.P. Hendriks, “A Review of the Miner-
alogy of the Merensky Reef, with Specific Reference to New
Data on the Precious Metal Mineralogy,” Economic Geology,
71, (1976), p. 1252.
5. J.P.R. deVilliers, H.J. Brynard, and L. Viviers, A Mineralogi-
cal Investigation of Ores from the Merensky Reef and Their
Flotation Products, Mintek Report No. 1966 (National Insti-
tute for Metallurgy, 1978), p. 5
6. G.A. Kinston and B.T. El-Dosuky, “A Contribution on the
Platinum-Group Mineralogy of the Merensky Reef at the
Rustenburg Platinum Mine,” Economic Geology, 77 (1982) p.
1368.
7. C.F. Vermaak and L.P. Hendriks, “A Review of the Miner-
alogy of the Merensky Reef, with Specific Reference to New
Data on the Precious Metal Mineralogy,” Economic Geology,
71 (1976), p. 1266.
8. L.J. Corrans et al., "The Recovery of Platinum-Group
Metals from Ore of the UGZ Reef in the Bushveld Complex"
(Johannesburg: South African Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgy), p. 629.
9. R.A. Snodgrass, M.P. Hay, and P.J. DuPreez, “Process
Development and Design of the Northam Merensky Con-
centrator,” XVth CMMI Congress, Johannesburg
(Johannesburg: South African Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, 1994), p. 352.
10. K.S. Liddell, L.B. McRae, and R.C. Dunne, “Process
Routes for Beneficiation of Noble Metals from Merensky and
UG-2 Ores,” Extraction Metallurgy ’85 (London: IMM, 1985),
p. 795.
11. I.J. Corrans, R.C. Dunne, and S.A. Allison, “The Recovery
of Platinum-Group Metals from the Chromite Reefs of the
Bushveld Complex,” XIVth International Minerals Processing
Congress Toronto (Toronto: Canadian Institute of Mining,
1982), p. II-10-19.
12. L.A. Cramer, “Cu-Ni-PGM Smelting and Refining” The
SAIMM Pyrometallurgical Colloquium (May 1997), p. 3.
13. The Successful Development of an Industrial Process for the
Recovery of Platinum-Group Metals from the UG-2 Reef, Mintek
Application Report No. 1 (Johannesburg: Mintele, 1987), p. 7.
14. R.T. Jones, “Platinum Smelting in South Africa,” South
African J. Sci., 95 (Nov/Dec 1999), p. 532.
15. R.P. Plaskett, and D.A. Ireland, “Ancillary Smelter Op-
erations and Sulphuric Acid Manufacture at Impala Plati-
num Ltd.,” J. SAIMM, (August 1976), p. 6.
16. K.S. Liddell, L.B. McRae, and R.C. Dunne, “Process
Routes for Beneficiation of Noble Metals from Merensky and
UG-2 Ores,” Extraction Metallurgy ’85 (London: IMM, 1985),
p. 799.
17. G.W.G. Montgomery and T.N. Holohan, “Development
and Design of the Hartley Platinum Base Metal Refinery
Flowsheet,” SAIMM Colloquium ‘Trends in Base Metal Smelt-
ing and Refining’ (Johannesburg: South African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, April 1997), p. 2.
18. C.F. Vermaak, “The Platinum Group Metals, A Global
Perspective” (Randburg, SA: Mintek, 1995), p. 90.
19. A.F.S. Gouldsmith and B Wilson, “Extraction and Refin-
ing of the Platinum Metals,” Platinum Metals Review, 7 (4)
(Oct. 1963), pp. 136–143.
20. Mintek patent application in RSA no. 82966 (February
1994).
21. C.A. Fleming et al., “A Process for the Simultaneous
Leaching and Recovery of Gold, Platinum Group Metals and
Base Metals from Ores and Concentrates,” EDP Congress
2000, ed. B. Mishra (Warrendale, PA: TMS, 2000), pp. 419–
431.
22. UG Plus International Inc. patent “Dry Chlorination of
PGM Bearing Chromite Ores” (South Africa: 1996).
23. S. Duyvesteyn, H. Liu, and W.P.C. Duyvesteyn, “Recov-
ery of Platinum Group Metals from Oxide Ores—TML Pro-
cess,” U.S. patent application 896,675 (June 1992).
Larry A. Cramer is feasibility study manager of Anglo Platinum
Corporation, Johannesburg, South Africa.
For more information, contact Larry Cramer,
Anglo Platinum Corporation, 28 Harrison St.,
Johannesburg Gauteng 2000; phone: 27-11-373-
6306; e-mail lcramer@angloplat.com.
JOM • October 2001