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Towards Reliable Power Electronics
Towards Reliable Power Electronics
Power Electronics
A
Challenges, Design new era of power electronics was created with the invention of the
thyristor in 1957. Since then, the evolution of modern power elec-
Tools, and Opportunities tronics has witnessed its full potential and is quickly expanding
in the applications of generation, transmission, distribution,
and end-user consumption of electrical power. The perfor-
mance of power electronic systems, especially in terms of ef-
ficiency and power density, has been continuously improved
by the intensive research and advancements in circuit topologies, control
schemes, semiconductors, passive components, digital signal processors,
HUAI WANG, MARCO LISERRE,
and system integration technologies.
and FREDE BLAABJERG
In recent years, the automotive and aerospace industries have brought strin-
gent reliability constraints on power electronic systems because of safety re-
quirements. The industrial and energy sectors are also following the same trend,
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2013.2252958
and more and more efforts are being devoted to improving power electronic
Date of publication: 17 June 2013 systems to account for reliability with cost-effective and sustainable solutions.
©Comstock
©digital vision
Handbook Calculations
Testing to Pass More Reliable
and Cost-Effective
Power Electronic
Systems
Physics-of-Failure Approach
Emerging and Critical Harsh Environments Design for Reliability
Applications
Reduction of Levelized-Cost-of-Energy
Increase of Power Density
Figure 1 shows the product drivers and progressively increased as the prod- 1) analytical analysis to understand
research trends for more cost-effective uct development proceeds. A high the nature of why and how power
and reliable power electronic systems. failure rate during field operations will electronic products fail, 2) the design
A better understanding of the re- also result in high maintenance costs. for reliability (DFR) process to build
liability of power electronic compo- Reliability of power electronics in- reliability and sufficient robustness
nents, converters, and systems will volves multiple disciplines. The same into power electronic products dur-
alleviate the challenges posed in both is true for power electronics, which ing each development process, and
reliability-critical applications and also involves a combination of tech- 3) accelerated testing and condition
cost-sensitive applications. Figure 2 nologies. In 1974, William E. Newell monitoring to perform robustness
describes a general optimization curve defined the scope of power electron- validation and ensure reliable field op-
to define the reliability specification ics based on three of the major disci- eration. A center formed from universi-
of a product in terms of achieving plines of electrical engineering shown ty–industry collaboration, the Center
minimum life cycle cost, in which the in Figure 3(a). Almost four decades of Reliable Power Electronics (CORPE)
impact of reliability on customer satis- later, from the authors’ perspective, at Aalborg University, Denmark, is
faction and brand value are not taken the scope of reliability of power elec- making efforts to promote the move
into account. The cost of correcting tronics is defined in Figure 3(b). It cov- toward reliable power electronics and
the deficiencies in the design phase is ers the following three major aspects: extend the scope of power electronics
that has been defined since 1974. For
further details, see “CORPE.”
The purpose of this article is to
give a brief description of the reliabil-
Product Life ity of power electronics and review
Cycle Cost
the state-of-the-art research on more
reliable power electronics.
Optimal Reliability for
Minimum Product Life
Cycle Cost Reliability Challenges
Cost
in Power Electronics
Reliability is defined as the ability of an
Product Cost item to perform a required function un-
Before Shipment der stated conditions for a certain pe-
(e.g., Design and riod of time, which is often measured
Development, by probability of failure, by frequency
Product Cost Production)
After Shipment of failure, or in terms of availability [1].
(e.g., Warranty) The essence of reliability engineering is
Rom to prevent the creation of failures. The
Reliability reliability challenges in power electron-
ics could be considered from different
FIGURE 2 – The reliability impact on cost. perspectives, such as the trends for
Ac d Tes
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Po
To ign
an rin
Sta men
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on
te
rifi nit
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uip
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ler t
De
r
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a-
Cir
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Pro sion
Mo
Ro ipme
Eq
Power Power
fi l e
nd ing
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ta t n t
u
Electronics
s
Electronics
itio
v ic
Mi
ing
Reliability
n
De
Analytical
Control Physics
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3 – The defined scope in (a) power electronics by William E. Newell in 1970s and (b) power electronics reliability by CORPE in 2010.
high-power-density products, emerg- from traditional testing for reliability as well as new opportunities for im-
ing high-temperature applications, and to DFR [3]. DFR is the process conduct- proving reliability, which are worth
reliability-critical applications (as illus- ed during the design phase of a com- investigating. Moreover, design tools
trated in Figure 1), including increasing ponent or system that ensures that the are rarely applied, except for reli-
electrical and electronic complexity, required level of reliability is achieved. ability prediction, in state-of-the-art
resource-consuming verification test- The process aims to understand and research on reliability of power elec-
ing, and so on. This article discusses fix the reliability problems in the de- tronic systems.
the challenges from experiences in the sign process up front. Accordingly, ■■ Overreliance on calculated value
field operations and shortcomings of many efforts have been devoted to of mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) or
the general practice applied in reliabil- considering the reliability aspect per- mean-time-between-failures (MTBF)
ity research on power electronics. formance of power electronic compo- and bathtub curve [11]: bathtub
Field experiences reveal that power nents [4], [5], converters [6]–[8], and curve divides the operation of a de-
electronic converters are usually one of systems [9], [10]. However, the reliabil- vice or system into three distinct
the most critical parts in terms of fail- ity research in the area of power elec- time periods. Although it is ap-
ure rate, lifetime, and maintenance cost. tronics has the following limitations. proximately consistent with some
Various examples in wind-power and ■■ Lack of a systematic DFR approach practical cases, the assumptions of
photovoltaic (PV) systems have been specific for design of power electronic random failure and constant failure
discussed in [2]. See “Examples of Field systems: the DFR approach stud- rate during the useful life period are
Failures in Power Electronic Systems.” ied in reliability engineering is too misleading [11], and the true root
Industries have advanced the de- broad in focus [3]. Power electronic causes of different failure modes
velopment of reliability engineering systems have their own challenges are not identified. The fundamental
CORPE
CORPE is a strategic research center between industry and universities, electronic systems very close to the limits of the devices and enable
led by Aalborg University, Denmark. The center aims to design more designed reliability. The knowledge will also be used online during
reliable and more efficient power electronic systems for use in power operation to predict lifetime and enable smart derating of the equip-
generation, distribution, and consumption. ment still in operation and ensure a longer lifetime. The goals will be
The center addresses a better understanding of how the reliabil- as follows:
ity of power electronic devices and systems is influenced by differ- ■■ more reliable power electronic systems
ent stress factors such as temperature, overvoltage and current, and ■■ more efficient systems
overload and environment. Further, the center will develop device ■■ more competitive (price) by reducing maintenance and operation
and system models that will enable simulation and design of power costs.
6%
t
x
Sys
% o
bines associated with 35,000 downtime events has
12 on B
nel
been recorded from 10-min average supervisory con-
Pa
ti
nc
PV Panel
PV
trol and data acquisition data, fault and alarm logs,
Ju
15%
work orders and service reports, and operation and
maintenance contractor reports. It shows that the (a) (b)
power electronic frequency converters cause 13% of
the failures and 18.4% of the downtime of the moni- FIGURE S1 – Field experiences of a 3.5-MW PV plant [S6]. (a) Unscheduled mainte-
nance events by subsystem. (b) Unscheduled maintenance costs by subsystem.
tored wind turbines.
Another example of field failure is in the PV applica-
tion. In PV systems, PV inverters are used to efficiently
convert the dc voltage for ac applications or to integrate
Othe
the output energy into electrical grids [S3]. Leading man-
Co
Vibration/Shock
rs 7% rs 3%
nn
Joints Capacitor
to
e
ic
rv
Se
in
End-of-Life
e
m
Ti
(with Certain
Failure Rate
Ideal Case Without Criterion)
Failure Degradation
Nominal
Frequency of Occurance
Load
Strength
Degradation
with Time
Extreme
Load
Stress or Strength
Load Distribution L Strength Distribution S
FIGURE 5 – The load-strength analysis to explain overstress failure and wearout failure in components and systems.
(e.g., normal distribution). Moreover, Reliability Prediction Toolbox Constant parameters in the lifetime
the strength of a material or device Reliability prediction is an important models can be estimated according to
could easily degrade with time. The tool to quantify the lifetime, failure the available testing data. Therefore,
probability of failure can be obtained rate, and design robustness based on the reliability of each critical individual
by analyzing the overlap area between various sources of data and prediction component is predicted by considering
the distributions of load and strength, models. Figure 6 presents a generic each of its associated critical failure
which is based on well-defined and in- prediction procedure based on the mechanisms. To map the component-
depth understanding of mission pro- PoF approach. The toolbox includes level reliability prediction to the system
file and component physics. statistical and lifetime models and level, the system modeling method reli-
Since the variations of load and various sources of available data (e.g., ability block diagram, fault-tree analy-
strength cannot be avoided, it is im- manufacturer testing data, simulation sis, or state-space analysis (e.g., Markov
portant to perform robust design and data, field data, etc.) for the reliability analysis) is applied as discussed in
analysis to minimize the effects of prediction of individual components detail in [9].
variations and uncontrollable factors. and the whole system. The statistical
Safety factors/derating, worst-case models are well presented in [3]. The Case Study of a
analysis, Six Sigma design, statistical lifetime models for failure mechanisms Wind-Power Converter
design of experiments, and Taguchi induced by various types of single or To demonstrate the DFR approach, a
design approach are the widely ap- combined stressors (e.g., voltage, cur- simplified case study of a 2.3-MW wind-
plied methods to deal with variations. rent, temperature, temperature cy- power converter is discussed here. The
It is worth mentioning that the Taguchi cling, and humidity) are discussed in selected circuit topology is a two-level
design approach tests the effect of vari- [20] and [21]. Temperature and its cy- back-to-back (2L-BTB) configuration
ability of both control factors and noise cling are the major stressors that affect composed of two pulse-width-modulat-
factors (i.e., uncontrollable ones) and reliability performance, which could ed voltage-source-converters. A techni-
uses signal-to-noise ratios to determine be more significant with the trend for cal advantage of the 2L-BTB solution is
the best combination of parameters, high-power-density and high-temper- the relatively simple structure and few
which is different from the worst-case ature power electronic systems. Two components, which contributes to a
analysis and other methods. A detailed models presenting the impact of tem- well-proven robust and reliable perfor-
description and comparison of those perature and temperature cycling on mance. The focus is on insulated gate
methods are well discussed in [19]. lifetime are illustrated in detail in [2]. bipolar transistor (IGBT) modules in
Temperature Distribution
Power Converter and Based on Rainflow Analysis
Its Mission Profile
Number of Cycles
Junction Temperature
Thermal Model for and Case Temperature
Simulation Profiles
Temperature (°C)
Tj_IGBT
Wind Speed (m/s)
Tc
Time
Time
Lifetime
DTc Mean Tc and Design
Robustness
Number of Cycles (N) Number of Cycles (N)
Bond Bondwire
Bond IGBT
Diode Bond
Chip Solder
Base
Substrate
Plate Solder DTj_IGBT (°C)
Thermal Base Plate
Grease
Heatsink
DTc (°C)
Lifetime Models
FIGURE 7 – The case study on lifetime prediction of IGBT modules in a 2.3-MW wind-power converter.
Fault Tolerance
with Online Repair
N+2 Redundancy
No Repair
Reliability
N+1 Redundancy
No Repair
High-Failure- Failure-Rate- Failure-
Rate Region Sensitive Free Region
Region No Redundancy
Workstation Online
Condition Remaining
Monitoring Life Prediction
Communication
Lower Lower Upper Upper
Destruct Operating Operating Destruct Wireless or Wired
Limit Limit Limit Limit
Product Wind-Speed Temperature Humidity Voltage Vibration Current
Operational
Control
Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors
Specification
FIGURE 8 – The methods to improve reliability. (a) Smart derating of power electronic components. (b) Reliability improvement by redundancy
design and fault-tolerant design. (c) Concept for HALT. (d) Online condition monitoring and real-time remaining lifetime estimation of wind-
power converters.
to power electronic systems, Better Power Electronic Components the life cycle cost of power electron-
proactive maintenance work could Application of more reliable and cost- ic systems. A new paradigm shift
be planned to avoid failures that effective active components and pas- is going on from handbook-based
would occur. Figure 8(d) shows an sive components is another key aspect calculations to more physics-based
example of a condition monitoring to improve the reliability of power approaches. This article defines the
system for wind-turbine power electronic converters and systems. scope of reliability of power elec-
converters. With the advances in semiconductor tronics from three aspects, i.e., ana-
■■ Reactive power control and thermal materials, packaging technologies, and lytical physics, DFR, and verification
optimized modulation: thermal load- film capacitor technologies, the reli- and monitoring. A state-of-the-art
ing of switching devices in power ability of active switching devices and design procedure based on mission
electronic converters can be im- passive components is expected to be profile knowledge, PoF approach,
proved by reactive power control improved. and DFR is presented. The major
and modified modulation schemes opportunities toward more reliable
as discussed in [28] and [29]. The Conclusions power electronics are addressed.
power losses and therefore the More effort has been devoted to al- Joint efforts from engineers and sci-
thermal stresses on switching de- leviate the challenges in reliability- entists in multiple disciplines are
vices are reduced. critical applications and to reduce required to fulfill the defined scope