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Prithwiraj Mal
National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad
CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 222
12.2 Testing of Fibres ........................................................................................... 223
12.2.1 Identification of Fibres ..................................................................... 223
12.2.2 Fibre Fineness Testing ......................................................................... 223
12.2.2.1 Terms and Definitions (With Reference to Cotton Fibre).......223
12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle 224
12.2.3 Fibre Length Testing............................................................................ 226
12.2.3.1 Terms and Definitions 226
12.2.3.2 Measuring Principle 226
12.2.4 Fibre Strength Testing ......................................................................... 227
12.2.4.1 Terms and Definitions 227
12.2.4.2 Measuring Principle 227
12.3 Testing of Yarns ........................................................................................... 228
12.3.1 Testing of Yarn Count and Twist ........................................................... 228
12.3.1.1 Terms and Definitions 228
12.3.1.2 Measuring Principle 229
12.3.2 Tensile Testing of Yarn ..................................................................... 230
12.3.2.1 Terms and Definitions 230
12.3.2.2 Measuring Principle 230
12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate 232
12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length 232
12.3.3 Evenness Testing of Yarn ................................................................. 233
12.3.3.1 Terms and Definitions 233
12.3.3.2 Measuring Principle 233
12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram ................................................. 234
12.3.4 Hairiness Testing of Yarn ................................................................. 235
221
222 Fibres to Smart Textiles
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Testing of textile materials refers to the methodical assessment of fibre, yarn and fab-
ric characteristics such as fibre length, fineness, strength, yarn count, twist, strength,
evenness and hairiness, fabric thickness, weight, strength, durability, serviceability,
comfort, colour fastness, aesthetic and low stress mechanical properties. The basic
objectives of textile testing are the checking of raw materials, monitoring of produc-
tion, assessment of final product, investigation of faulty materials, product devel-
opment and research. In a textile industry, testing has occupied a very important
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 223
position nowadays. It has become a routine practice for every textile industry to
subject its products for systematic testing before being released to the market. The
saleability of a textile product is primarily assessed by means of testing. Process and
quality control turn out to be meaningless without testing. A sound testing system
ensures the prevention of excessive amount of faulty materials from passing through
before detection. Thus, testing of textiles is analogous to the fact that prevention is
better than cure. With the increasing globalization and overgrowing competition,
there is a high demand for rapid, automatic and accurate testing of products using
high-tech instruments in the textile industries worldwide.
• Maturity – depends on the degree of cell wall thickness. Mature fibre has
a thick and well-developed fibre wall, whereas immature fibre has thin and
poorly developed fibre wall.
• Mature fibre content (N) – percentage of all fibres within cotton samples
that have θ > 0.5.
• Immature fibre content (D) – percentage of all fibres within a cotton sample
that have θ < 0.25.
• Maturity ratio (M) – ratio of the actual degree of thickening to a stan-
dard degree of thickening equal to 0.577. According to Lord (1961),
ND
M 0.7.
200
• Specific surface (S) – surface area/unit volume of fibres. Specific surface is
greater for finer fibres.
• Micronaire value (µg/inch) – product of fibre fineness in µg/inch and matu-
rity ratio, M.
P km2l2S2
R (12.1)
Q Al m 3
where ΔP = pressure difference developed across the mass of cotton fibres con-
strained in a perforated cylindrical plug, Q = volume rate of airflow through the
plug, k = shape factor, = viscosity of air, = overall density of fibre, m = mass
of fibre, A = cross-sectional area of the plug, l = length of the plug, S = specific
surface of the fibres constituting the plug. It thus turns out from Equation (12.1)
that the resistance to airflow is directly proportional to the square of the spe-
cific surface of the fibres, provided that all other parameters remain constant.
Therefore, for a fixed pressure drop (ΔP), the rate of airflow through the plug,
Q, is inversely proportional to the square of the specific surface, S . Further, the
fibre micronaire value is also inversely proportional to the square of the specific
surface (Anderson 1983). Thus, the rate of airflow through the plug gives an esti-
mation of fibre micronaire value. A schematic representation of airflow method is
depicted in Figure 12.1.
Lenzing Vibroskop 500 determines the linear density by means of vibration
method for synthetic fibres. Figure 12.2 shows a schematic diagram of a vibrating
fibre. Before a test, an appropriate pretension weight (W) has to be selected and
set on the instrument. Thereafter, a fibre with the corresponding pretension weight
is loaded into the instrument. Then the fibre is set into its natural vibration by an
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 225
electronic delta impulse. The linear density is derived from the fibre’s vibration fre-
quency as follows (Booth 1986):
t
Fibre denier 9 10 5 (12.2)
4L2 f 2
where t = fibre tension (dyn), L = effective fibre length (cm), f = natural frequency of
vibration (Hz).
FIGURE 12.3 A fibrogram showing mean length, upper half mean length, 2.5% and 50%
span lengths.
FIGURE 12.4 Electric signals of (a) normal fibre and (b) short fibre.
sensor. The corresponding impulses are converted into electrical signals for the
analysis of fibre length, nep and maturity. Figure 12.4 shows typical electric sig-
nals for normal and short fibres. A wide range of fibre length parameters such as
average length (mm), length distribution, short fibre content (%), length coefficient
of variation (CV) (%), etc. by weight as well as by number can be obtained from
this instrument.
to estimate the fibre bundle strength. A random sample of cotton fibres is prepared,
short fibres being removed by combing so that all the fibres in the test specimen
extend all the way through the jaws.
USTER® HVI 1000 uses a constant rate of extension principle for tensile testing
of cotton fibre bundle. A fibre beard is formed, the mass of which is measured at
a number of points along the fibre length from the fibrogram (Saville 1999). Based
on the results from the fibrogram, a point is selected at a certain distance from
the clamp to perform a strength test using jaws with 3 mm separation as shown in
Figure 12.5.
• Twist angle (α) – angle between a tangent to the helix formed by the fibre
and the yarn axis.
• Twist factor (K) – for direct system, twist/cm tex ; for indirect sys-
twist per inch
tem, K , which is also termed as twist multiplier.
Ne
1,000M
tex (12.3)
L
where M = weight of the specimen (g) and L = length of the specimen (m).
USTER® ZWEIGLE TWIST TESTER 5 uses untwist–retwist method for mea-
suring the yarn twist/unit length. In this method, the yarn is untwisted and retwisted
back to its original length. The operating principle of this instrument is depicted in
Figure 12.6 (USTER® ZWEIGLE 2009). In a first step, the yarn is untwisted until it
reaches a state where all the fibres become parallel to yarn axis. At this stage, yarn
reaches the largest extension. In a second step, the yarn is retwisted in the same
direction until the yarn reaches its original length. This makes a change of yarn
twist from Z-direction to S-direction and vice versa. Total number of turns is then
converted to twist/unit length.
is expressed as gauge factor (G), which is defined as the unit change in resistance per
unit change in length, hence
R/R
G (12.4)
l /l
The strain gauges are bonded to a cantilever metallic beam as shown in Figure 12.8.
The yarn specimen is clamped between two jaws. The upper jaw is attached to the
free end of the cantilever beam and the lower jaw is lowered at a constant velocity,
which develops tensile loading in the specimen. Under this loading, the cantilever
beam bends such that outer strain gauges are subjected to tension while the inner
gauges undergo compression. Thus, the applied load in the specimen causes changes
in dimensions of the strain gauge, which in turn causes changes in resistances. The
magnitude of the load applied can be obtained by measuring the changes in resis-
tances of the strain gauges. Basically, the strain gauges are connected to form a
Whetstone bridge as shown in Figure 12.9. Before the application of load, the bridge
is balanced, thus the voltage output becomes zero. The bridge is balanced if
R1 R2
(12.5)
R3 R4
FIGURE 12.9 Four resistances are connected in the form of a Whetstone bridge.
232 Fibres to Smart Textiles
An application of load causes the changes in resistances of the strain gauges; there-
fore, the bridge becomes unbalanced. The unbalancing of the bridge causes an out-
put voltage V0 that is proportional to the applied load. The output voltage is amplified
with a suitable electric circuit and converted into a digital signal.
With the advent of high-speed tensile testing such as USTER® TENSOJET 4, it
is now possible to achieve a clamp speed of 400 m/min, which requires only 3 ms
time to break a specimen. Such a high clamp speed enables around 30,000 tests per
hour; hence, a spinning mill can predict the weaveability of the yarn (Kothari 1999).
0.6lE
t (12.6)
V
where E = % breaking elongation of yarn, l = test length in mm, t = time to break the
specimen in second, V = extension rate in mm/min.
The rate of extension during tensile testing influences yarn tenacity. Rapid strain-
ing of yarn results in a higher breaking load. Midgley and Peirce (1926) were the first
to study the effect of extension rate on yarn tenacity and showed that the breaking
load of a cotton yarn was inversely proportional to the logarithm of the time to break
the yarn. This relationship was approximately valid over a range of times from 1/50 s
to a month. Meridith (1950) established the following empirical equation for break-
ing times ranging between a second and an hour:
where F1 is breaking load at time t1, F2 is breaking load in time t2 and k is the
strength-time coefficient. The strength-time coefficient is the gradient of the average
slope of the lines obtained when the breaking loads are plotted against the logarithm
of the time to break. It was observed that the strength of cotton yarn decreases by
approximately 9% for a tenfold increase in time to break and the value of k is close
to 0.09 (Meridith 1950).
1
Sl0 Sl 4.21 m 5 l0
(12.8)
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 233
l
1
m5 (12.9)
l0
where Sl0 and l0 are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the specimen
at a gauge length l0; Sl and l are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the
specimen at a gauge length l; and m l /l0.
FIGURE 12.11 A diagram indicating variations in mass/unit length along the length of
yarn.
FIGURE 12.13 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® TESTER with hairiness
attachment.
236 Fibres to Smart Textiles
protruding fibres from the main body of the yarn reaches the detector. The hairiness
measurement is done by the amount of scattered light that is converted to an electric
signal by the apparatus. Therefore, this instrument monitors only the total hairiness.
The testing speed of this instrument is 800 m/min.
USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400 hairiness tester counts the number of hairs simultane-
ously by a set of photocells that are located at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mm distances from
the yarn edge as shown in Figure 12.14. The yarn is illuminated by a light source from
the opposite side of the photocells. While the yarn runs past the measuring device, the
presence of a hair between the light and photocell momentarily interrupts the light
beam, and an electronic circuit counts the interruption as one hair (Saville 1999). The
instrument measures the total number of hairs in each length category, including S3
and S1 + 2. The speed at which the yarn is fed to the instrument is 400 m/min.
and courses/inch for knitted fabrics. Fabric count measurement is done with the help
of a pick glass. The fabric is placed flat and relaxed on a table. Then, the number of
yarns/loops is counted individually in one inch using pick glass in both the direc-
tions of the fabrics and reported.
12.4.1.2 Crimp
Crimp is the waviness of the warp and weft yarns in a fabric due to their interlace-
ments (Booth 1986). Crimp is expressed in percentage (%) and is defined as the ratio
of difference between the straightened thread length and the distance between the
ends of the threads while in cloth to the distance between the ends of the threads
while in cloth, expressed as a percentage. To check the crimp % of warp, a fabric of
specific dimension is cut (say l0 × l0). The length of the fabric is the length of warp
in the cloth. Now, a warp thread is removed from the fabric. The yarn is straightened
with specific tension and the length is measured (say l1). The crimp can be calculated
using the following formula:
l1 l0
Crimp 100% (12.10)
l0
Crimp of weft yarns can be measured using the same principle by taking the thread
along the width of the fabric.
12.4.2.2 Thickness
Fabric thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the fabric
and can be measured by a precision thickness gauge known as fabric thickness tester
as shown in Figure 12.15 (ASTM D1777-07 2007). The fabric is kept on a flat anvil
and a circular pressure foot is pressed on the fabric from top with a standard load.
The thickness can be noted directly from the dial indicator in millimetre.
238 Fibres to Smart Textiles
12.4.2.3 Shrinkage
The dimensional stability of a fabric is a measure of the extent to which it keeps its
original dimensions (length and width). A higher dimensional stability of textiles is
always desirable. A decrease in dimension is known as shrinkage, while an increase
in dimension is known as growth. Usually fabrics shrink during garment manu-
facturing and washing due to relaxation of the fibres/yarns, swelling of fibres and
felting. To calculate the shrinkage of a fabric, a specimen of size 50 cm × 50 cm is
taken and marks are placed at a distance of minimum 25 cm in both directions of the
fabric (along the length and width of the fabric). After marking, the fabric specimen
is washed in a washing machine with suitable specifications. Washing is followed by
rinsing and drying. Dried specimen is conditioned in standard testing atmosphere
and the markings are re-measured. The percentage shrinkage of the fabric can be
calculated using the following formula:
FIGURE 12.17 (a) Tensile strength tester, (b) strip test sample, and (c) grab test sample.
In strip test, a fabric of width 2 and ½ inch is taken, and threads are removed from
both the edges until the width is reduced to 2 inches. The test length for strip test is
8 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows gripping the specimen
in the jaws of a tensile strength tester. The specimen is then mounted centrally in
the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Then the load is applied till the specimen
ruptures (Kothari 1999).
In grab strength testing, the effective width of the specimen is 4 inch and the
width of the jaw used is 1 inch. This means grab test uses jaws that are narrower
than the fabric specimen and only the central 1 inch of the fabric is stressed. The test
length for strip test is 3 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows
gripping the specimen in the jaws of the tensile strength tester. The specimen is then
mounted in the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Load is applied till the speci-
men ruptures (Kothari 1999; Saville 1999).
During tear, either a single yarn breaks or a small group of yarns break together.
A fabric that allows the threads to group together under the application of tearing
force exhibits better tearing resistance. For example, 2/2 matt or satin fabric allows
the thread to group together (due to comparatively less number of interlacements)
than a plain woven fabric; therefore, a 2/2 matt or satin fabric exhibits more tear
strength (or tear resistance) than plain fabric.
FIGURE 12.20 (a) Lissajous figure, (b) Martindale abrasion tester and (c) a holder for abra-
sion tester.
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 243
12.4.6.2 Pilling
Pilling means small little balls that arise on a fabric due to rubbing action, giving an
unsightly appearance. The pilling propensity is determined by fibre entangle- ment,
leading to pill formation, development of more surface fibre or fibre and
FIGURE 12.21 (a) Mace snagging test, (b) fabric before snagging test and (c) fabric after
snagging test.
244 Fibres to Smart Textiles
pill wear off. The degree of pilling and surface fuzziness can be determined by
Martindale method, Pill Box method and Random Tumble method (ISO 12945-1
2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO 12945-3 2014). In Martindale method, the face of
the test specimen is rubbed against the face of the same fabric at a specific force in
the form of a Lissajous figure for a definite number of rubbing cycles in Martindale
Abrasion tester. After completion of the test, the sample is removed and assessed
visually.
In Pill Box method, specimens are mounted on polyurethane tubes and tumbled
randomly in a cork-lined box at a constant rotational speed (Figure 12.22). After
completion of definite rotational cycles, the specimen is removed and pilling is
assessed visually.
In Random Tumble method, fabric specimens are subjected to random rubbing
motion produced among them in a cylindrical test chamber lined with abrasive mate-
rial. Small amount of grey cotton lint is also added in the cylinder to resemble the
pills that are produced on fabrics/garments. After a specific number of cycles, fabrics
are removed and assessed visually.
After pilling tests, the samples are assessed by comparing them with a set of
photographic standards, and the rating is given from 5 (no pilling) to 1 (very severe
pilling) as shown in Figure 12.23 (ISO 12945-1 2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO
12945-3 2014).
12.4.7 Comfort
Comfort is one of the most desirable attribute of textiles. ‘Comfort’ is a subjective
perception and could be achieved through satisfactory interaction of several attri-
butes like physiological, psychological and physical factors. Among these attributes,
the thermo-physiological comfort is the most influential one affecting the overall
comfort level (Geralds et al. 2008; Saville 1999). Attributes like air permeability,
thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, thermal absorptivity, absorbency, wicking
and moisture vapour transmission rate of a textile are the deciding parameters of
thermo-physiological comfort.
where Q is the quantity of heat conducted (J), h is the thickness of the material (m), A
is the area of the surface (m2), ∆T is the temperature differential across the material
(K) and t is the time (s).
The thermal absorptivity is the measurement of warm-cool feeling of the textile
material at first contact of the skin. It is expressed as follows:
Thermal absorptivity c
1/ 2
Ws1/2 /m2K (12.13)
where λ is thermal conductivity (W/mK), c is the specific heat of the material (J/kg)
and ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3).
A higher thermal conductivity value indicates higher ability of the material to
conduct heat, whereas a higher thermal absorptivity implies cooler feeling and vice
versa (Pac et al. 2001). Thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity can be mea-
sured using Alambeta instrument. The schematic diagram of an Alambeta (Sensora
1990) instrument is shown in Figure 12.25. The instrument consists of two measuring
heads between which the test specimen is mounted. Both measuring heads have heat
flow sensors. The lower plate is adjusted to the ambient temperature (22°C) by suit-
able cooling means, whereas the upper plate is adjusted to a controlled constant dif-
ferential temperature (at 32°C). When the upper head is lowered on the sample, heat
flow at the upper surface and the underside of the test specimen can be measured.
The contact pressure between the heads and the sample is maintained at 200 Pa.
The heat sensors detect the amount of heat flow from the hot surface to the cold
surface. Another sensor measures the thickness of the sample. These values are used
to evaluate the thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity of the fabric sample.
12.4.7.3 Absorbency
A fabric with more absorbency provides better comfort in hot and humid climate.
The absorbency of textile fabrics can be measured by Static Immersion test, Drop
test and Sink test (Saville 1999). Static immersion test measures the total amount of
water that a fabric can absorb. In this method, a weighed fabric specimen is immersed
in water for a given period of time, taken out and excess water is removed by shak-
ing. The samples are then weighed again, and the weight of the water is calculated as
the percentage of dry weight of the fabric.
Sink test measures the time taken by a fabric to sink in water. A fabric specimen
of definite size is dropped on the surface of a beaker of water. The time taken by
the specimen to sink below the surface is measured. Shorter time to sink indicates
greater absorbency.
Drop test measures the total time required by a drop of water to sink into the
fabric. In this test, a fabric specimen is clamped onto an embroidery frame fixed on
a horizontal plane. The fabric specimen is illuminated from 45° angle and is viewed
at 45° angle from opposite direction. A drop of water is placed on the specimen with
the help of a burette from a definite height and the timer is started. As long as the
water drop stays on the fabric surface, light reflects. When the reflection from the
liquid vanishes, the timer is stopped and measured.
24M g
WVP /day (12.15)
At m2
where M = loss in mass (g), t = time between weighings (h), A = internal area of
dish (m2).
The WVP index can be calculated using the following formula.
WVPt 100
Water vapour permeability index (12.16)
WVPr
where WVPt = water vapour permeability of test specimen and WVP r = water
vapour permeability of reference fabric.
12.4.7.5 Wicking
Wicking is the transportation of liquid through the surface of a fabric without being
absorbed (Saville 1999). To test the wick ability of a fabric, a strip of that fabric
specimen is suspended with its lower edge suspended in a beaker of distilled water
(Figure 12.27). The rate of rise of leading edge of water through the fabric is mea-
sured. To detect the leading edge of water, dye can be added. The height of dyed
water raised in the fabric in given time indicates the wick ability of the fabric.
A textile that loses little or no colour due to various caring and environmental factors
is said to have good colour fastness and vice versa. For example, if a coloured fabric
does not bleed colour while washing, then that fabric is said to have an excellent
colour fastness to washing, whereas if the fabric bleeds colour, then the fabric is said
to have poor colour fastness to washing. Apart from the colour change of the textile,
assessment of colour staining is also important, as textiles are usually in contact with
each other, especially during using and caring like rubbing, washing, dry cleaning,
etc. Hence, there is a possibility of migration of colour from one textile to the other.
Therefore, the colour fastness of a textile is assessed with respect to the following:
FIGURE 12.28 (a) Grey scale for colour change, (b) grey scale for colour staining and
(b) multi-fibre fabric.
250 Fibres to Smart Textiles
FIGURE 12.30 (a) Crockmeter and (b) sample after dry and wet crocking.
FIGURE 12.31 (a) Launderometer and (b) sample and multi-fibre fabric before and after
washing.
252 Fibres to Smart Textiles
fabric), appropriate detergent solution and stainless steel balls are sealed inside the
canister, and a water bath is heated to the desired temperature. Stainless steel balls
give agitation to simulate action of hand or machine wash. The launderometer is
run for a definite time and then the sample is taken out, rinsed in water and dried
in shade. The washed fabric and the stained multi-fibre fabric are compared with
grey scales for colour fading and staining, respectively, and grades are given. A
higher grade for both the coloured and multi-fibre fabrics after washing indicates
better colour fastness property to washing. A lower grade concludes that the dyes
are not fixed well, and necessary action should be taken for better fixation of dyes
and pigments.
The specimen is then removed from the perspirometer, dried and then evaluated
for colour fading and staining on the adjacent multi-fibre fabric with the help of
grey scales.
FIGURE 12.33 (a) Colour fastness to light tester. (b) Sample for light fastness test.
the exposed and unexposed portion of the sample is compared with that of eight blue
wool standards, and a rating is given to the sample.
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