Chapter -4

CLEAVAGE - MICROSTRUCTURE AND

DEFORMATION MECHANISMS
.. the mountains must indeed be examined with the microscope"
H.C. Sorby 1856

4.1. Introduction

Bakewell (1815) first described cleavage structures in slates. Since then, several

aspects of cleavage structures in relation to various attributes of rock deformation

had been dealt with, the prime objective being to understand its mode of

occurrence and origin. The significant aspects of cleavage structures studied so

far include: (1) classification of cleavage, (2) controls on cleavage distribution

and morphology, (3) depth dependence of cleavage formation, (4) controls and

causes of cleavage initiation, (5) nature of lithologic changes during cleavage

development, (6) relation of cleavage to strain, (7) relation of cleavage to stress

(8) chronology of cleavage development, and (9) relationship of cleavage with

mesoscopic structures.

Addressing to all the above aspects with reference to the cleavage

structures in the study area is however beyond the scope of the present work.

Documentation of cleavage morphology as seen in the field, their mode of

occurrence, orientation, interrelationship with other mesoscale structures and

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timing of their development had been discussed in Chapter-2. Kinematic

evolution of cleavage development has also been discussed in Chapter-3. In this

chapter, the objective is to classify and describe cleavage structures as seen under

the optical microscope and to assess from deformation microstructures, the role

of different grain scale deformation mechanisms that are responsible for the

origin of rock cleavage in the study area. '

4.2. Classification of rock cleavage—general aspects

Classification of rock-cleavage follows a two-fold approach- (1) a descriptive and

(2) a genetic one. The descriptive approach, in principle, is based on

distinguishable and measurable morphological features. A genetic approach on

the other hand is based on the mechanisms operating to form each cleavage type.

It appears likely that most cleavages are formed by the interaction of several

processes, varying in importance from one place to another and thus genetic

classification in such instances might arise confusion. Moreover genetic aspects

of rock cleavage are better inferred from observed features of the rock under

microscope which is not possible in the field. A genetic classification of rock

cleavage is thus considered largely impractical. According to Powell (1979), “we

should therefore attempt to distinguish only the principal morphological types of

f

cleavage — independent of the processes presumed to have operated — and to

keep for the future decisions, as to whether any natural grouping of

morphological parameters distinguish cleavage of one origin from those of the

other”. The consideration is therefore of descriptive approach.

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4.2.1. Morphological parameters.

Descriptive schemes of cleavage classification are not many. The most

extensively used are those of Powell (1979), Gray (1977) and Borradaile

et.al.{1982). The classification here involves the description of morphological

features of rock cleavage. Although simple in sense, the problem associated with
/

type of classification lie in the selection of the morphological features to be

measured or described. Before discussing these parameters in detail, we first

consider some general observations regarding cleavage structure. Rock cleavage

is a penetrative fabric that renders fissility to the rock in the meso- and micro

scales. Cleavage is defined by either or both of the two distinct features:

(1) a strong dimensional preferred orientation of usually flaky minerals like mica,

chlorite, etc.

(2) actual physical surfaces that are readily observed as linear traces in thin

sections cut perpendicular to cleavage.

Slice of rock between two adjacent cleavage traces, is known as microlithon, and

the thickness of it measured perpendicular to the cleavage trace is the spacing

between two adjacent cleavage domains.

A majority of cleaved rocks, is recognized to have a domainal structure, i.e.

zones of strongly preferred mineral orientation that define cleavage (known as

cleavage domains, alias folia, films, seams, selvages) and that which separate

zones of differently and/or commonly less oriented minerals (known as

microlithon domains). In rocks without a domainal fabric where cleavage results

from the statistical dimensional parallelism of platy minerals distributed evenly

throughout a rock body, the cleavage is termed continuous (Powell 1979). Thus

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cleavage in rocks at the outset belong to two principal classes —(1) continuous

cleavage, and (2) spaced / domainal cleavage.

Continuous cleavage may again be described through the fabric elements,

e.g. grain shape and size. If the grain size is finer, the structure is known as

continuous cleavage or more commonly, slaty cleavage (Fig. 4.1a-i). If the grains

that define the foliation are relatively coarse, the foliation is known as continuous

schistocity (Fig. 4.1a-ii). Fine-grained rocks such as slates, which show a

continuous cleavage in thin sections, under the optical microscope may reveal a

spaced foliation if studied at stronger magnification, e.g. under scanning electron

microscope (SEM). Normally the terminology used for a specific cleavage is

based on the geometry observed in thin section under optical microscope. If field

or SEM observations are discussed the scale of observation (field, thin section,

SEM) should be mentioned in description of cleavage morphology. Since the

apparent continuous nature of a cleavage is scale dependent, finely spaced

cleavage with spacing up to 50/nn is included in the definition of slaty cleavage

(see below) in order to remain in line with the current use of this concept in the

literature.

From the above discussion, it is thus understood that the morphological

parameters that seem to be readily measurable and that which can provide a basis

for cleavage classification are: (1) the spacing of the cleavage domains (2) the

volume of the rock occupied by the cleavage domains, (3) the shape of the

cleavage domains and (4) the microlithon shape preferred orientation

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(1) The spacing of cleavage domains

The spacing of cleavage domains is the distance between two adjacent cleavage

seams. A simple subdivision of the spacing parameter is to place the average

spacing of the cleavage domains on a logarithmic scale (Fig.4.1b). On the broader

end of the scale, a value of 10cm is chosen arbitrarily as the upper spacing limit

for what most geologists describe as a cleavage. At the narrow end of the scale

10/zm is the practical limit of resolution in an optical microscope so that all

cleavages within domains spaced closer than 0.01mm are classified as continuous

at this scale of observation. Based on spacing, Powell (1979) subdivided

cleavages into spaced and slaty whereas Alvarez et.al. (1978), further subdivided

spaced cleavage into weak, moderate, strong and very strong (Fig. 4.1b).

(2) Volume ofrock occupied by cleavage domains

Percentage of volume of rock occupied by cleavage domains marks the degree of

penetrativity of the cleavage. In practice, in a morphological scheme based on

cleavage domains and microlithons, continuous cleavage can be regarded either

as an end member in a series in which the cleavage domains vary from very thin

discontinuities in the rock (cleavage domains less than 1% of the rock) to zones

occupying 100% of the rock (continuous cleavage)(Fig.4.1c), or, as rocks in

which individual cleavage domains are too closely spaced to permit their

identification. Spaced cleavages ranges between 1% to 75% (Fig. 4.1c).

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(3) Shape of cleavage domains and (4) microlithon shape fabric

These are two of the most useful criteria with which to distinguish different
i
morphological types of cleavage. Fundamentally different cleavage morphologies

develop depending on whether there is a pre-existing mechanicl anisotropy or

planar mineral alignment and the relics of this alignment are usually preserved in

the microlithons.

fai Rocks without a pre-existing mechanical anisotropy:

Cleavage is usually termed to be disjunctive when present in rocks without pre­

existing mechanical anisotropy and/or planar mineral alignment. Here cleavage

domain shape can be accounted with planarity or evenness of cleavage domains.

Such cleavages vary from irregular stylolitic seams (Alvarez et. al. 1978),

through anastomosing networks of cleavage .surfaces (Crook 1964) and short

discontinuous cleavage domains which envelop the detrital grains (Powell 1969,

fig-3&5, Gray 1977b, 1978), to planar continuous domains free from irregularity

or unevenness (Powell 1969, fig-6; Beutnerl978, plate-2). These are termed as

stylolitic, anastomosing, rough and smooth, respectively (Powell 1979) (Fig.

4.1d)

Microlithon fabric realignment accounts for varying degrees of mineral

alignment in the microlithons parallel to the cleavage domains. Grainshape

elongation, preferred crystallographic orientation and “beard” overgrowth are

some common preferred mineral alignments in the microlithons. All these could

be combined into a series of progressive stages in the degree of microlithon-

fabric realignment, where the terms are random, weak, strong and complete, with

increasing realignment respectively (Fig. 4.1 e). Rough cleavages are further

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classified by Gray (1977), into Types A, B, and C (Fig. 4.1d). In this regard, it is

to be remembered that a widely spaced cleavage may grade into a continuous

cleavage as the fabric of the microlithons become increasingly aligned parallel to

the cleavage domains, so that by definition, “ultimate distinction between cleavage

domain and microlithons becomes impossible.

(b) Rocks having a pre-existing mechanical anisotropy :

Here the most common cleavage structure observed is the crenulation cleavage.

This variety of cleavage consists of subplanar domains of highly oriented

micaceous material constituting preferred sites of parting in the rock which

alternate with domains of folded or otherwise inhomogeneously deformed pre­

existing schistocity or slaty cleavage fabric (Gray 1977). The cleavage domains

coincide with one or both limbs of the associated microfolds and show a marked

relative enrichment in mica, chlorite, opaque and carbonaceous matter compared

with the rest of the rock. Morphologically crenulation cleavages are classified

into two types—discrete and zonal. Discrete crenulation cleavages have sharp

distinct boundaries which truncate the initial fabric (Fig.4.1f-(i)and (ii)). Zonal

crenulation cleavage is a zone and has diffuse somewhat arbitrary boundaries

through which the initial fabric is continuous (Fig. 4.1f-(iii) and (iv)).

4.3 Cleavage morphology in the southern NFB.

4.3.1 Disjunctive cleavage

Having discussed about the different parameters of rock cleavage and

terminology we now turn towards morphological description and classification of

disjunctive rock cleavage in the study area in the southern NFB. In this regard we

take into account (1) Cleavage spacing, (2) planarity of cleavage domains, (3).

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shape of microlithon domains (4) cleavage-bedding angle and (5) volume of rock

occupied by cleavage domains.

Measurement with reference to the above mentioned attributes were donetaking

into account the variation of mineralogical composition, grain size and grain-

matrix ratio distribution in different rock types of the area. The locations of

specimens selected for cleavage study are shown in Figure-4.2. Table 4.land 4.2

first lists the details of rock composition, and grain size parameters. Table 4.3

describes the details of cleavage morphology for each of the specimens studied.

The description of cleavage in each specimen can be better understood with

combined reference to the corresponding microphotographs of the specimens

listed in the table. The general characteristics of cleavage morphology observed

in different rock types are described below :

(a) Cleavage in sandstones

Sandstones generally exhibit a grain supported framework. The framework

is composed of by quartz (66.8-61.8%) and opaque(~8.8%); the matrix (24.2-

29.2%) consists by mica, and opaque (category 1, Table 4.1). Grain size ranges

0.089-0.708 mm in the framework with a grain/matrix ratio between 2.417-3.128

(category 1, Table 4.2). The grains vary from sub-angular (Plate 4.1) to well

rounded (Plate 4.4) in shape. Sorting ranges from moderately well sorted (Plate

4.1) to poorly sorted (Plate 4.4). In sandstones, cleavages are irregular, dendritic,

and discontinuous along length, being incipiently developed in isolated zones

where spacing ranges between 0.13 mm- 0.47 mm. (Plate 4.2, 4.3, 4.4). Poor

penetrativity is suggested by the fact that only 10-25% of the rock-volume

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\
occupied by the cleavage domains. Microlithon shape fabric varies from random

to weak.

(b) Cleavage in shales and/or siltstones.

Shales and/or Siltstones in the study area generally show a matrix

dominated framework where the grains float in the matrix (Plates 4.5, 4.6, 4.7).

The grains are mainly of quartz (27-44.5%) and Mica (1.3-22.9%) and matrix

which ranges between 46.2-66.1% is constituted mainly by mica and quartz

(category 2, Table 4.1). Grain sizes vary between 0.026-0.141mm in the grains

and 0.004-0.076mm in the matrix with the grain/matrix ratio in siltstones ranging

between 0.24-1.158 (category 2, Table 4.2). Grain shape is affected by tectonic

cleavage.

In the shales and/or siltstones, cleavage is generally slaty which under the

microscope, appears to be either domainal orcontinuous types. The cleavages are

thus classified as domainal slaty cleavage (Woodland 1978) (Plate 4.5, 4.6 ) and

continuous slaty cleavage (Borradaile 1982) (Plate 4.7). Domainal slaty

cleavages are characterized by spacing ranging between 0.013 mm to 0.061 mm

with planar, moderately even, narrow and anastomosing cleavage domains with

moderate to weak microlithon shape fabric and variable penetrativity ranging

between 51.1% to 87.4% (Plates 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9). Continuous slaty cleavage

have a strong penetrativity whereby the entire rock fabric in the major portion of

the rock is mostly aligned parallel to cleavage (Plate 4.7).

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(c) Cleavage in interbedded sandstones and shales

Interbedded siltstones and shales show mm to cm scale interbandings.

Within individual bands lower order fine interbandings also occur (Plate 4.10,

4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14). Sorting is moderately well in the coarse layers but

variable between well and poor sorted in the fine layers. Framework

compositions are by quartz (18-54.2%), mica (0-2.3%), chlorite (0-7.6%) and

opaque (0-2.6%) whereas the matrix which occupies 45.7-69.4% of the volume

of the rock is mainly constituted by quartz, mica and chlorite (category 3, Table

4.1). The grain sizes of the constituents range between 0.051-0.106 mm in the

grains and between 0.006-0.020 mm in the matrix (category 3, Table 4.2).

In interbedded sandstones and shales, cleavage morphology changes markedly in

coarse (sandy) layers from that in fine (shaly) layers. In the fine layers the

cleavage varies from continuous slaty (Plate 4.10, 4.12) to domainal slaty type

(Plate 4.13) whereas in the relatively coarse layers, cleavage ranges from

irregular, discontinuous, uneven, and rough (type A) only in some (Plate 4.12)

and incipiently and poorly developed in others with sometimes no cleavage at all

(Plate 4.10). In coarse layers, microlithon shape fabric is random to very weak.

Spacing of cleavage in fine layers ranges between 0.025 mm-0.28 mm.

Penetrativity of cleavage in fine layers ranges between 78.6%-87.8% (Table 4.3).

In interbedded sandstones and shales, cleavage refraction is observed at the

interface of coarse and fine layers that results in differences in orientation of

cleavage bedding angle in the two layers (Plate 4.12)'.

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(d) Cleavage in Carbonates:

Carbonates show both grain supported and matrix supported fabric. In the

former, grains are anhedral and are moderately sorted with frequent interlocking

grain boundaries (Plate 4.19,4.21) In matrix dominated fabric grains appear to be

anhedral ‘or euhedral (Plate 4.22). However grain boundaries are in many

instances modified by tectonic cleavage. Carbonates are generally impure, being

constituted in the framework by quartz (0-36.5%) dolomite (0-62.5%) and

muscovite (1.5-13%). Matrix is composed of dolomites (15.3-58.3%) and quartz

& mica together in the range of 17.8-27.4% (category 4, Table 4.1) Grain/matrix

ratio in the carbonates varies between 0.33-1.76 with modal grain size range of

0.026-0.089 mm in the framework grains and 0.001-0.02 mm in the matrix in

general (category 4, Table 4.2).

Both slaty and spaced cleavage occur in carbonates. Slaty cleavage in the

carbonates have a spacing range of <; 0.010 mm to 0.124 mm. Spaced cleavages

in carbonates under the optical microscope show a range of diversity in

morphology. Rough cleavages include as rough as type C with type A rough

cleavages between zones of type C (Plate 4.15). Some specimens show wavy,

wispy, uneven, moderately long cleavage films of type B (Plate 4.22 ) that are

often anastomosing and enveloping detrital quartz and/or carbonate grains (Plate

4.18 upper part). The latter may grade into to almost straight, planar, smooth

cleavage domains (Plate 4.18 lower part). Within such a range, variable

microlithon shape fabric is also observed ranging from random (Plate 4.18, 4.19)

to strong (Plate 4.21) with respect to cleavage orientation. Penetrativity of

cleavage is variable in the carbonates with a volume of rock occupied by

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cleavage domains ranging between as low as 37.4% to as high as 82.5%. It is

interesting to note that cleavage morphology, spacing or penetrativity in

carbonates are apparently not related to the angle between cleavage and bedding.

4.3.2 Crennlation cleavage

As had already been described, crenulation cleavage have only local occurrence

in the study area and are developed in shales or interbedded shales and

sandstones. Nevertheless their morphology is of remarkable variation. The

morphological parameters that are used for classification and description of

crenulation cleavage are (1) nature of pre-existing anisotropy , (2) spacing of

cleavage domains, (3) Morphology of cleavage domains, (4) morphology of

microlithons, (5) cleavage (Si) -bedding (So) angle and cleavage(S])-cleavage(S2)

/

angle. Crenultion cleavage occurs in rocks where the earlier pre-existing fabric is

a secondary slaty cleavage (Si) (Plate 4.24) or a primary bedding parallel

foliation (So) (Plate 4.25, 4.26, 4.27). The earlier cleavage has a spacing of

0.00965 mm-0.0122 mm. Crenulation cleavage morphologically range through

well-developed, straight seams continuous along cleavage length (Plate 4.24,

4.30) to incipiently developed irregular seams displaying zonal and/or discrete

nature. The spacing of crenulation cleavage is variable between 0.15 mm.- 0.0496

mm. Microlithons are characterized by one or more symmetric (Plate 4.27) or

asymmetric folds (Plates 4.24). The steep limb of asymmetric microfold or both

limbs of symmetric microfolds are coincident with the crenulation cleavage.

Where both Si and S2 are present, crenulation cleavage makes an angle of 70°-80°

with the bedding and the Si makes 20°-40° with So. A detailed description of

morphology of crenulation cleavage is given in Table 4.4.

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4.4. Variation in cleavage morphology.

Cleavage in the rocks of the southern NFB shows strong variation in terms of the

different morphological parameters used to describe and classify them. The

factors that are apparently responsible for variation of cleavage morphology

include mineralogical composition of rocks, grain-matrix ratio, grain size, mode

of deformation and amount of strain. Rocks that are rich in phyllosilicate for

example shales, show slaty cleavage with straight, smooth seams continuous

along length, whereas cleavage in siltstones and carbonates are relatively uneven,

rough and discontinuous along length. Penetrativity in terms of percentage of

volume of rock occupied by cleavage domains decreases with increase in grain

size (Fig.4.3) and with increase in grain-matrix ratio. (Fig. 4.4).

4.5 Deformation mechanisms in the grain scale.

4.5.1. Introduction

Mesoscopic structures in rocks evolve through combination of one or more

mechanisms of deformation that operate in a scale down to the level of individual

grains. The processes involved are controlled by mineralogy, composition of

intergranular fluid, grain-size, porosity and permeability, lattice preferred

orientation, and on external controls such as temperature, lithostatic pressure,

differential stress, fluid pressure and externally imposed strain rate. An important

point to remember in this regard is that, two similar geometrical structures can

result from different grain scale deformation mechanisms (Borradaile 1981).

Hence a penetrative fabric like rock-cleavage is likely to originate differently

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depending on the deformation mechanism(s) that predominately operates during

tectonic events. It is thus essential to have knowledge of deformation

mechanisms at the grain scale before any precise realistic model for origin of a

structure can be proposed. Under the optical microscope many deformation

mechanisms can be interpreted from sets of microstructures that are characteristic

of a deformation mechanism. In this section we briefly discuss some important

deformation mechanisms and optically resolvable microstructures that are

associated with them.

4.5.2. Types of deformation mechanisms

Deformation mechanisms which can operate on a grain scale, can be broadly of

the following types :

(a) Diffusive mass transfer mechanism (DMT)

(b) Crystal plastic deformation 7

(c) Frictional grain boundary sliding

(d) Fracture process and cataclastic flow.

(a) Diffusive mass transfer

This mechanism involves deformation by the transfer of material away from

zones of relatively high inter-granular normal stress to interfaces with low normal

stresses (Kerrich 1978, Rutter 1983). The driving force for DMT depends upon

the variation in chemical potential in the rock aggregate induced by stress

variation in the aggregate (Wheeler 1987), fluid pressure gradient (Etheridge et.

al. 1984) or variations in the internal strain energy of grains (Wintsch 1985,

Wintsch and Dunning 1985, Bell et. al. 1986). DMT is likely to dominate the

deformation in fine grained material where the diffusion path length is small and

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the differential stress levels are low enough to inhibit intra-crystalline

deformation mechanisms. The removal of material during DMT can lead to

significant volume loss and to strain accommodation by compaction. Three stages

may be recognized in DMT processes :

( i ) Entry of material in a diffusion path : This marks the onset of the DMT

process and include the controls which influence activation of diffusion through

the crystal structure and along the grain-boundaries and surfaces, as well as those

that dictate corrosion and reaction process.

(ii) Migration or mass transfer: Transfer of material from the sites of removal

takes place along a range of mass transfer path that includes four end members.

These are (1) the use of crystal structure as a diffusion medium producing

Nabarro-Herring creep ( Poirier 1985), (2) diffusion along the distorted and

disordered crystal structure of solid-solid grain boundaries, producing Cobble

creep (see Poirier 1985), (3) diffusion along a thin fluid film along grain

boundaries producing "pressure solution" (Rutter 1983), (4) transport in a bulk

fluid which may itself be experiencing flow, producing infiltration of material

(Etheridge et. al. 1984, Gratier and Guignet 1986).

(iii) Deposition : where material removed by the above process are precipitated

or deposited at sites of crystal growth.

Pressure solution is the most commonly observed DMT mechanism and

is localized where grains are in contact along surfaces at a high angle to the

instantaneous shortening direction and where local stress in the grain is high.

Near contact points the grain lattice is more strongly compressed, than elsewhere;

as a result material will dissolve near the contact points and be redeposited at

sites of low differential stress. Pressure solution may occur in a thin fluid film

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between grains in contact (Rutter 1976) or by dissolution undercutting of "island

structures" that are surrounded by fluid filled channels and which form a stress

supporting network between the grains (Ray 1982, Spiers et.al. 1990). Deposition

of the dissolved material may occur at adjacent free grain boundaries that are in

contact with the fluid. Precipitated minerals through deposition although

generally are same as the consumed material but can also be different (termed as

'incongruent pressure solution' by Beach 1979, McCaig 1987). Alternatively the

fluid with dissolved material can migrate by solution transfer over a larger

distance and deposit material at other sites such as veins or strain shadows , or

even disappear out of the deforming rock volume causing volume loss. Pressure

solution and solution transfer of material is dominant at diagenetic to low grade

metamorphic conditions.

Microstructure: Microstmctures associated with DMT can also be divided into

three classes suggestive of the three stages of the DMT discussed above :

(1) Microstructures that are indicative of removal or redistribution of material

include truncation of fossils, detrital grains and idiomorphic phenocrysts

(McClay 1977, Rutter 1983), pitted pebbles, or mineral differentiation during

crenulation cleavage formation where quartz and carbonates migrates to the

hinge-areas (McClay 1977, Rutter 1983, Houseknect 1986). In deoital

sedimentary rocks pressure solution contacts show fourteen types of contact

between partners and the contact surface between them (Trumit 1968).

(2) Microstructures that preserve evidence of the mass transfer path used include

preservation of reaction products along selected grain boundaries used for

localized fluid flow (McCaig 1987).

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(3) These are microstmctures that suggest precipitation at deposition sites and

include new overgrowth on and with optical continuity with the older grains,

pressure shadows and veins.

(b) Crystal-plastic deformation mechanism

This involves accumulation of strain by intra crystalline process such as the

movement of crystal dislocations (point defects, lattice line defects) and twinning

(Barber 1985). Movement of dislocations through the lattice is controlled by the

crystal structure and by the number of impurities and other lattice defects present

(see reviews by Mitchell 1975, Poirier 1985, White 1985). At low temperature

that is at usually less than half the melting temperature at laboratory strain rate,

intra-crystalline deformation is dominated by dislocation glide along slip planes.

This mode of deformation may lead to dislocation tangles which restricts further

dislocation motion and induces work-hardening characterized by an . increasing

resistance to straining during deformation. At higher temperatures, that is usually

more than half the melting temperature, thermally activated recovery processes

such as dislocation climb (movement of dislocations out of their slip planes by

point defect capture or emission) and cross-slip (alteration of the slip plane used

by screw dislocation) help to reduce the work hardening processes and increase

the ductility of the material (Knipe-1989). "Dislocation creep" is the term for

such a high temperature flow of a material where these recovery processes can

counteract the hardening processes.

Dislocation in a crystal can be rearranged into regular planar networks as

a result of recovery. These networks are known as subgrain boundaries that

separate crystal fragments known as subgrains, which are slightly misoriented

84
with respect to their neighboring subgrains or the host grain. The orientation of

the subgrain boundary depends on the orientation of the slip system of the

dislocations which accumulate in it (Trepeid et al. 1990). Besides recovery,

dynamic recrystallization also helps in reducing dislocation density. Dynamic

recrystallization process is associated with either grain boundary migration or

subgrain rotation (Urai eL al. 1986, Drury and Urai 1990) or a combination of

both.

Microstructures: Microstructures associated with crystal plastic deformation

does not provide observation of individual dislocations under the optical

microscope. Undulose extinction, where the crystal does not become extinct

homogeneously under crossed polars suggest the presence of large number of

dislocations in the crystal lattice. The lattice can be slightly bent due to these

. dislocations. Undulose extinction can be 'sweeping' due to regular bending of the

crystal lattice but can also be patchy and irregular, when it is associated with

microscopically invisible small fractures and kinks beside dislocation tangles (

Hirth and Tullis 1992).

Another effect that is commonly observed in crystals deformed at low

temperature by crystal plastic deformation are 'deformation lamellae' with a

relatively high optical relief and usually having a distinct preferred orientation.

These are particularly common in quartz. Under the optical microscope one type

of deformation lamellae in quartz consists of narrow closely spaced sub-planar

feature having slight different refractive indices from the host quartz (Fairbaim

1941, Ingerson and Tuttle 1945) causing them to apper as parallel bands of

brighter and darker material that terminate at crystal boundaries. These are known

as Fairbaim lamellae. Deformation lamellae consist of dislocation tangles, small

85
elongate subgrains and arrays of very small solid or fluid inclusions that are only

visible by transmission electron microscope.

A third feature suggestive of intracrystalline deformation is the lattice

preferred orientation (LPO) which is believed generally to develop as a result of

dislocation creep although in some minerals (calcite) it can also form by

deformation twining.

Partially recrystallized fabrics resulting from dynamic recrystallization are

easier to interpret from associated microstructures than complete ones. In

partially recrystallized fabrics, a bimodal grain size distribution is characteristic

with aggregates of small grains of approximately uniform grain size between

large grains with or without undulose extinction ( Passchier and Trow 1996-

fig.3.16). A completely recrystallized fabric may be difficult to distinguish from a

non-recrystallized equigranular fabric. However in an aggregate of grains formed

by complete dynamic recrystalliztion, the grains will show evidence of internal

deformation, a lattice preferred orientation, and a relatively uniform grain size.

(c) Frictional grain boundary sliding, fracturing and cataclastic flow

Frictional sliding, without fracturing of grains is a deformation mechanism which

involves sliding of grains past each other along grain boundaries. Individually

grains are essentially undeformed and behave as rigid bodies. This was termed by

Borradaile (1981) as "independent particulate flow". Sliding begins when the

cohesion and friction between grains is overcome and is distinguished from the

grain boundary sliding (Goguen and Boullier 1975) possible at higher

temperatures where diffusive or defect movement along grain boundaries controls

the deformation and no cohesion is involved. Frictional grain boundary sliding is

86
enhanced by low confining pressures and high fluid pressures and is thus

common in partially or unlithified sediments (Maltman 1984, Owen 1987), and in

fault zones containing incohesive gouges (Wang 1986).

Fracturing involves the nucleation, propagation and displacement along

new surfaces created during deformation (Krantz 1983, Atkinson 1987). The

fragmentation of material, together with the rotation and associated grain

boundary sliding and dilation constitute cataclastic flow, that dominates faulting

at higher crustal levels and generates gouges and breccias (Engelder 1974, Aydin

and Johnson 1983, Wise et al 1984, Sibson 1986a). Cataclastic flow usually

occurs at non-metamorphic to low grade metamorphic conditions and at

relatively high strain rates. Type of minerals involved and fluid pressures are

important factors. High fluid pressures promote cataclastic flow and is

responsible for the common occurrence of veins in cataclasites and breccia.

The different factors which individually or in combination lead to fracture

process are (Knipe 1989):

(1) Elastic strain accumulation—where the elastic strain energy

associated with a stress concentration at a crack tip controls

propagation. The elastic strain accumulation is also influenced by

frequency, orientation, shape, and distribution of pre-existing surface

cracks, flaws, grain boundary voids and pores.

(2) Crystal plastic process—which contributes to the fracture

process when dense dislocation tangles or high twin densities develop

to restrict further deformation by crystal plasticity and induce rapid

work-hardening leading to fracture (Atkinson and Meredith 1987).

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 (3) Diffusion processes—can lead to the development of voids at

tensile grain boundaries or triple junction points by the concentration

of point defects or vacancies. In addition to these the diffusion of

impurities to grain boundaries can also lead to fracture (Darot and

Gueguen 1986, Atkinson and Meridith 1987).

(4) Phase transformation and reactions—by creating products with

a different volume to the reactants can induce stress concentration in

an aggregate (Brodie and Rutter 1985) which may result in void

formation leading to fracture,

(5) Fluid processes—that involves hydraulic fracturing by- fluid

process with the effective stress exceeding the strength of the material

(Fyfe et. al. 1978, Sibson 1989). This is sometimes accompanied by

the chemical processes through corrosion and reactions taking place at

the crack tip leading to subcritical crack growth (Atkinson 1984,

Kerrich 1986, Atkinson and Meridith 1987).

Microstructures: The recognition of frictional grain boundary sliding in naturally

deformed rocks is particularly difficult, in that, grain shapes, sizes, and internal

structures may all be unaffected by the deformation. Where the deformation was

in poorly consolidated sands, only the offsets of the bedding or disruption of

other sedimentary features indicates the deformation zone. However the lack of

variation in the grain size, shape and internal structures in and out of the

deformation zones confines the mechanism to one of frictional grain boundary

sliding. Problem arises where frictional grain boundary sliding is only one of a

number of deformation mechanism which operate together. In these cases if the

88
bulk strain and the strain from the other mechanisms can be estimated then the

contribution of grain boundary sliding can be determined from the difference.

Cataclastic flow-microstructures are characterized by simultaneous

existence of (1) a large range in grain size distribution in the deformed zone (2)

high angular outlines and sharp boundaries and (3) the presence of polycrystalline

rock fragments. Where cataclastic material is recrystallized after deformation,

distinction can only me made by TEM.

4.6 Deformation mechanisms in the rocks of the southern NFB

Having discussed about some essential of grain scale deformation mechanisms

we now turn towards identification of deformation mechanisms from the study

area from different microstructures in rocks of varied compositions. Five

specimens having compositions ranging from dominantly carbonate through

argillaceous siltstones—interlaminated sandstones and shales to qurtzose

sandstones were studied under optical mocroscope to figure out the association

of deformation mechanisms and their relative contribution to the bulk

deformation. The procedure is as follows :

(i) First of all the thin section is examined with reference to the various

micro structural features suggestive of a particular deformation

mechanism. Generally these may indicate presence of more than one

mechanism operative during deformation.

(ii) The different combinations are noted down; for example, if the whole thin

section shows the presence of two types of deformation mechanisms say

crystal plastic deformation and pressure-solution and deposition, then

89
 there can be three possibilities- (1) crystal plastic deformation (2) pressure

solution and deposition and (3) combination of both. These three

possibilities are assigned to three keys to an automatic point counter.

(iii) Next with the necessary arrangements for automatic point counting, the

thin section is examined. In the procedure a total of 1800-2000 points are

counted for each thin section and the results are summarized in the Table-

4.4.

. Different minerals deform by different mechanisms. In general quartz grains and

dolomite intraclasts in the rocks of the area are found to be associated with

pressure solution and deposition mechanisms. These are expressed by certain

microstructural features like (1) truncation of edges of otherwise inequant quartz

and carbonate clasts against cleavage seams to produce straight, dimensionally

longer, grain boundaries, aligned parallel to cleavage (Plate 4.2, 4.3, 4.13, 4.14,

4.19), (2) sometimes concentration of opaque, iron oxides and dust along the

contacts of these aligned grain boundaries (3) frequently overgrowths of quartz

and carbonate or (4) often straight to a little sinuous pressure shadow fibres of

quartz or mica in coexistence with one or more of the above features. Quartz also

exhibits features of crystal plastic deformation like patchy and undulose

extinction (Plate 4.2) and dynamic recrystallization (Plate 4.23). Mica and

chlorite are deformed by mechanical rotation and intra crystalline deformation.

Mica with its long dimension orientation oblique to both bedding and cleavage

(Plate 4.11) might suggest rotation of these grains. Bent mica (Plate 4.11) with

serrated edges and sweepy extinction express crystal plastic deformation whereas

kinked chlorite (Plate 4.12), cleavage steps at the short ends of the grains, due to

90
slip along (001) cleavage planes of the grains are expressions of intracrystalline

slip. From the Table 4.5, it is clear that grain scale deformation mechanisms

occur dominantly in three modes, viz. Intra-crystalline deformation by intra­

crystalline slip, bending and kinking of grains; pressure solution, solution transfer

and deposition through diffusive mass transfer mechanisms; and mechanical

rotation, which in the most cases are passive. Other mechanisms like dynamic re­

crystallization occur rarely

4.7 Shallow crustal deformatioii--southern NFB a case example ?

Shallow crustal deformation typically occurs within the upper 5-10 km of the

crust and thus within a temperature range of 150-300° C of the average

geothermal gradient. Low-temperature deformation generally means deformation

at one third or less of the melting temperature of the framework minerals. As

suggested by Groshong 1989, under these conditions certain features are

commonly observed in different scales namely — (1) individual crystals are

strained ^ 15-20 %, a magnitude that leaves the rock looking relatively

undeformed, (2) there is minimal recrystallization except in fine grained and

water wet materials which may recrystallize as a result of either diagenesis or

deformation, (3) framework grains do not react with each other to form new

minerals, (4) phyllosilicates can change species but retain their constituent sheets

of silica tetrahedra (Oertel 1983), (5) uncemented grains may be free to slide past

one another under shallow burial and high pore-pressure conditions (6) large

strains usually occur by transgranular mechanisms of extension fractures, faults,

91
stylolites, or solution cleavages. It is the material between these transgranular

features that remain undeformed.

With reference to the rocks of the southern Nallamalai fold-fault belt, the

above criteria apply to varying degrees with acceptable deviations. Besides, the

maximum stratigraphic thickness of the Nallamalai Group and the overlying

Kumool group does not exceed 7 km. Also the general mineral assemblage of

quartz ± feldspar ± carbonates + muscovite + chlorite in the study area indicates a

regime of low to very low grade metamorphic conditions with illite crystallinity

index study (Chapter-6) in the study area indicating a thermal range of 150-250°

C. These, together indicate that, deformation of rocks of the study area has taken

place in a low-temperature, shallow-crustal regime.

4.8 Relationship between cleavage-microstructure and

deformation mechanism-implications for cleavage origin.

General observation on cleavage microstructures indicate that, shape

modification of detrital grains—mainly quartz and carbonate clasts has

accompanied the development of spaced cleavage seams where microscopically

spacing is measurable. There is no pronounced cracking of detrital grains either

adjacent to the cleavages or at their lateral terminations. Also there is no evidence

of cataclasis or granulation of material along the cleavages in the light of the

criteria discussed under cataclastic flow in the preceding section. Pronounced

fracturing and granulation of detrital quartz-feldspar grains accompany the

development of shear fractures or faults in experimentally deformed sandstones

(Conrad and Friedman 1976). None of these features occur in the cleaved

92
psammitic layers in shales, siltstones, impure carbonates, or quartzose sandstones

in the study area. It can therefore be concluded that brittle deformation

phenomena, and cataclastic flow were not important in cleavage development in

the study area.

Grain shape changes associated with cleavage may occur by (1) intra­

crystalline, plastic deformation involving slip, dislocation climb and mechanical

twinning, (2) re-crystallization and (3) pressure solution, solution transfer and

deposition. The lack of significant occurrence of intra-crystalline deformation

features (such as undulose extinction and deformation lamellae in quartz grains

and tapered, mechanically-twinned lamellae in calcite and dolomite) however

precludes grain shape changes due to intra-crystalline slip in these grains.

However relatively larger mica grains that occur in the microlithons and that

appear detrital owing to the bedding parallel orientation of their long axis, show

kink bands and-serrated edges at their short ends with sweepy extinction,

indicative of intra-crystalline deformation. Such features do not exceed 15% of

the deformed microstructures. However crystallization (grain growth) of

phyllosilicates during prograde metamorphism and/or recrystallization of

phyllosilicates and quartz during deformation (for example, deformed grains have

higher internal energy and should therefore re-crystallize more readily than less

deformed grains—Vernon, 1976 p-202), must accompany cleavage development

particularly where mica beards enhance the cleavage fabric (Plate 4.2) and where

cleavage anisotropy is defined considerably (Plate 4.6) or almost exclusively by

phyllosilicate preferred orientation (Plate 4.7). In these situations mica do not

show any intra-crystalline deformation features and are oriented parallel to the

cleavage and are interpreted to have originated by metamorphic crystallisation.

93
Detailed observation of mica beards by Williams (1972 b) has shown, (1) beards

are aggregates of phyllosilicates, quartz and feldspar that define annular bodies

about detrital grains that are oriented parallel to the cleavage direction, (2)

phyllosilicates in beards, immediately adjacent to the host are approximately

perpendicular to the boundary of the grains, and (3) phyllosilcates further from

the host are elongated nearly parallel to the cleavage. Obsevations (1) and (3)

show that phyllosilicate orientation in the beards is determined by growth-energy

constraints, because growth in phyllosilicates is fastest parallel to (001) (compare

Vernon 1976, p-204), and crystal growth in a non-hydrostatically stressed rock

occurs parallel to 05 (minimum principal compressive stress) because it requires

less work. The latter obviously assumes that cleavage is at a high angle to the

maximum principal stress. If so then growth of phyllosilicate during the

deformation related to the cleavage development should be roughly parallel to the

cleavage direction. Immediately adjacent to the host grains, however, nucleation

constraints must have a stronger influence on the growth direction since

phyllosilicates are approximately normal to the grain boundary along which they

occur. Therefore the presence of mica beards probably indicates that,

crystallization of phyllosilicates have occurred during development of cleavage in

these rocks. Generally in shales and in some silstones, impure dolomitic arenites,

that contain phyllosilicates aligned parallel to the cleavage, metamorphic

crystallization (grain growth) and mica beard features are common and may even

account to about 60-80% of the observed microstructures in some (for example

see Table-4.5).

Detrital quartz and dolomite grains associated with spaced rough cleavage

have either irregular sutured boundaries or planar truncated sides (Plate 4.1, 4.2

94
4.3,4.16,4.19,4.21) both parallel to cleavage. Grains that are not in contact with

cleavage seams are more equant and have relatively less distinct grain

boundaries. (Plate 4.5). The truncated and corroded irregular nature of the quartz

and carbonate grains adjacent to the cleavages together with their common

association with overgrowths and mica beards are compatible with a pressure

solution-solution transfer-deposition mechanism of deformation. (Voll 1960,

Dumey 1972a, 1972b, Williams 1972a, Geiser 1974, Groshong 1988). Such a

mechanism requires concomitant dissolution of the more soluble minerals (such

as quartz and carbonate) and diffusional transfer of dissolved species preferably

through Cobble creep and their subsequent precipitation as overgrowths or mica

beards on existing grains. In terms of cleavage development, it implies that the

cleavage seams observed in these rocks are pressure solution surfaces, along

which quartz and/or carbonates have been corroded by dissolution and during

removal of dissolved material, some detrital mica, iron oxides and other dust

particles in the form of opaque are passively dragged to concentrate along the

solution surfaces (Plate 4.1, 4.2, 4.16). Shape changes of detrital grains and re­

distribution of minerals are therefore essential parts of such cleavage forming

mechanism. A rigorous treatment of the theoretial aspect of the solution transfer

mechanism in terms of primary' differentiation is given by Dumey (1976). The

mechanism assumes that in a granular fabric (similar to the siltstones, impure

dolomites and sandstones of our study) is differentially stressed, then solution

will occur on those grain boundaries that are subjected to a high normal stress

(cr„) (Dumey 1976). If dissolution of matrix is involved then dark irregular

solution seams develop along faces with high cr„ and begin to envelop the grains.

These seams correspond to zones of active pressure solution defined

95
mineralogically by either thin films of platy minerals such as clay, /mica and

opaque. Once a solution seam has been established about a grain it may

propagate along its length, like a crack because of stress concentration at the end

of the seam (Dumey 1974). Sub-parallel seams therefore develop extending

laterally from generative sites around the largest grains to link up and produce the

varying degree of irregular anastomosing network of cleavages typical of rough

cleavages in siltstones (Plate 4.5, 4.8, 4.13) and impure carbonates (Plate 4.15,

4.18). The development of overgrowths and mica beards in any of these fabrics

may depend among other factors on whether the system (the volurhe of the rock

undergoing deformation) is chemically open or closed. In a closed system the

dissolved phases diffuse along grain boundaries and crystallize as overgrowths

/beards on grain faces with low an,. This results in cleavage seams adjacent to

grains with beards and overgrowths. In open systems, the dissolved phases may

partially or completely migrate from the part of the rock undergoing dissolution

resulting in the development of distinct cleavage seams adjacent to grains with

little or no beards and overgrowth. Such a mechanism (pressure solution-solution

transfer-deposition) accounts to about 50%-95% of the observed cleavage

microstructure in the siltstones and medium grained impure carbonates (Table

4.5). A brief discussion on mechanical rotation-mechanism for preferred

orientation that defines cleavage is necessary at this point. Detrital

phyllosilicates, passively rotated to lie parallel to cleavage during dissolution and

solution transfer intuitively seems very likely and was popularised by Maxwell

1962 although such ideas were not by any means new (March 1932). Although

many arguments were put forward in support of grain rotation especially

phyllosilicates(Vemon 1988), mechanical rotation of grains as a mechanism for

96
cleavage development remains largely speculative and hypothetical. In our study

a grain rotation is interpreted when phyllosilicates are observed to have obliquity

with both cleavage and bedding, but how the rotation occurred is not very

decisive. This mechanism accounts to about 4% of the bulk deformation

mechanisms associated with cleavage development.

In conclusion, it may be stated that no single mechanism is responsible for

cleavage development and "formation of cleavage is a complex process involving

several mechanisms"(Holeywell and Tullis 1975). Nevertheless, two modes of

mechanisms for cleavage development can be recognized in the rocks of the

southern NFB that are complementary to each other, namely pressure solution-

solution transfer-deposition, and crystallization due to metamorphism. Minor

mechanisms include dynamic re-crystallization and passive mechanical rotation.

97
Table-4.1. Mineralogical Composition of rock-specimens selected from the
study area for study of cleavage microstructures

Grains
Rock type Matrix
/Specimen no Q D M c o Acc (%)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

221/2(97) 66.8 8.9 24.3 (M + O)

1
28D/3(95) 61.8 - - - 8.8 — 29.4 (M + O)

20J/2A(9 6) 44.5 ■ - 4.3 - 0.6 - 50.6 (M)

20J/1(97) 27.0 - 1.3 4.0 1.0 - 66.7 (Q + M)

2
2J/2(9 6) 39.3 - 1.5 - 5.2 0.3 (F) 53.7 (Q + M)

7J/4(97) 26.6 - 22.9 - 4.3 - 46.2 (Q + M)

9J/6 (96) 29.7 16.7 13.0 - 3.6 - 37.0 (Q + M)

14J/5(97) 54.3 - - - - - 45.7 (Q + M + O)

3 25D/6(95) 18.0 - 2.3 7.6 2.7 - 69.4 (Q + M + Cl)

19D/5(95) , 27.5 - 1.6 4.1 2.2 - 64.6 (Q + M + Cl)

5J/2(9 6) 26.5 29.6 7.4 - 0.4 - Q+M=20.5, D=15.6

29J/2(97) 24.8 - 2.2 - - - Q+M=17.3, D=55.7

28J/1(97) 11.8 6.4 3.2 - 5.9 - Q+M=18,l, D=54.6

4
21D/1(95) 36.0 1.5 2.5 - - 0.5(1) Q+M=2.15, D=57.5

19J/1(97) 12.1 22.4 1.5 - - - Q+ M=27.4, D=36.6

19J/1D(96) - 62.5 - - - _ 37.5 (Q)

Explanations : 1. Quartzose sandstones 2. Shales and/or Siltstones 3.1ntercalated

sandstones and shales, 4. Carbonates.
Q = Quartz, M= Mica, Cl = Chlorite, O = Dust and
opaque, D = Dolomites,T = Tourmaline, F = Plagioclase feldspar.
Acc=accessories.

98
Table-4.2 Grain size and Grain : Matrix ratio.

Rock Type/ Range of modal grain, size G/M % Grains

Specimen no. (mm)
Grains Matrix

22J/2(97) 0.124-0.089 not measurable 3.128 75.7

1 28D/3(95) 0.708-0.531 not measurable 2.417 70.6

(mode I)

0.177-0.088
(mode II)

20J/2A(96) 0.085 - 0.042 0.076 - 0.020 0.980 49.4

201/1(97) 0.034 - 0.026 0.014 - 0.004 0.24 19.4

2 2J/2(96) 0.086 - 0.043 0.020 - 0.010 0.874 45.4

7J/4(97) 0.141 - 0.035 0.020 - 0.010 1.158 53.5

14J/5(97) 0.106-0.035 0.020-0.006 1.186 54.2

25D/6(95) 0.087-0.044 0.014-0.006 0.439 30.5

3
19D/5(95) 0.068-0.051 0.030-0.010 0.261(P) 20.7
1.325 (Ps) 57.0

5J/2(96) 0.053 - 0.060 0.004 - 0.02 1.76 63.7

29J/2(97) 0.086-0.043 0.016 - 0.008 0.33 25

28J/1(97) 0.068-0.034 0.030 - 0.020 0.381 27.6

4 21D/1(95) 0.085-0.043 0.040 - 0.012 0.659 39.5

19J/1(97) 0.068-0.059 0.020 - 0.012 0.426 35.8

19J/1D(96) 0.017 - 0.026, 0.001 - 0.002 1.671 62,5

0.044 - 0.089
24.7-0.460

9J/6(96) 0.086-0.051 0.010 - 0.020 1.705 63.1

Explanations:
1. Quatzose sandstones, 2. Siltstones, 3. Intercalated sandstones and shales,
4. Carbonates, P = pelitie domains, Ps = Psammitic domains. G/M = Grain-
Matrix ratio.

99
 Table - 4.3. Cleavage microstructure in the southern Nallamalai Fold-fault belt.
Volume of rock Micro Cleavage-
Rock type / Cleavage Spacing occupied by Cleavage morphology -lithon Bedding
Specimen defined by (mm) cleavage(S,) shape angle.
no. domains (%) fabric (degrees)
i

22J/2(97) d+f 0.354- 24.4 Uneven, irregular, crudely dendritic and discontinuous seams Weak
0.133 having only zonal development (Plate-4.1,4.2)

rH
1

X)
28D/3(95) 11.2 Incipient, rough, curved and discontinuous cleavage Random
0.472- Domains (Plate 4.3,4.4)
0.420

Explanation :

1. Quartzose sandstones
2. Siltstones / Shales
3. Interbedded sandstones and shales.
4. Carbonates
Grain boundary alignment of grains at contact between (a) carbonate intraclasts, (b) carbonate intraclast and matrix, c) quartz and carbonate,
(
(d) quartz grains, (e) quartz and mica/chlorite.
(f) Accumulation of iron oxides as opaque along cleavage traces
(g) Cleavage parallel shape preferred orientation of mica, sometimes with quart fibres of pressure shadows
(h) Grain boundary alignment between carbonate and quartz
(i) Cleavage parallel shape preferred orientation of quartz through re-crystallization and recovery.
(j) Cleavage parallel shape preferred orientation of carbonate (dolomite) intraclasts.
(c) Coarse layer (f) Fine layer.

100
Table 4.3 (coutd.)
Volume of rock Micro Cleavage-

---
Rock type / Cleavage Spacing occupied by -lithon Bedding

S3
A
>
Cleavage morphology shape angle..

_«•
M
czT
Specimen defined by
no. domains (%) fabric (degrees)
CN

20J/2A(96) d+e+i 0.048-0.042 51.1 Cleavages are wispy and wavy with short amplitude curves Weak
that anastomose quartz grains or grain aggregates,nearly
smooth seams (Plate 4.5,4.6)

-«3-
00
0.028-0.013 Continuous slaty cleavage with straight smooth seams Moderate

00
20J/ 1(97)
(Plate 4.7)

r\
i

21/2(96) d+e+g 0.061-0.055 71.5 Planar, regular smooth seams rarely anastomosing (Plate 4.8) Weak

+
0.037-0.025 75.7 Short , discontinuous, nearly planar cleavage seams that do Moderate 26

00
11/4(97)
not anastomose;

+
+
O
57.5 Wavy, wispy and uneven, moderately long cleavage films

OB
91/6(96) 0.040-0.036
V")
Vi

I continuing on either side of carbonate clasts (Plate 4.9). I Random

+
*+*
14J/5(97) 8.5 (e) Straight, nearly smooth, continuous and narrowly Very weak to

OB
0.085 (c )
0.28 ( f ) 82.8 ( f) anastomosing cleavage domains in fine layers; Rare cleavage random
in coarse layers (Plate 4.10,4.11).
Random in

+
OB
25D/6(95) 0.11 (c ) 78.6 ( f) Domainal slaty cleavage in fine layers having fairly straight, coarse 85 in coarse
0.025-0.028 nearly smooth seams. Coarse layers are marked by only domains and and 71 in fine
(f) incipient cleavages (Plate 25D/6). weak in fine.
layers.

+
fii)
19D/5(95) 41.4 (c) Non anastomosing, straight, continuous and smooth in fine
0.086 (c) 87.2 ( f) layers; Irregular, discontinuous , uneven and rough seams in Moderate
0.025(f) coarse layers (Plate 4.13, 4.14 ).

101
Table - 4.3 (Contd).

Volume of rock Micro Cleavage-

Rock type / Cleavage Spacing occupied by lithon Bedding
Specimen no. defined by (mm) cIeavage(S,) Cleavage morphology shape angle.
domains (%) fabric (degrees)

5J/2(96) a+b+c+g 0.049 c )

( 6 2 .2 (c) Cleavage domains are Rough Type C (Gray 1978), Weak 82
0.010(f) 82.5 ( /) anastomosing ; Cleavage fabric between zones are typically
type A (Plate 4.15,4.16, 4.17).

29J/2(97) c+g 0.037 37.4 Anastomosing and rough as a whole. In the finer layer Moderate to 64
cleavage is straight and relatively closely spaced. weak

281/1(97) c+f 0.14-0.04 (c) 49.2(c) Anastomosing arid rough with irregular wavy seams in Random 26
0 .1 7 (f) 78.4 ( /) coarse domains; relatively even with nearly planar straight
seams in fine domains (Plate 4.18,4.19,4.20).
0.057-0.043
2 ID/ 1(95) 76.6 Cleavage is straight, planar, moderately long and not Strong 28
•anastomosing. Tends to be smooth (Plate 4.21).
0.019
19J/1(97) b+c+g 75.2 Straight, planar, nearly smooth cleavage domains. Moderate 37
0.124-0.059
19J/1D(96) i+ j 57.3 Irregular with wavy anastomosing seams around elongated Strong 71
carbonate intraclasts (Plate 4.22,4.23).

102
Table 4.4 Crenulation cleavage in the southern NFB.

Specimen Nature of the early cleavage (S,) Nature of the crenulation cleavage (SJ
no./Rock type
31J/4(97) Early cleavage (S,) is a slaty cleavage defined by preferred orientation Crenulation cleavage (SJ is straight, continuous and zonal. S2
(Shale with fine of phyllosilicates and quartz with a spacing of 0.00965mm. This develops along the appressed short limbs of the assymetric
bandings of cleavage is folded into single, rounded-hinged asymmetric folds microfolds. is absent in the coarser sandy layers. Spacing of the
quartzose psammitic between later cleavages; The trace enveloping surface trace in the cleavage ranges between 0.0476mm-0.05mm. Crenulation
layers) section makes angle of 40° to the bedding lamination (S0). cleavage domains show relatively high enrichment in mica and
opaque (Plate 4.24)
27D/4 (94) Crenulation cleavage (S2) is straight, continuous along length and
Shale with Earlier foliation is a scaly foliation parallel to S0 and is a continuous is zonal developing along appressed short limbs of the asymmetric
disseminated, cleavage folded into one Or more than one asymmetric microfolds micro-folds. S2 are arranged in bundles/zones that are spaced at
relatively coarse between late cleavage (SJ 0.3428mm-0.6mw. Each bundle consists of closely spaced S*
quartz grains seams with spacing 0.017mm
(0.05mm) (Plate 4.25,4 2 6 ).

29J/1(95)
Interbedded shales Crenulation cleavage (SJ is discrete and zonal wavy
and sandstones with Earlier foliation is parallel to S0 and is continuous slaty cleavage, anastomosing and partly discontinuous along length. The coarse
thin laminations of folded into single symmetric misrofolds between later cleavages. psammitic layers do not reveal S2 development but are folded in
coarse quartzose phase but with disharmony with the crenulations in the finer
layers of thickness layers. Spacing of Sj is 0.109 mm
0.035mm-1,225mm. (Plate 4.27,4.28,4.29).

8F(94) Earlier foliation (S J is a continuous slaty cleavage which are folded Both zonal and discrete crenulation cleavage (SJ occurs with
Shale with thin into asymmetric micro folds. S,. makes an angle of 20° with bedding smooth seams continuous along length with a spacing of 0.15mm.
psammite bands lam ination Crenulation cleavage is confined within some zones outside which
(0.985mm) S, cleavage does not even show crenulations (Plate 4.30,4.31).

103
Table - 4.5. Deformation mechanisms and metamorphic mineral crystallisation

Features Inferred deformation i Percentage of

Specimen no.

a03
23
S3
©

■a
-M
mechanisms/metamorphic crystallization occurrence

&
Cleavage parallel truncation of edges of otherwise i

inequant
r-

(1) carbonate intraclasts in contact with each other and Pressure solution , solution transfer and deposition
overgrowth
O0

(2) carbonate intraclasts in contact with matrix Pressure solution

$
(3) quartz and carbonate in contact with each other 17.5

o 7.5
(4) quartz in contact with the matrix ' •s

5J/2 (P) 96 (5) quartz grains in contact with each other

(Medium grained
impure dolomitic- Mica parallel to bedding (S0) but bent and kinked with Crystal plastic deformation 4.7
lutites) sweepy extinction
!
*1

Mica parallel to cleavage (S,), srain free with straight Metamorphic crystallization
extinction

Mica oblique to S0 and 8, with sharp long and short edges Mechanical rotation 3.7
and showing straight extinction

Mica oblique to S„ and S, but bent having cleavage steps Intracrystalline slip and glide with or without 3.3 • •

mechanical rotation
Mica parallel to S, and shows slight crenulations with
oo

undulosity in extinction Crystal plastic deformation (with rotation)

Mica parallel to Snbut shows no signs of deformation Undeformed

104
Table - 4.5 (contd)

Specimen no. Features Inferred deformation mechanisms Percentage of

occurrence

«
a
"3
_o
a

a
T3
/metamorphic crystallization

&
Cleavage parallel truncation of edges of otherwise inequant

•
(a) carbonate intraclasts in contact with quartzose matrix Pressure solutions 49.4

•8
19J/1D(P) 96 (b) carbonate intraclasts in contact with each other 12.3
(Very coarse grained
impure dolomitic- Preferred orientation of grain boundaries of
lutites) microcrystalline quartz aggregates with non undulosity in Reciystallization 22.8
extinction.

Carbonate intraclasts with no obvious deformation features Undeformed (Grain boundary sliding?) 14.2
1 but having their long axis parallel to the cleavage I

Cleavage parallel truncation of edges of otherwise inequant Pressure solution + metamorphic 14.2
quartz grains in contact with strain free cleavage parallel crystallization
20J/1(P) 97 mica.
( Laminated Mica parallel to S0 but bent kinked and serrated along short 13.8
siltstones) edges Crystal plastic deformation
Mica, strongly parallel to S, with straight extinction and 71.0
1 1
fibrous habit Metamorphic crystallization

Cleavage parallel truncation of edges of otherwise inequant

(a) quartz grains in contact with each other and bearded Pressure solution and deposition 48.0
overgrowth
-2

22J/2 (P) 97 (b) quartz in contact with mica 21.0

(Quartzose
o
T3

sandstones) Combination of the above 25.0

q

Strain free mica with straight extinction and parallel to S, Metamorphic crystallization

105
Table - 4.5 (contd)

Specimen no. and Features Inferred deformation mechanisms Percentage of

lithology /.metamorphic crystallization occurrence
1
<3

Mica oblique to S0 and S, with little Mechanical rotation with plastic

undulosity in extinction deformation
i
S3

Mica with difiuse outlines, strongly

parallel to cleavage in aggregates, and Metamorphic crystallisation
with straight extinction

Concentration of dust and opaque along 28

cleavage seams coexisting with S, Pressure solution + Metamorphic
25D/6 (P) 95 parallel strain free mica crystallization
(Intercalated sandstone and
shale) Bent and kinked mica and/or chlorite 9
parallel to S„ in between cleavage seams Crystal plastic deformation of mica

Cleavage parallel truncation of edges or

stylolitic edges at the contact between Pressure solution and deposition
quartz grains with overgrowth along
edges at a high angle to cleavage
CS

Cleavage parallel truncation of edges of

•s

quartz grains in contact with mica with

simultaneous mica beards on quartz.
r-

o
T3

Combination of the last two features

106
 Cleavage classification schemes

Continuous slaty Continuous schistocity

Cleavage (fine grained) (Coarse grained)

(A) Penetrativity and Grain size

Limit of resolution in
optical microscope

Most slaty
Most spaced cleavage Continuous cleavage
cleavage
very strong
moderate

strong
■weak

10cm 1cm 1mm 0.1mm 0.01mm

(B) Spacing of cleavage domains

Spacing scheme for cleavage classification (based on Powell 1979, and Alvarez
• 1978).

Figure-4.1 : Cleavage classification schemes (based on Powell 1979, Alvarez

1978, Borradaile 1982, Gray 1977,1978). Classification schemes include
parameters like (A) penetrativity and grain-size, (B) spacing, (C) volume of rock
occupied by cleavage domains, (D) morphology of disjunctive cleavage domains,
(E) microlithon shape fabric and (F) morphology of crenulation cleavage domains.

107
 1% 30% 70% 100%
<---------------------------------------------------------------------------- » Continuous
spaced cleavage cleavage

(C) Volume of rock occupied by cleavage domains

Stylolitic Anastomosing Rough Smooth

<-.................... ....................>

type-A type-B type-C

(D) Morphology of the cleavage domains

Morphology of Cleavage domains in rocks with disjunctive cleavage (based on
Powell 1979, and Gray 1978).

Figure-4.1 (contd.)

108
random <----------------- > weak <---------- —> strong <---------------> complete

(E) Microlithon shape fabric : Increasing fabric realignment from (a) to (d).
Random (a) is characterised by no obvious shape alignment in detrital grains and
no preferred orientation in phyllosilicates whereas (d) represnts complete with all
detrital grain shapes lost and all are strongly oriented parallal to cleavage.
Cleavage domains in (d) are indistinct and pass into continuous cleavage.

discrete symmetric discrete asymmetric

crennlation cleavage crenulation cleavage

zonal symmetric zonal asymmetric

crenulation cleavage crenulation cleavage

(F) Classification of crenulation cleavages

Figure-4.1 (contd.)

109
Figure-4.2 : Location map of specimens for study of cleavage microstructure
and deformation mechanisms.

110
 fa
4k

■A
p
Grain size (mm)

Fignre-4.3 : Variation of cleavage penetrativity with grain size ( R2 = 0.882 for

the fitted line). Specimen no. indicated against each plot. 1.20J/1-97, 2. 25D/6-95,
3,10. 5J/2-96, 4. 14J/5-97, 5, 12. 19D/5-95, 6. 19J/1-97, 7, 11. 28J/1-97, 8.
21D/1-95, 9. 2J/2-96, 13. 9J/6-96,14. 20J/2A-96.

ill
 occupied by cleavage
domains
% of rock

to
Grain: Matrix

Figure-4.4 : Variation of cleavage penetrativity with grain-matrix ratio (

R2 = 0.771 for the fitted line). Specimen no. indicated against each plot. 1.
20J/1- 97, 2. 19D/5-95,3. 28J/1-97, 4. 25D/6-95, 5. 19J/1-97, 6. 21D/1-95
7. 2J/2-96, 8. 7J/4-97,9.20J/2A-96, 10. 19D/5-95,11. 19J/1D-95,
12. 9J/6-96,13. 5J/2-96,14. 28D/3-95,15. 22J/2-97.

112
Plate-4.1 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in quartzose sandstones. (Specimen
no. 22J/2-97). Incipiently developed, uneven, irregular and discontinuous
cleavage seams running from upper left to lower right. On the top right comer a
thin mud lens parallel to macroscopic bedding (S0). Width of view 4.208 mm.
Plane polarised light (PPL).

Plate-4.2 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in quartzose sandstones.(Specimen

no. 22J/2-97). Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Note truncated sides
of quartz grains parallel to cleavage, pressure shadow fibers on quaitz grains in
the lower part and undulose extinction of quartz grains in the cential part. Width
of view 0.7 mm. Crossed polarised light (CPL).

113
Plate-4.3 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in quartzose sandstones (Specimen no.
28D/3-95). Incipiently developed, rough cleavage seams running from upper
right to lower left. Note poor sorting but well-rounded grain texture. Truncation
and alignment of grain contacts parallel to cleavage and concentration of opaque
along cleavage seams. Width of view 4.208 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.4 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in quartzose sandstones. (Specimen

no. 28D/3-95). Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Note undulose
extinction in some but generally absent in the others. Width of view 4.208 mm.
CPL.

114
Plate-4.5 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in shales/siltstones.(Specimen no. 20J/2A-
96). Nearly smooth, narrowly anastomosing cleavage seams running from upper left to
lower right. Microlithon domains consists of single or aggregates of quartz grains
many of which show truncation of grain boundaries parallel to cleavage seams. Seams
appear dark due to concentration of opaque along them. Width of view 0.7 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.6 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in shales/siltstones.(Specimen no. 20J/2A-

96). Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Note general absence of undulose
extinction in quartz grains, truncation of quartz grain boundaries at the cleavage
interface and preferred orientation of mica parallel to the cleavage. Width of view 0.7
mm. CPL.

115
Plate-4.7 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in shales/siltstones.(Specimen no.
20J/1-97). Continuous slaty cleavage running from upper left to lower rigtht
defined mainly by dimensional preferred orientation of muscovite and
truncation of quartz grain margins at the cleavage interface. Width of view 0.7
mm. PPL.

Plate-4.8 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in shales/siltstones.(Specimen no.

2J/2-96). Cleavage seams running from upper left to lower right. Note
truncation of grain boundaries of quartz grains and dimensional pieferred
orientation of muscovite along cleavage seams. Width of view 1.37 mm. PPL.

116
Plate-4.9 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in shales/siltstones.(Specimen no.
9J/6-96). Wispy, uneven, moderately long cleavage films running from upper
left to lower right. White grains are quartz and dark round spots are dolomites.
Note truncation of grain boundaries of quartz and dolomites against cleavage
seams. Width of view 0.7 mm. PPL.

117
Plate-4.10 : Photomicrograph of . cleavage in interbedded sandstones and
shales.(Specimen no. 14J/5-97). Domainal slaty cleavage develops in the shaly layers
(cleavage runs upper left to lower right) but no cleavage in the relatively coai sei
quartzose sandy layer. Note, that the cleavage develops in the left of the tapering,
relatively coarse layer where the thickness is minimum. Width of view 4.208 mm.
PPL.

Plate-4.11 i Photomicrograph of cleavage in interbedded sandstones and

' shales.(Specimen no. 14J/5-97). Cleavage runs as dark seams from upper left to lower
right. Note folded and bent detrital muscovite with one limb parallel to cleavage.
Bedding is horizontal. Also note a standing mica grain at the top right, that shows
oblique relationship between cleavage and bedding. Width of view 0.27 mm. PPL.

118
Plate-4.12 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in interbedded sandstones and shales
(Specimen no. 25D/6-95). Domainal slaty cleavage in fine layers (middle of the
photograph), and rough cleavage in the coarse layers composed of quaitz
(white) and chlorite-muscovite aggregates (white and grey). Note truncation of
quartz and chlorite grains against cleavage seams. In the upper left, a chlorite
grain is seen to be kinked. The cleavage shows a slight refraction. Width of
view 1.37 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.13 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in interbedded sandstones and

shales.(Specimen no. 19D/5-95). Cleavage running from upper left to lower
right as straight, continuous and smooth seams in fine layers but ii regular,
discontinuous and rough cleavage in coarse quartz-rich layers. Note truncation
of grain boundaries along cleavage seams in the coarse layer. Width of view
1.37 mm. PPL.

119
Plate-4.14 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in interbedded sandstones and
shales.(Specimen no. 19D/5-95 ). Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Note,
grain shape preferred orientation of quartz grains in the direction ol cleavage as a
result of truncation of grain boundaries against cleavage seams. Also note that some ot
the grains possess mica beards. Width of view 0.7 mm. CPL.

Plate-4.15 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks(specimen no. 5J/2-96).

Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Bedding runs from lower left to upper
right. Note that coarse gray dolomite grains having a dark stain along boundaries
parallel to the bedding but not along boundaries parallel to the cleavage. Also note
truncation of grain boundaries in dolomite grains in cleavage seams. Cleavage is
rough, irregular and a little anastomosing in the coarser layer but tends to be smoother
and relatively closely spaced in the intervening thin dark fine layer. Width of view
1.37 mm. PPL.

120
Plate-4.16 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks (specimen no. 5J/2-96).
Cleavage dips steeply towards right. Note overgrowths in some dolomite grains (e.g.
upper left) on those faces, which are at a high angle to the cleavage seams. Note also
that associated with these features are sharp truncation of grain boundaries of dolomite
against cleavage seams. Width of view 0.7 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.17 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks (Specimen no. 5J/2-96).

Distinct overgrowth on dolomite grains in a direction parallel to cleavage. Note two
preferred orientations of mica —one parallel to the bedding that runs lower left to
upper right and the other parallel to the cleavage that runs upper left to lower right.
Width of view 0.7 mm. PPL.

121
Plate-4.18 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks (Specimen no. 28J/1-
97). Anastomosing, rough and irregular wavy cleavage seams in coarse dolomite uch
layers and smooth and continuous-slaty in fine layers, running from upper left to lower
right. Bedding is sub-horizontal along width of the photograph. Note refraction of
cleavage when the cleavage passes from coarse layer to fine layer and also enrichment
of opaque along cleavage seams. Width of view 1.37 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.19 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks.(Specimen no. 28J/1-

97). Cleavage in coarser layers runs from upper left to lower right. Note truncation ol
grain boundaries of dolomite grains (white and grey) adjacent to the cleavage seams.
Width of view 0.7 mm. PPL.

122
Plate-4.20 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks.(Specimen no.
28J/l-97). A relatively large intraclast of dolomicrite enveloped between two
dark cleavage seams (running from upper left to lower right), shows pressure-
shadow fibres of quartz on faces that are at a high angle to the cleavage seams.
Width of view 0.27mm. PPL.

Plate-4.21 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks.(Specimen no.

21 D/1-95). Cleavage runs from upper left to lower right. Clear white grains are
quartz and the others are dolomites. The cleavage is continuous in the sense that
all the grains are more or less aligned with their long dimensions parallel to the
cleavage. The general interlocking texture of the carbonate grains suggests a re­
crystallization of carbonates parallel to cleavage. Specks of mica are also seen
to be oriented parallel to cleavage. Width of view : 0.7 mm; CPL.

123
Plate-4.22 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks (Specimen no.
19J/1D-96). Large dolomitic intraclasts (greyish black) aligned fairly parallel to
the cleavage that runs left-right. The white matrix is silica (see plate-4.23).
Width of view is 4.208 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.23 : Photomicrograph of cleavage in carbonate rocks (Specimen no.

19J/1D-96). Matrix composed of quartz between the dolomitic intraclasts. Note
that the even grain size, dimensional orientation parallel to the cleavage and the
general texture of the matrix is typical of dynamic recrystallization. Width of
view: 1.37 mm. CPL.

124
Plate-4.24 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales
(Specimen no.31J/4-97). Early cleavage is a slaty cleavage that runs upper left
to lower right. Crenulation cleavage is subvertical. For description see table-4.4.
Width of view 1.37 mm. PPL.

Plate-4.25 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales

(Specimen no.27D/4-94). Early cleavage is a bedding (S0) slaty cleavage that
runs parallel to the width of the photograph showing microfolds and is cut by a
younger crenulation cleavage that runs sub-vertically. Note that in the coarse
layer the earler slaty cleavage is absent and this layer is affected only by the so
called crenulation cleavage of the fine layers. For description see table-4.4).

125
Plate-4.26 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales (Specimen
no.27D/4-94). More than one microfold hinges between crenulation cleavage seams
that runs upper left to lower right. Width of view: 1.37 mm.; PPL.

Plate-4.27 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales (Specimen

no.29J/l-95). Earlier cleavage is a slaty cleavage parallel to bedding that is subparallel
to the width of the photograph. Thin laminations parallel to bedding are folded.
Crenulation cleavage dipping steeply towards right. Note complete dissolution ol one
or more limbs of some microfolds (right) of the white bedding marker by the
crenulation cleavage giving it a discrete appearance locally, but zonal in the other
portions. Also note concentration of opaque along crenulation cleavage seams giving it
a dark appearance. Width of view: 1.37 mm.; PPL.

126
Plate-4.28 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales
(Specimen no. 29J/1-95). Bedding and slaty cleavage runs from lower left to
upper right. Note offset of bedding lamellae against swarving crenulation
cleavage seams. Also note the general irregularity in spacing and anstomosing
nature of crenulation cleavage. Width of view: 1.37 mm.; PPL.

Plate-4.29 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales

(Specimen no. 29J/1-95). Crenulation cleavage does not develop in the coarse
quartz-rich layer but only in fine (dark) shaly layers. Note howevei that both
coarse and the fine layer exhibit coherent microfolds. Width of view: 4.208
mm.; PPL.

127
Plate-4.30 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales
(specimen no. 8F-94). Earlier cleavage is a slaty cleavage which makes a low
angle to the bedding. Bedding runs from lower left to upper right. Crenulation
cleavage is sub-vertical and offsets coarse quartzose layer. Width of view: 4.208
mm.; PPL.

Plate-4.31 : Photomicrograph of crenulation cleavage in laminated shales

(Specimen no. 8F-94). Earlier cleavage dips gently towards right. Crenulation
cleavage is vertical. Note both discrete and zonal nature of crenulation cleavage.
Width of view: 1.37 mm.; PPL.

128