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Part and Mold Design Guide PDF
Part and Mold Design Guide PDF
A Design Guide
INTRODUCTION
A product of the LANXESS Applications The manual focuses primarily on Contact your LANXESS sales
Engineering Group, this manual is primarily plastic part and mold design, but representative for copies of these
intended as a reference source for part designers also includes chapters on the design publications.
and molding engineers working with LANXESS
plastic resins. The table of contents and index process; designing for assembly;
were carefully constructed to guide you quickly machining and finishing; and painting, This publication was written
to the information you need either by topic or by plating, and decorating. For the most specifically to assist our customers in
keyword. The content was also organized to allow part, it excludes information covered the design and manufacture of products
the manual to function as an educational text
for anyone just entering the field of plastic-part in the following LANXESS companion made from the LANXESS line of
manufacturing. Concepts and terminology are publications: thermoplastic engineering resins. These
introduced progressively for logical cover-to-cover resins include:
reading. Material Selection: Engineering Plastics
A comprehensive look at material • Triax® Polyamide/ABS Blend
testing and the issues to consider when
selecting a plastic material. • Lustran® and Novodur® ABS
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Most of the design principles covered CAMPUS: Software containing In addition to design manuals,
in this manual apply to all of these single and multi-point data that LANXESS Corporation provides
resins. When discussing guidelines or was generated according to uniform design assistance in other forms
issues for a specific resin family, we standards. Allows you to search such as seminars and technical
reference these materials either by grades of LANXESS resins that publications. We also offer a range
their LANXESS trade names or by their meet a particular set of performance of design engineering services to
generic polymer type. requirements. qualified customers. Contact your
LANXESS sales representative for more
The material data scattered throughout techcenter.lanxess.com: LANXESS Web information on these other services.
the chapters is included by way of site containing product information
example only and may not reflect the on-line.
most current testing. In addition, much
of the data is generic and may differ This manual provides general
from the properties of specific resin information and guidelines. Because
grades. For up-to-date performance each product application is different,
data for specific LANXESS resins, always conduct a thorough engineering
contact your sales representative or analysis of your design, and prototype
refer to the following information test new designs under actual in-use
sources: conditions. Apply appropriate safety
factors, especially in applications in
Engineering Polymers Properties which failure could cause harm or
Guides: Contain common single-point injury.
properties by resin family and grade.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART GENERAL DESIGN
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Chapter 3 Chapter 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 6 Chapter 7
PAINTING, PLATING, AND DECORATING MOLD DESIGN
APPENDICES
163 Index
166 Part Design Checklist
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Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
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DEFINING PLASTIC PART Electrical Performance Appearance
REQUIREMENTS
Note required electrical property Aesthetic requirements can entail
Thoroughly ascertain and evaluate your values and nature of electrical loading. many material and part-design issues.
part and material requirements, which For reference, list materials that are For example, a need for transparency
will influence both part design and known to have sufficient electrical greatly reduces the number of potential
material selection. When evaluating performance in your application. plastics, especially if the part needs
these requirements, consider more than Determine if your part requires EMI high clarity. Color may also play an
just the intended, end-use conditions shielding or UL testing. important role. Plastics must often
and loads: Plastic parts are often match the color of other materials
subjected to harsher conditions during Weather Resistance used in parts of an assembly. Some
manufacturing and shipping than in applications require the plastic part
actual use. Look at all aspects of part Temperature, moisture, and UV sun to weather at the same rate as other
and material performance including the exposure affect plastic parts’ properties materials in an assembly.
following. and appearance. The end-use of a
product determines the type of weather In resins, custom colors generally cost
Mechanical Loading resistance required. For instance, more than standard colors, particularly
external automotive parts such as for small-order quantities. For certain
Carefully evaluate all types of mirror housings must withstand colors and effects, some parts may
mechanical loading including continuous outdoor exposure and need to be painted or decorated in the
short-term static loads, impacts, and perform in the full range of weather mold. Depending upon the application,
vibrational or cyclic loads that could conditions. Additionally, heat gain parts with metallic finishes may
lead to fatigue. Ascertain long-term from sun on dark surfaces may raise require painting, in-mold decorating or
loads that could cause creep or stress the upper temperature requirement vacuum metallization. Surface finishes
relaxation. Clearly identify impact considerably higher than maximum range from high-gloss to heavy-matte.
requirements. expected temperatures. Conversely, Photoetching the mold steel can impart
your requirements may be less special surface textures for parts.
Temperature severe if your part is exposed to
weather elements only occasionally. Styling concerns may dictate the
Many material properties in plastics For example, outdoor Christmas product shape, look, and feel, especially
— impact strength, modulus, tensile decorations and other seasonal if the product is part of a component
strength, and creep resistance to products may only have to satisfy the system or existing product family. Note
name a few — vary with temperature. requirements for their specific, limited all cosmetic and non-cosmetic surfaces.
Consider the full range of end-use exposure. Among other things, these areas may
temperatures, as well as temperatures influence gate, runner, and ejector-pin
to which the part will be exposed Radiation positioning.
during manufacturing, finishing,
and shipping. Remember that impact A variety of artificial sources — such Many part designs must include
resistance generally diminishes at lower as fluorescent lights, high-intensity markings or designs such as logos,
temperatures. discharge lamps, and gamma warnings, instructions, and control
sterilization units — emit radiation labels. Determine if these features can
Chemical Exposure that can yellow and/or degrade many be molded directly onto the part surface
plastics. If your part will be exposed to or if they must be added using one of
Plastic parts encounter a wide a radiation source, consider painting it, the decorating methods discussed in
variety of chemicals both during or specifying a UV-stabilized resin. Chapter 6.
manufacturing and in the end-use
environment, including mold releases,
cutting oils, de-greasers, lubricants,
cleaning solvents, printing dyes,
paints, adhesives, cooking greases, and
automotive fluids. Make sure that these
chemicals are compatible with your
selected material and final part.
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Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
Government and private agencies have Many applications have features Plastic-part cost can be particularly
specifications and approval cycles for requiring tight tolerances for proper important, if your molded part
many plastic parts. These agencies fit and function. Some mating parts comprises all or most of the cost of the
include Underwriters’ Laboratories require only that mating features have final product. Be careful to consider
(UL) for electrical devices, Military the same dimensions. Others must have total system cost, not just part and
(MIL) for military applications, Food absolute size and tolerance. Consider material cost.
and Drug Administration (FDA) for the effect of load, temperature, and
applications with food and bodily-fluid creep on dimensions. Over-specification Assembly
contact, United States Department of tolerance can increase product cost
of Agriculture (USDA) for plastics significantly. Address assembly requirements, such
in meat and poultry equipment, as the number of times the product will
and National Sanitation Foundation Processing be disassembled or if assembly will
Testing Laboratory, Inc. (NSF) for be automated. List likely or proposed
plastics in food-processing and Determine if your part design places assembly methods: screws, welds,
potable-water applications. Always special demands on processing. For adhesives, snap-latches, etc. Note
check for compliance and approval example, will the part need a mold mating materials and potential problem
from appropriate agencies. Determine geometry that is particularly difficult areas such as attachments to materials
if your part requires flame resistance to fill, or would be prone to warpage with different values of coefficient of
in accordance with UL 94. If so, note and bow. Address all part-ejection and linear thermal expansion. State any
rating and thickness. regrind issues. recycling requirements.
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THERMOPLASTIC PROCESSING Injection Molding
METHODS
The most common processing method The injection molding process generally
A variety of commercial methods for LANXESS thermoplastics, injection requires large order quantities to
are used to produce thermoplastic molding, involves forcing molten plastic offset high mold costs. For example,
products. Each has its specific design into molds at high pressure. The plastic a $50,000 mold producing only 1,000
requirements, as well as limitations. then forms to the shape of the mold as parts would contribute $50 to the cost
Usually part design, size, and shape it cools and solidifies (see figure 1-1). of each part. The same mold producing
clearly determine the best process. Usually a quick-cycle process, injection 500,000 parts would contribute only
Occasionally, the part concept lends molding can produce large quantities of $0.10 to part cost. Additionally, mold
itself to more than one process. Because parts, accommodate a wide variety of modifications for product design
product development differs depending part sizes, offer excellent part-to-part changes can be very expensive.
upon the process, your design team repeatability, and make parts with Very large parts, such as automotive
must decide which process to pursue relatively tight tolerances. Molds can bumpers and fenders, require large and
early in product development. This produce intricate features and textures, expensive molds and presses.
section briefly explains the common as well as structural and assembly
processes used for thermoplastics from elements such as ribs and bosses.
LANXESS Corporation. Undercuts and threads usually require
mold mechanisms that add to mold cost.
The injection molding process can quickly produce large quantities of parts in
multi-cavity molds.
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Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
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Blow Molding
Thermoforming Figure 1- 3
Blow molding efficiently produces
hollow items such as bottles (see figure
1-4), containers, and light globes.
Design permitting, the process may
also produce hollow shapes such as
automotive air ducts and gas tanks.
Wall thickness can vary throughout the
part and may change with processing.
Blow molding cannot produce features
that project from the surface such
as ribs and bosses. Part geometry
determines mold and equipment costs,
which can range as high as those for
injection molding.
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Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
Rotomolding Figure 1- 5
Air pressure applied into the tube
expands the tube and forces it against
the walls of the hollow mold. The
blown shape then cools as a thin-
walled hollow shape. A secondary step
removes the vestige at the pinch-off
area.
Rotomolding
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OPTIMIZING PRODUCT FUNCTION
Hinges Figure 1- 6
Consolidation
Hardware
Clever part design can often eliminate Molded-in hinge features can eliminate the need for hinge
or reduce the need for hardware hardware.
fasteners such as screws, nuts,
washers, and spacers. Molded-in
Finish
hinges can replace metal ones in many
applications (see figure 1-6). Molded-in
Consider specifying a molded-in
cable guides perform the same function
color instead of paint. The cost
as metal ones at virtually no added
savings could more than justify any
cost. Reducing hardware lessens
increase in material cost for a colored
material and assembly costs, and
material with the required exposure
simplifies dismantling for recycling.
performance. If you must paint, select a
plastic that paints easily, preferably one
that does not require surface etching
and/or primer.
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Chapter 1
PART DESIGN PROCESS: CONCEPT TO FINISHED PART
Look for opportunities to add easily To reduce material costs, you must • Compare the price of materials that
molded features to simplify assembly reduce material usage and obtain the meet your product requirements,
best material value. Within the limits but avoid making your selection
and enhance product function such
of good design and molding practice, based upon price alone; and
as aligning posts, nesting ribs, finger
consider some of the following:
grips, guides, stops, stand-offs, hooks, • Consider other issues such
clips, and access holes. as material quality, lot-to-lot
consistency, on-time delivery, and
services offered by the supplier.
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Overhead Labor Scrap and Rework
Hourly press rates comprise a When looking to maintain or lower Part and mold design can contribute to
significant portion of part cost. The your labor costs, consider the quality problems and scrap. To avoid
rate varies by region and increases with following: rework and minimize scrap generation,
press size. Some options to consider consider the following:
when evaluating overhead costs • Simplify or eliminate manual tasks
include: as much as possible; • Follow the part design recom-
• Design parts and molds for mendations and guidelines outlined
• Maximizing the number of parts automatic de-gating or place gates in Chapter 2;
produced per hour to reduce the in areas that don’t require careful • Avoid specifying tighter tolerances
machine overhead cost per part; trimming; than actually needed;
• Keep parting lines and mold • Adjust the mold steel to produce
• Avoiding thick sections in your kiss-off areas in good condition to parts in the middle of the tolerance
part and runner system that can avoid flash removal; range, when molding parts with
increase cooling time; • Design parting lines and kiss-off tight tolerances.
points to orient flash in a less
• Designing your mold with good critical direction; and In the long run, this last suggestion
cooling and plenty of draft for easy • Streamline and/or automate is usually less expensive than trying
ejection; and time-consuming assembly steps. to produce parts at the edge of the
tolerance range by molding in a
• Increasing the number of cavities narrow processing window. Do not
in a mold to increase hourly select your mold maker based on price
production. alone. Cheap molds often require
costly rework and frequent mold
This last option requires careful maintenance, and are prone to part
evaluation to determine if machine– quality problems.
cost–per–part savings compensate for
the added mold cost.
PROTOTYPE TESTING
Mold costs, usually amortized over
a specified number of parts or years, Prototype testing allows you to test
can also make up a significant portion and optimize part design and material
of part cost. This is particularly true selection before investing in expensive
if the production quantities are low. production tooling. Good prototype
The complex relationship between testing duplicates molding, processing,
mold cost, mold quality, and molding and assembly conditions as closely
efficiency is covered in Chapter 7. as possible. Molded prototype parts
can also be tested under the same
range of mechanical, chemical, and
environmental conditions that the
production parts must endure.
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
WALL THICKNESS
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Racetracking Figure 2- 2
Incorrect
Air Trap
Thick
Thin
Correct
Consistent
Wall
Thickness
Consider moldability when selecting Thin-walled parts — those with main Usually, low-shrinkage materials,
the wall thicknesses for your part. Flow walls that are less than 1.5 mm such as most amorphous or filled
length — the distance from the gate thick — may require special high- resins, can tolerate nominal wall
to the last area fill — must be within performance molding equipment to thickness variations up to about 25%
acceptable limits for the plastic resin achieve the required filling speeds without significant filling, warpage,
chosen. Excessively thin walls may and injection pressures. This can drive or appearance problems. Unfilled
develop high molding stresses, cosmetic up the molding costs and offset any crystalline resins, because of their high
problems, and filling problems that material savings. Thin-wall molding molding shrinkage, can only tolerate
could restrict the processing window. is generally more suited for size or about half as much thickness variation.
Conversely, overly thick walls can weight reduction than for cost savings. These guidelines pertain to the part’s
extend cycle times and create packing Parts with wall thicknesses greater main walls. Ribs and other protrusions
problems. Other points to consider than 2 mm can also be considered as from the wall must be thinner to avoid
when addressing wall thickness thin-walled parts if their flow-length- sink. For more information about
include: to-thickness ratios are too high for designing ribs and other protrusions,
conventional molding. see the section on ribs in this chapter.
• Avoid designs with thin areas
surrounded by thick perimeter
sections as they are prone to gas
entrapment problems (see figure
2-2);
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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FLOW LEADERS AND RESTRICTORS
Too Thin
Incorrect
Too Thick
Correct
Correct
t
R2 R1
R2 = R1 + t
Correct
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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RIBS Rib Design
Ribs provide a means to economically Proper rib design involves five main at the base of the rib. Highly glossy,
augment stiffness and strength in issues: thickness, height, location, critical surfaces may require thinner
molded parts without increasing overall quantity, and moldability. Consider ribs. Placing ribs opposite character
wall thickness. Other uses for ribs these issues carefully when designing marks or steps can hide rib read-
include: ribs. through (see figure 2-9). Thin-walled
parts— those with walls that are less
• Locating and captivating Rib Thickness than 1.5 mm — can often tolerate ribs
components of an assembly; that are thicker than the percentages
Many factors go into determining the in these guidelines. On parts with wall
• Providing alignment in mating appropriate rib thickness. Thick ribs thicknesses that are 1.0 mm or less,
parts; and often cause sink and cosmetic problems the rib thickness should be equal to
on the opposite surface of the wall to the wall thickness. Rib thickness also
• Acting as stops or guides for which they are attached (see figure directly affects moldability. Very thin
mechanisms. 2-8). The material, rib thickness, surface ribs can be difficult to fill. Because of
texture, color, proximity to a gate, flow hesitation, thin ribs near the gate
This section deals with general and a variety of processing conditions can sometimes be more difficult to fill
guidelines for ribs and part design; determine the severity of sink. Table than those further away. Flow entering
structural considerations are covered in 2-1 gives common guidelines for rib the thin ribs hesitates and freezes while
Chapter 3. thickness for a variety of materials. the thicker wall sections fill.
These guidelines are based upon
subjective observations under common
conditions and pertain to the thickness
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
Rib Size
Ribs usually project from the main For glass-filled materials with higher Generally, taller ribs provide greater
wall in the mold-opening direction and shrinkage in the cross-flow versus flow support. To avoid mold filling, venting,
are formed in blind holes in the mold direction, the effect of rib thickness and ejection problems, standard
steel. To facilitate part ejection from on warpage can be quite different (see rules of thumb limit rib height to
the mold, ribs generally require at least figure 2-12). Because thin ribs tend approximately three times the rib-base
one-half degree of draft per side (see to fill from the base up, rather than thickness. Because of the required
figure 2-10). More than one degree along their length, high cross-flow draft for ejection, the tops of tall ribs
of draft per side can lead to excessive shrinkage over the length of the rib may become too thin to fill easily.
rib thickness reduction and filling can cause the ends to warp toward the Additionally, very tall ribs are prone to
problems in tall ribs. ribs. As rib thickness increases and the buckling under load. If you encounter
flow direction becomes more aligned one of these conditions, consider
Thick ribs form thickened flow along the length of the ribs, this effect designing two or more shorter, thinner
channels where they intersect the base diminishes. Warpage can reverse as the ribs to provide the same support with
wall. These channels can enhance flow ribs become thicker than the wall. improved moldability (see figure 2-13).
in the rib direction and alter the filling Maintain enough space between ribs
pattern. The base of thick ribs is often for adequate mold cooling: for short
a good location for gas channels in ribs allow at least two times the wall
gas-assist molding applications. The thickness.
gas-assist process takes advantage of
these channels for filling, and hollows
the channels with injected gas to avoid
problems with sink, voids, or excessive Rib Design Guidelines Figure 2-10
shrinkage.
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Warpage vs. Rib Thickness Figure 2-11 Warpage vs. Rib Thickness Figure 2-12
Warpage vs. rib thickness in unfilled resins. Warpage vs. rib thickness in glass-filled resins.
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
BOSSES
Boss Design Figure 2-14
Bosses find use in many part designs
as points for attachment and assembly.
The most common variety consists
of cylindrical projections with holes
designed to receive screws, threaded
inserts, or other types of fastening
hardware. As a rule of thumb, the
outside diameter of bosses should
remain within 2.0 to 2.4 times the
outside diameter of the screw or insert
(see figure 2-14).
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Bosses Figure 2-16 Boss in Attachment Wall Figure 2-17
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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GUSSETS
Gussets Figure 2-21
Gussets are rib-like features that add
support to structures such as bosses,
ribs, and walls (see figure 2-21). As
with ribs, limit gusset thickness to
one-half to two-thirds the thickness of
the walls to which they are attached
if sink is a concern. Because of their
shape and the EDM process for burning
gussets into the mold, gussets are prone
to ejection problems. Specify proper
draft and draw polishing to help with
mold release.
Contour lines show flow front position at incremental time intervals. Squared
gussets can trap air in the corners.
SHARP CORNERS
Avoid sharp corners in your design. • A radius-to-thickness ratio of In critical areas, corner radii should
Sharp inside corners concentrate approximately 0.15 provides appear as a range, rather than a
stresses from mechanical loading, a good compromise between maximum allowable value, on the
substantially reducing mechanical performance and appearance for product drawings. A maximum value
performance. Figure 2-22 shows most applications subjected to light allows the mold maker to leave corners
the effect of root radius on stress to moderate impact loads. sharp as machined with less than a
concentration in a simple, cantilevered 0.005 inch radius. Avoid universal
snap arm. The stress concentration Initially use a minimal corner radius radius specifications that round edges
factor climbs sharply as the radius- when designing parts made of needlessly and increase mold cost (see
to-thickness ratio drops below high-shrinkage materials with low- figure 2-23).
approximately 0.2. Conversely, large notch sensitivity, such as Durethan
ratios cause thick sections, leading to polyamide, to prevent sink and In addition to reducing mechanical
sinks or voids. read-through. Inside corner radii can performance, sharp corners can cause
then be increased as needed based upon high, localized shear rates, resulting in
prototype testing. material damage, high molding stresses,
and possible cosmetic defects.
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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DRAFT
Draft Figure 2-24
Draft — providing angles or tapers on
product features such as walls, ribs,
posts, and bosses that lie parallel to the
direction of release from the mold —
eases part ejection. Figure 2-24 shows
common draft guidelines.
Less draft increases the chance of polyurethane resin, which tends to eject
damaging the part during ejection. easier from frosted mold surfaces. Parts
Additionally, molders may have to with many cores may need a higher
apply mold release or special mold amount of draft.
surface coatings or treatments,
ultimately leading to longer cycle times Some part designs leave little room for
and higher part costs. ejector pins. Parts with little ejector-pin
contact area often need extra draft to
The mold finish, resin, part geometry, prevent distortion during ejection. In
and mold ejection system determine addition to a generous draft, some deep
the amount of draft needed. Generally, closed-bottomed shapes may need air
polished mold surfaces require less valves at the top of the core to relieve
draft than surfaces with machined the vacuum that forms during ejection
finishes. An exception is thermoplastic (See figure 7-13 in Chapter 7).
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
The ends of the long cores should interlock When feasible, make one core larger to
into mating surfaces for support. accommodate mismatch in the mold.
During mold filling, the advancing Rounding both edges of the hole creates a potential for
plastic flow can exert very high side mismatch.
forces on tall cores forming deep or
long holes. These forces can push If the core is supported on both ends, Mismatch can reduce the size of the
or bend the cores out of position, the guidelines for length-to-diameter opening in holes formed by mating
altering the molded part. Under severe ratio double: typically 6:1 but up to cores. Design permitting, make one
conditions, this bending can fatigue the 10:1 if the filling around the core is core slightly larger (see figure 2-26).
mold steel and break the core. symmetrical. The level of support on Even with some mismatch, the required
the core ends determines the maximum hole diameter can be maintained. Tight
Generally, the depth-to-diameter ratio suggested ratio (see figure 2-25). tolerance holes that cannot be stepped
for blind holes should not exceed 3:1. Properly interlocked cores typically may require interlocking features
Ratios up to 5:1 are feasible if filling resist deflection better than cores on the cores to correct for minor
progresses symmetrically around the that simply kiss off. Single cores for misalignment. These features add to
unsupported hole core or if the core through-holes can interlock into the mold construction and maintenance
is in an area of slow-moving flow. opposite mold half for support. costs. On short through-holes that
Consider alternative part designs that can be molded with one core, round
avoid the need for long delicate cores, the edge on just one side of hole to
such as the alternative boss designs in eliminate a mating core and avoid
figures 2-19 and 2-20. mismatch (see figure 2-27).
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UNDERCUTS Slides and Cores
Some design features, because of their Most undercuts cannot strip from Clever part design or minor design
orientation, place portions of the mold the mold, needing an additional concessions often can eliminate
in the way of the ejecting plastic part. mechanism in the mold to move certain complex mechanisms for undercuts.
Called “undercuts,” these elements can components prior to ejection (see Various design solutions for this
be difficult to redesign. Sometimes, Chapter 7). The types of mechanisms problem are illustrated in figures 2-29
the part can flex enough to strip from include slides, split cores, collapsible through 2-31. Get input from your
the mold during ejection, depending cores, split cavities, and core pulls. mold designer early in product design
upon the undercut’s depth and shape Cams, cam pins, lifters, or springs to help identify options and reduce
and the resin’s flexibility. Undercuts activate most of these as the mold mold complexity.
can only be stripped if they are located opens. Others use external devices such
away from stiffening features such as as hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders
corners and ribs. In addition, the part to generate movement. All of these
must have room to flex and deform. mechanisms add to mold cost and
Generally, guidelines for stripping complexity, as well as maintenance.
undercuts from round features limit They also add hidden costs in the form
the maximum amount of the undercut of increased production scrap, quality
to a percentage defined as follows and problems, flash removal, and increased
illustrated in figure 2-28 as: mold downtime.
Undercut features can often successfully strip from the mold during
ejection if the undercut percentage is within the guidelines for the
material type.
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
Bypass steel can form windows in Simple wire guides can be molded with bypass steel in
sidewalls without moving slides. the mold.
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Vent Slots Figure 2-32
Minor variations in cooling-vent Carefully consider the molding process Consult all pertinent agency
design can have a major impact on during part design to simplify the mold specifications for cooling vents in
the molding costs. For instance, molds and lower molding costs. Extending electrical devices. Vent designs respond
designed with numerous, angled vents over the top of a corner edge differently to the flame and safety tests
kiss-offs of bypass cores are expensive can facilitate straight draw of the vent required by many electrical devices.
to construct and maintain. Additionally, coring and eliminate a side action in Fully test all cooling-vent designs for
these molds are susceptible to damage the mold (see figure 2-32). Angling the compliance.
and flash problems. Using moving louver surface can also allow vent slots
slides or cores to form vents adds to to be molded without side actions in
mold cost and complexity. the mold (see figure 2-33).
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
MOLDED-IN THREADS
The molding process accommodates Thread profiles for metal screws often • Use the maximum allowable radius
thread forming directly in a part, have sharp edges and corners that at the thread’s crest and root;
avoiding the expense of secondary, can reduce the part’s mechanical
thread-cutting steps. The cost and performance and create molding • Stop threads short of the end
complexity of the tooling usually problems in plastic designs. Rounding to avoid making thin, feathered
determines the feasibility of molding the thread’s crests and roots lessens threads that can easily cross-thread
threads. Always compare this cost these effects. Figure 2-34 shows (see figure 2-35);
to the cost of alternative attachment common thread profiles used in
options, such as self-tapping screws. plastics. Although less common than
the American National (Unified) thread, • Limit thread pitch to no more than
Easily molded in both mold halves, Acme and Buttress threads generally 32 threads per inch for ease of
external threads centered on the mold work better in plastic assemblies. molding and protection from cross
parting line add little to the molding Consider the following when specifying threading; and
cost. Typically, threads that do not lie molded-in threads:
on the parting line require slides or • Avoid tapered threads unless you
side actions that could add to molding can provide a positive stop that
costs. All threads molded in two halves limits hoop stresses to safe limits
are prone to parting line flash or for the material.
mismatch.
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Threads Figure 2-35
Tapered pipe threads, common in
plumbing for fluid-tight connections,
are slightly conical and tapered and can
place excessive hoop stresses on the
internal threads of a plastic part. When
mating plastic and metal tapered threads,
design the external threads on the
plastic component to avoid hoop stress
in plastic or use straight threads and an
“O” ring to produce the seal (see figure
2-36). Also, assure that any thread dopes
or thread lockers are compatible with
your selected plastic resin. Polycarbonate
resins, in particular, are susceptible to
chemical attack from many of these
compounds.
36 Page 36 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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LETTERING
Lettering Figure 2-39
The molding process adapts easily for
molding-in logos, labels, warnings,
diagrams, and instructions, saving the
expense of stick-on or painted labels,
and enhancing recyclability. Deep,
sharp lettering is prone to cosmetic
problems, such as streaks and tear
drops, particularly when near the gate
(see figure 2-39). To address these
cosmetic issues, consider the following:
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
TOLERANCES
Many variables contribute to the • Adjust the mold to produce Geometric tolerancing methods can
dimensional stability and achievable dimensions in the middle of expand the effective molding tolerance
tolerances in molded parts, including tolerance range at optimum by better defining the size and position
processing variability, mold processing conditions for the requirements for the assembly. Rather
construction, material characteristics, material. than define the position and size
and part geometry. To improve your of features separately, geometric
ability to maintain specified tolerances To avoid unnecessary molding costs, tolerancing defines a tolerance
in production: specify tight tolerances only when envelope in which size and position
needed. Generally, the size and are considered simultaneously.
• Use low-shrinkage materials in variability of other part features
parts with tight tolerances; determine the actual tolerance required
for any one component or feature
• Avoid tight tolerances in within an assembly. Rather than
dimensions affected by the dividing the allowable variability
alignment of the mold halves equally over the various features
or moving mold components that govern fit and function, allot a
such as slides; greater portion of the total tolerance
range to features that are difficult to
• Design parts and assemblies to control. Reserve tight tolerances for
avoid tight tolerances in areas features that can accommodate them
prone to warpage or distortion, and reasonably.
Page 39 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 39
Tolerances Figure 2-42
As the hole size increases, the position tolerance can increase without restricting
the through-hole clearance.
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Chapter 2
GENERAL DESIGN
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42 Page 42 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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Stiffness Property Comparison of Table 3-1
Metals and Plastics
Designing parts with adequate stiffness
can be difficult, particularly if your
part was made of metal originally.
If your design needs the strength
and/or stiffness of a metal part, you
must account for the large disparity
between plastic and metal mechanical
properties (see table 3-1). Increasing
wall thickness may compensate for
the lower stiffness of plastic resins.
In practice, however, the molding
process limits wall thickness to
approximately 0.25 inch in solid,
injection-molded parts. More typically,
wall thickness ranges from 0.060 to
0.160 inches. Generally, good part
designs incorporate stiffening features
and use part geometry to help achieve
required stiffness and strength. These
design considerations are covered in
greater detail in the section Designing
for Stiffness on page 67.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
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Stress-Strain Behavior
Viscoelasticity Figure 3- 3
A simple tensile test determines
Metals usually
the stress-strain behavior of plastic
function within
materials. The results, usually expressed
the elastic
as a curve, show the relationship
(Hookean) range
between stress, the force per original
of mechanical
cross-sectional area, and strain, the
behavior.
percentage of change in length as a
Unreinforced
result of the force. Nearly linear at
plastics tend to
very low stress and strain levels, the
exhibit nonlinear
stress-strain behavior of plastics tends
behavior
to become increasingly nonlinear as
represented here
these loads increase. In this context,
by the combination
the term “nonlinear” means that the
of springs and
resulting strain at any particular point
dashpots.
does not vary proportionally with the
applied stress.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Molding Factors
The injection-molding process In glass-filled resins, fiber orientation Unless otherwise stated, most
introduces stresses and orientations also affects mechanical performance: mechanical properties derive from
that affect the mechanical performance fatigue strength for a given fiber-filled end-gated test bars that exhibit a high
of plastic parts. The standard test bars resin is often many times greater when degree of orientation in the direction
used to determine most mechanical the fibers are aligned lengthwise, of the applied test load. Mechanical
properties have low levels of molding rather than perpendicular to the fatigue calculations based on this kind of data
stress. The high molding stresses in load. Stress-strain performance in the may over-predict material stiffness
an actual part may reduce certain direction of fiber orientation can also and performance in parts with random
mechanical properties, such as the differ greatly from the performance fiber orientation or in applications in
amount of applied stress a given part in the direction perpendicular to the which the fibers lie perpendicular to
can endure. Always add reasonable fibers. Figures 3-5 and 3-6 show stress the applied loads. Fiber orientation in
safety factors and test prototype parts versus strain for a 30% glass-filled an actual part is seldom as uniform as
before actual production. PA 6 in the parallel-to-fiber and it is in test bars. Address this potential
perpendicular-to-fiber directions. source of error in your calculations and
apply appropriate safety factors. For
critical parts, you may want to perform
a structural finite-element analysis
using fiber-orientation data from mold-
filling analysis and unique mechanical
properties for the orientation and
cross-orientation directions.
Stress-Strain Figure 3- 5 Stress-Strain Figure 3- 6
Parallel to Orientation Perpendicular to
Orientation
This graph shows the stress-strain performance This graph shows the stress-strain performance
parallel to fiber orientation at various temperatures for a perpendicular to fiber orientation at various temperatures for
30% glass-filled PA 6 material after conditioning. a 30% glass-filled PA 6 material after conditioning.
Page 47 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 47
SHORT-TERM MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES Figure 3- 7
Figure 3- 8
48 Page 48 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Tensile properties are measured in a Commonly used in structural Tensile stress at break is defined as
device that stretches a molded test bar calculations, tensile modulus measures the stress applied to the tensile bar
between two clamping jaws. The jaws material stiffness. Higher values at the time of fracture during the
separate at a steady rate, and the device indicate greater stiffness. Because steady-deflection-rate tensile test. Data
records the force per cross-sectional of plastic’s viscoelastic behavior, for tensile stress at break establish
area (stress) required to stretch the determining tensile modulus is more the upper limits for two types of
sample from 0% elongation to break. subjective and less precise for plastics applications: one-time-use applications
The results are often graphed as stress than it is for metals and most other that normally fail because of fractures,
versus percentage elongation (strain). materials. Mathematically, you can and applications in which the parts
Figure 3-7 shows the kinds of stress- determine the tensile modulus by can still function after undergoing
strain behavior exhibited by plastics. taking the ratio of stress to strain as permanent deformation.
Rigid plastics exhibit a nearly linear measured below the proportional limit
behavior similar to metals. Ductile on the stress-strain curves. When
materials display a more complex dealing with materials with no clear Ultimate Strength
behavior. linear region, you can calculate the
modulus at some specified strain Ultimate strength measures the highest
Figure 3-8 identifies the transitional value, typically at 0.1%. For some stress value encountered during the
points in the stress-strain behavior applications, buckling analysis, for tensile test. This value should be used
of ductile plastics. Point A, the example, it may be more appropriate in general strength comparisons, rather
proportional limit, shows the end of to derive a modulus from the slope of than as a design criterion. Ultimate
the region in which the resin exhibits a line drawn tangent to the curve at strength is usually the stress level at
linear stress-strain behavior. Point B a point on the stress-strain diagram the breaking point in brittle materials.
is the elastic limit, or the point after (tangent modulus). For ductile materials, it is often the
which the part will be permanently value at yield or break.
deformed even after the load is
removed. Applications that cannot Tensile Stress at Yield Poisson’s Ratio
tolerate any permanent deformation
must stay below the elastic limit. Point Tensile stress at yield, the stress As a plastic specimen stretches
C, the yield point, marks the beginning level corresponding to the point of longitudinally in response to tensile
of the region in which ductile zero slope on the stress-strain curve, loading, it narrows laterally. Poisson’s
plastics continue to deform without generally establishes the upper limit ratio measures the ratio of lateral to
a corresponding increase in stress. for applications that can tolerate only longitudinal strains as the material
Elongation at yield gives the upper small permanent deformations. Tensile- undergoes tensile loading. Poisson’s
limit for applications that can tolerate stress-at-yield values can be measured ratio usually falls between 0.35 and
the small permanent deformation only for materials that yield under test 0.40 for engineering resins (see table
that occurs between the elastic limit conditions. 3-1). Some elastomeric materials
and the yield point, but not the larger approach the constant-volume value
deformation that occurs during yield. of 0.50.
Point D, the break point, shows the
strain value when the test bar breaks.
Page 49 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 49
Compressive Properties Flexural Modulus Coefficient of Friction
Under equivalent loading conditions, Defined as the ratio of stress to strain The coefficient of friction is the ratio
plastics tend to fail in tension rather in the elastic region of a stress-strain of friction force, the force needed
than compression. For this reason it is curve derived from flexural testing, to initiate or maintain sliding, to
more common to test tensile properties flexural modulus measures a resin’s normal force, the force perpendicular
rather than compressive properties. stiffness during bending. A test bar to the contact surfaces. Coefficients
As a rule of thumb, plastics tend to subjected to bending loads distributes are commonly listed for two types
be approximately 30% stronger under tensile and compressive stresses of friction: static friction, the forces
compressive loading. Consult your through its thickness. The flexural acting on the surfaces to resist initial
LANXESS representative if you require modulus is based upon the calculated movement, and dynamic friction, the
detailed analysis in a compressive outer-fiber stress. Test values for forces acting between surfaces that are
mode. Assuming that the compressive tensile modulus typically correlate well already sliding. Table 3-2 lists typical
strength equals the tensile strength with those of the flexural modulus in values for common plastics.
usually results in a conservative design. solid plastics, but differ greatly for
foamed plastics that form solid skins.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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Isochronous Stress-Strain Figure 3-10
Isochronous
30
stress-strain curves
at 73°F (23°C) for ABS.
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 10 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
52 Page 52 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Stress Relaxation
corresponding to the time duration As mentioned earlier, temperature Stress relaxation, the stress reduction
desired. For example, assuming room- affects the long-term and short-term that occurs in parts subjected to
temperature conditions, a tensile stress properties of plastics. Compare the constant strain over time, is an
of 2,000 psi, and a load duration of 100 isochronous stress-strain curve for ABS important design concern for parts
hours, we see in figure 3-10 that the at room temperature in figure 3-10 with that will be subjected to long-term
corresponding strain is 1.2%. Dividing the curves in figure 3-11 for the same deflection. Because of stress relaxation,
the stress by the strain, we calculate material at 176°F (80°C). In general, press fits, spring fingers, and other part
an apparent modulus of 170,000 psi. higher ambient temperatures will cause features subject to constant strain can
Substituting this apparent modulus or more creep deformation. Be sure to show a reduced retention or deflection
creep modulus into deflection formulas, use creep data derived at temperatures force over time (see example problem
in place of the instantaneous tensile appropriate for your application. 3-7).
modulus, will enable the formula to
better predict the deformation that will You can derive stress-relaxation
occur over time. information from isochronous
stress‑strain curves by noting the
change in stress corresponding to
a given strain on the different time
curves. In figure 3-10, the tensile
stress at 1.75% strain drops from an
instantaneous value of 3,625 psi to
approximately 2,050 psi after 1,000
hours. Stress-relaxation modulus,
calculated by dividing the stress (after
a specific time) by the fixed strain
value, accounts for stress relaxation in
standard engineering equations.
S-N Curves Figure 3-12
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Dynamic Load Limits Figure 3-13
Fatigue Properties
Molded plastic parts exposed to cyclic Fatigue curves, generated from Fatigue properties are sensitive
loading often fail at substantially lower tests that subject test specimens to to many factors including notch
stress and strain levels than parts under cyclic loading until failure or a fixed effects, environmental factors, stress
static loading, a phenomenon known reduction in stress or strain, provide a concentrators, loading frequency, and
as fatigue. Applications that expose useful means for comparing the relative temperature. Surface texture, surface
parts to heavy vibrations or repeated fatigue endurance of different plastics. finish, and whether the part is plated
deflections — such as snowplow The results are often presented in the also affect fatigue performance. In
headlight housings, one-piece salad form of S-N curves (see figure 3-12) contrast to metals, plastics have a
tongs, and high-use snap-latch closures that plot the stress amplitude against high degree of inherent damping and
— need plastics with good fatigue the number of cycles to failure. Fatigue relatively low thermal conductivity.
characteristics. information can also appear as stress Therefore, vibration frequencies as low
or strain limits on stress-strain curves as 10 Hz can cause heat generation in
as in figure 3-13. The white line shows plastic parts. This can lead to thermal
the suggested design limit at various failure if the energy cannot be properly
temperatures for a PC/ABS resin used dissipated by other means, such as
in applications subjected to dynamic convection.
fatigue loading for 107 cycles.
Fiber orientation can also affect fatigue
performance. Fatigue strength for a
given fiber-filled resin can be many
times greater when the fibers are
aligned lengthwise in the direction of
loading rather than perpendicularly.
When calculating fatigue-life values,
use fatigue data that is appropriate for
your application, and always include a
suitable safety factor.
54 Page 54 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Finite-element-analysis (FEA) For short-term loads at room For long-term loads, use a creep
techniques, now common in plastic part temperatures and stress levels below or apparent modulus derived from
design, provide valuable information a resin’s proportional limit, use the isochronous stress-strain curves.
about the mechanical performance of instantaneous elastic modulus. At A time-dependent property, creep
complex or critical designs. For simple other temperatures, use isothermal modulus is the calculated stress divided
geometries and noncritical parts, stress-strain curves to calculate elastic by the corresponding strain value read
standard design formulas can give good modulus — simply stress divided by from the isochronous stress-strain
results if the material remains within its strain in the linear region — at the curve for the desired time span.
elastic limit. Even in a complex part, an desired temperature. Simple bending Because the strain value is always
area or feature under load can often be calculations involving solid plastics changing in a part that is exhibiting
represented by standard formulas. undergoing short-term loading below creep, the creep modulus is also time
the proportional limit can use either dependent. Calculations using the creep
Because they are primarily a function the flexural modulus or the published modulus, a decreased-representative
of part geometry and load and not instantaneous tensile modulus. modulus value, predict the deflection
material properties, stress calculation that occurs after a period of time. See
formulas derived for metals apply For short-term loads in the nonlinear the Long-Term Properties section in
directly to plastics. Generally material region above the proportional limit, this chapter for more information and
dependent, deflection formulas such as assembly stresses, you example problems dealing with creep
require elastic (Young’s) modulus and will have to use a secant modulus, behavior.
sometimes Poisson’s ratio, v. Poisson’s calculated from the curves and based
ratio varies slightly with temperature upon the actual calculated stress. To
and loading conditions, but usually calculate secant modulus, first solve the
only to an insignificant degree. stress equation, which is independent
Single-point data suffices for most of the elastic modulus for the material.
calculations. Table 3-1 lists typical Next read the strain corresponding to
values for a variety of materials. this calculated stress on the appropriate
stress-strain curve. Then, divide the
calculated stress by the strain to obtain
the secant modulus for that stress level.
The secant modulus typically provides
satisfactory predictions of deflections
in applications that experience higher
strain levels. See example problem 3-3
for a demonstration of this procedure.
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Stress and Strain Limits
Plastics differ in the level of stress or Stress limits are best determined Table 3-3 lists the permissible short-
strain they can tolerate in structural from isochronous stress-strain curves term strain limits at room temperature
applications. Engineering strain is showing either crazing or design limits for various families of LANXESS
defined as the change in length of a for the given time and temperature. engineering plastics. One-time, short-
specimen divided by its original length Of course, appropriate safety factors duration load applications that stay
and is represented by the symbol ε. The should always be used. Use a safety below these limits typically do not
actual units of strain are length divided factor of at least 2.0 — higher values fracture or exhibit significant permanent
by length (inches per inch, millimeters are necessary in critical applications. deformation. Designs that see multiple
per millimeter) but it is most often General stress limits (such as 25% applications of an applied load should
represented as a percentage. Stress has of the published tensile yield stress) stay below 60% of these values.
units of force per cross-sectional area usually have large inherent safety Permissible strain values are typically
(pounds per square inch = psi, Newtons factors, but become less conservative used to design parts with short-term
per square millimeter = Megapascals, at elevated temperatures or long-time or intermittent loads such as cantilever
MPa). Because stress and strain are use conditions. To apply a stress limit, snap arms. If a strain-based formula
interrelated, plastic parts can be simply solve the stress equation for the is not available, it can be created by
designed based on either stress or strain given load and geometry to determine substituting σ / ε for E in the deflection
limits. if the limit is exceeded. Be sure to equation, then substituting the complete
multiply the result by an appropriate stress equation for σ.
stress concentration factor (see figure
3-32) before making the comparison.
If the limit is exceeded, reduce the load
or increase the cross-sectional area to
reduce stress below the limit. Note that
because the stress equation itself is not
modulus-dependent, it is almost always
used in conjunction with the deflection
Permissible Short-Term Table 3-3 equation to evaluate true design
Strain Limits at 23°C (73° F) performance.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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Bending and Flexural Tensile and Compressive Figure 3-14
Stresses in Bending
Stress Bending or flexing a plastic part
induces both tensile and compressive
stresses through the cross section, as
shown in figure 3-14. Bending creates
tensile stresses on the convex side of
the part and compressive stresses on
the concave side. The neutral plane
defines the plane of zero stress in
which the stress magnitude switches
from tensile to compressive. The stress
distribution through the thickness of
the part is defined by the formula:
σ = Mc
b I
σb = M
/Z
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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Beam Bending Formulas Table 3-5
P
y PL PL3
Z 3EI
L
w
y wL2 wL4
2Z 8EI
L
L/2 P
y
PL PL3
4Z 48EI
L
P For a > b:
a b Pb(L2-b2)3/2
y
Pab
9 3EIL
xm LZ
L2-b2
L At xm =
3
w
y
PL 5wL4
8Z 384EI
L
L/2 P
y PL wL4
8Z 192EI
L
w
y
PL wL4
12 Z 384EI
L
60 Page 60 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
A load of 250 pounds is placed on a Now solve the deflection equation For this special case, the maximum
10 inch long beam 4 inches from one using the secant modulus. deflection does not occur at the point
end. The I-shaped beam is 1 inch wide 2 2 3/2 where the load is applied. It instead
and 1 inch tall with a uniform thickness y = Pb(L -b ) occurs at:
15.6EIL
of 0.2 inch. The environmental
temperature is 140°F (60°C). The 2 2 3/2
= (250)(4)(10 -4 ) xm = [(L2-b2) / 3]1/2 = [(102-42) / 3]1/2
beam was injection molded from (15.6)(334,923)(0.0689)(10)
= 5.29 inches from the left
Durethan BKV 130 PA 6 resin through end of the beam
a gate on one end. Find the maximum = 0.214 inch
deflection of the beam and at what
point the maximum deflection occurs.
c = h / 2 = 1 / 2 = 0.5 inch
I = [(1)(1)3 - (0.6)3(1-0.2)] / 12
= 0.0689 inch4
Now find the appropriate stress formula Simply Supported Plate Figure 3-15
for the given boundary conditions
in table 3-5. The fourth condition is
correct. Solving for maximum tensile
bending stress with a = 6, b = 4, L =
10, and P = 50 gives:
σb = Pab / LZ
= (250)(6)(4) / [(10)(0.1378)]
= 4,354 psi (30 MPa)
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Example 3-3: Plate Deflection Shear Stress on a Pin Figure 3-16
3pr4(5-4ν−ν2)
δmax =
16Et3
3pr2(3+ν)
σ=
8t2
where:
p = applied pressure load (275 psi)
r = plate radius (0.75 inches) Shear Stress
ν = Poisson’s ratio (0.38)
Using the 40°C isothermal stress-strain In tensile or compressive loading, the
t = plate thickness (0.2 inches)
curve in figure 3-2, a 1.56% strain load is applied perpendicular to the
E = modulus of elasticity in psi
is found to correspond to a stress cross section of interest. Shear stress is
calculated by considering the stress on
This pressure load will cause strain of about 4,900 psi. Dividing stress
the cross section that lies in-plane or
in the disk to exceed the proportional by strain gives a secant modulus of parallel to the load. The most common
limit. In addition, the elevated- 314,103 psi. Solving the deflection example of shear stress is the shearing
temperature condition rules out the equation using this modulus value of a bolt or pin as shown in figure
use of the room temperature Young’s gives: 3-16. The load in the plates creates a
modulus. Therefore, first calculate the shear stress on the cross section B-B
appropriate secant modulus to use equal to the load, P, divided by the
3(275)(0.75)4[5-4(0.38)-(0.38)2] cross-sectional area of the pin, A. Shear
in the deflection formula. Solving the δmax =
16(314,103)(0.20)3 stress is denoted by the Greek letter τ.
stress equation yields:
The units of shear stress (psi) are the
= 0.0216 inches same as for tensile or bending stress.
σmax = 3(275)(0.75)2(3+0.38) / 8(0.20)2
= 4,902 psi
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TL
w= τ = Tc / J = (5)(0.1) / (0.000157)
JG
= 3,185 psi
In this expression, L is the length of the
shaft and G is the shear modulus of the To find the angle of twist, we need
material. Assuming linear elasticity, the G, and therefore E. Combining the
shear modulus can be approximated
relations for G and γ and replacing
from the tensile modulus and Poisson’s
the moduli with their stress/strain
ratio using the relation:
definitions gives the relation: σ ≈ 2τ.
This allows us to calculate secant
≈ E
G modulus from the tensile stress-strain
2(1+ν)
curve with a stress value of 2 times τ,
The strain produced in torsion is a or 6,370 psi. Using the 23°C curve in
shear strain, γ. It can be related to figure 3-2 gives a secant modulus of
tensile strain using the approximate about 6,370 psi / 0.022 = 290,000 psi.
relation:
γ≈
(1+ν)ε
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DESIGNING FOR STIFFNESS
You can use a variety of options to crowns or corrugations for large and distribute loads (see figure 3-18).
improve part stiffness including overall surfaces. Flat surfaces lack inherent The height and spacing of corrugated
shape, wall thickness, ribs, and material stiffness. features can be adjusted to achieve the
selection. This section will discuss these desired stiffness. Cosmetic parts usually
and other options. Crowns round the surface to form must disguise corrugations as styling
a slightly domed shape that adds features. Corrugation features usually
Part Shape considerable stiffness with little avoid the filling and read-through
additional material. Figure 3-17 shows problems sometimes encountered with
In many applications, the overall the effect of crown height on stiffness reinforcing ribs.
part shape is the predominant design in a circular disk rigidly supported at
factor affecting part stiffness and the perimeter. The graph shows relative Long, unsupported edges, such as
load-carrying capabilities. Taking steps stiffness — stiffness domed divided those on the sidewalls of box-shaped
early in the design stage to select a by stiffness flat — plotted against the parts, exhibit low stiffness. They also
good basic shape can avoid expensive ratio of dome height to disk diameter. tend to warp during molding. Adding
and/or troublesome measures later in The different curves represent disk- curvature to the sidewalls (see figure
the product development to achieve the diameter-to-disk-thickness ratios. For 3-19) increases stiffness and reduces
desired strength and stiffness. Selecting the example of a 10 inch diameter disk the hourglass-shaped warpage common
inherently stiffer shapes seldom adds with a 0.100 inch wall thickness, we see in box-shaped parts. Design permitting,
significantly to the final part costs. that adding a 0.25 inch dome increases strengthen unsupported edges with
the stiffness by about 300%. a stiffening profile (see figure 3-20),
Take advantage of the design flexibility preferably a straight-draw profile that
in the molding process to maximize the Non-cosmetic parts frequently rely on maintains uniform wall thickness and
stiffness of your design. Consider corrugations to increase stiffness molds without side-action mechanisms.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Corrugations can add stiffness to non-cosmetic parts. Stiffening profiles increase the stiffness
of sidewalls and edges.
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lost-core process, used to manufacture Gas-Assist Channels Figure 3-22
engine manifold parts, employs a
sacrificial, low-melt temperature core
Gas-assist channels
to mold intricate hollow shapes. The
add stiffness to
hollowed sections function both as air
unsupported edges
ducts and as stiffening members that
and load-bearing
withstand the loads and vibrations of
areas.
the application. Another process for
producing similar hollow parts, the
multi-shell process, forms hollow
shapes from separately molded parts,
which are joined later by welding or
over-molding, as shown in figure 3-21.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Table 3-6
This table shows how many times thicker than steel various materials would need
to be to yield the same deflection under a given load. The ETF assumes a flat
shape and short-term loading at room temperature.
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Ribs Doubling Stiffness Figure 3-23
Ribs provide a means to increase
In this example,
stiffness without increasing wall
adding a rib to
thickness. Figure 3-23 shows the
double stiffness
relative amount of material needed to
increases part
double the stiffness of a flat part, both
volume by only
by increasing thickness and by adding
7% as compared
ribs. Adding a rib doubles the part
to 25% when the
stiffness with much less material than
part thickness is
simply increasing the part thickness.
increased.
Because they are usually thinner than
the main-wall sections, ribs seldom
add to the molding-cycle time. Ribs
also add stiffness selectively in specific
areas and directions. Plastic part
designs often require ribs to strengthen
and stiffen structural elements such as
hinges, attachment features, and load
points.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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LONG-TERM LOADING
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Stress relaxation is the decrease in To find the apparent modulus from For a given strain, read vertically
stress that occurs in a material that is isochronous strain-strain data, through the isochronous stress-strain
subjected to constant, prolonged strain divide the calculated stress by the curves to predict the effects of stress
at a constant temperature. Measuring corresponding strain on the curve relaxation. Again, using the curves in
stress relaxation involves varying the for the selected load duration. For figure 3-27, you can see that for an
load over a period of time to maintain example, if a flat part made of 30% applied strain of 2%, the tensile stress
a constant strain rate. This test is more GF Nylon 6 at 90°C (see figure 3-27), drops from an instantaneous value of
difficult than the test for creep that has a tensile stress of 3,000 psi (2 MPa) 8,400 psi (58 MPa) to approximately
measures the change in deflection over and a load duration of 1,000 hours, 5,100 psi (35 MPa) after 10,000 hours.
time in a specimen under constant you can calculate an apparent modulus
stress. For this reason, creep curves of 300,000 psi from the isochronous
are often used to calculate stress stress-strain curve. Significantly
relaxation, generally resulting in a lower than the instantaneous value
±10% margin of error. of 600,000 psi, this lower apparent
modulus will account for the added
deflection that occurs because of creep
when it is substituted into deflection
calculations.
Creep modulus for Durethan BKV30, 30% Glass-Fiber reinforced Polyamide 6 at 90°C.
Creep (apparent) modulus decreases over time, but the actual modulus remains constant.
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Example 3-6: Example 3-7:
Plate Deflection Considering Creep Stress Relaxation
Table 3-7
δmax= 3pr4(5-4ν-ν2)
16Ecreept3
= 3(275)(0.75)4[5-4(0.38)-(0.38)2]
16(255,000)(0.20)3
= 0.0267 inches
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
As discussed earlier in this chapter, As ambient temperature increases, impact performance will diminish.
load duration and ambient temperature materials become more ductile. Figure 3-30 shows the effect of notch
affect the mechanical performance of The yield strength decreases, but radius on the Izod impact performance
plastic parts and must be addressed in the strain‑at-break value increases. of unfilled polycarbonate resin.
part design. Plastic parts designed for Although a part will be less rigid at Increasing the notch radius from 0.005
impact must also consider the effect elevated temperatures, it may have to 0.010 inch increases the Izod impact
of strain rate or rate of loading on better impact properties, because it can strength by about 400%. Therefore,
mechanical behavior. As figure 3-29 absorb more energy before failing.
shows, plastics become stiffer and • Round inside corners and notches
more brittle at high strain rates and Avoid stress concentrations. While this to reduce stress concentrations.
low temperatures. If your part will is an important goal in good design
be exposed to impact strains, address practice, it becomes of paramount Look for potential problems from
energy management issues early in the importance in impact applications. An sources other than part design, such as
design process, including: impact causes a high energy wave that post-molding operations. Machining,
passes through the part and interacts for instance, can leave deep scratches,
• Stress concentration; with its geometry. Design features microcracks and internal stresses
such as sharp corners, notches, holes, leading to stress concentrations.
• Energy dissipation; and and steps in thickness can focus this
energy, initiating fracture. As corners
• Material impact properties. or notches become sharper, the part’s
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Position gates and knit lines in areas Often a better strategy is to design • Select a material with good impact
that will not be subjected to high the part to flex, so it can absorb performance throughout the part’s
impact forces. The area around gates and distribute the impact energy. working-temperature range;
generally has higher levels of molded- In some instances, this can involve
in stress. In addition, improper gate reducing thickness and removing or • Address all temperatures and
removal can leave rough edges and redistributing ribs to accommodate impact loads including those found
notches. Knit lines typically exhibit controlled flexure. Consider the in the manufacturing process and
lower strength than other areas and following rules of thumb to improve shipping;
can concentrate stresses along the fine impact performance:
V-notch that forms the visible knit • Consider notch sensitivity of the
lines. • If using multiple ribs, space them material in applications with
unevenly or orient them to prevent unavoidable notches and stress
Designers often attempt to enhance resonance amplification from the concentrators; and
impact performance by adding ribs or impact energy;
increasing wall thickness. While this • Check flow orientation — especially
can sometimes work, stiffening the part • Avoid boxy shapes that in fiber-filled materials — and
in this way can often have the opposite concentrate impact forces on rigid the difference between flow and
effect. For example, increasing the part edges and corners; and cross-flow mechanical properties.
thickness beyond the critical thickness
can lead to brittle failure, and adding • Use rounded shapes to spread The complex nature of plastic
ribs can introduce stress-concentration impact forces over larger areas. performance in impact has led to the
points that initiate cracks and part When selecting a plastic material development of a variety of impact
failure. for impact applications, consider tests in an attempt to predict material
the following design tips: performance in different impact modes.
Despite the many specialized tests,
material impact data are difficult to
relate to actual part performance,
and nearly impossible to apply
Stress Concentration Figure 3-30
quantitatively with good accuracy. Use
test data only for general comparisons
of material impact performance or
to screen potential materials. Always
prototype test your final material in
actual, in-use environments. See the
publication Material Selection for more
information on impact properties.
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Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Fatigue performance
for representative
grades of ABS and PC
plotted with a PC/PET
resin.
FATIGUE APPLICATIONS
Fatigue can cause rigid plastic parts limits at various temperatures for parts
exposed to cyclic loading to fail at subjected to dynamic loading. Reversing Often you must screen your material
substantially lower stress or strain loads place more severe demands on choices based on general fatigue data
levels than parts made of the same plastic parts. Fatigue data in the form of the type shown in figure 3-31.
material under static loading. Consider of S-N curves (see figure 3-12) show
fatigue endurance in applications or the number of cycles until failure for Sharp inside corners act as stress
features subjected to heavy vibrations or different cyclic, reversing-load modes. concentrators, and can lead to much
repeated deflections such as snowplow higher stress levels than those indicated
headlight assemblies, one-piece salad Many factors affect fatigue performance by standard formulas. Figure 3-32
tongs, and high-use snap-latch closures. including notch effects, temperature, shows the effects of a fillet radius on
In areas subjected to fatigue, avoid loading frequency, fatigue mode, and stress concentration in a snap-arm
stress concentrators, such as holes, sharp part geometry. Generally scarce, fatigue member. As the ratio of root radius to
corners, notches, gates, knit lines, and data is seldom available for the precise beam thickness becomes less than about
thickness variations. Optimize the design conditions of your application. For this 0.2, the stress concentration factor
to distribute deflection over large areas. reason, it is difficult to predict fatigue climbs quickly to much higher values.
performance quantitatively. Design To avoid fatigue failures at inside
The type and severity of fatigue loading efforts in fatigue applications generally corners, select the largest fillet radius the
determines which material fatigue focus on the following: design can tolerate without excessive
data applies. A reduced, single-point, sink and packing problems. Typically
allowable strain limit may suffice in • Using available data to select a fillet radii of 0.015 to 0.030 inch provide
a simple, snap-latch arm subjected to suitable, fatigue-resistant resin; a good compromise between fatigue
few deflections over the product life. and performance and part moldability.
Calculations for parts subjected to many
deflections and temperature extremes • Reducing stress and strain levels as
may require data of the type shown in much as possible.
figure 3-13 in the fatigue properties
section of this chapter. These curves
show the stress and strain
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Fillet Radius and Stress Concentration Figure 3-32
76 Page 76 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
THERMAL LOADING
Coefficients of Table 3-8
Linear Thermal
Coefficient-of-linear-thermal- The applied strain induces stress in Expansion (CLTE) for
expansion (CLTE) values for plastics the nylon shield. This induced stress is Common Materials
vary widely and are generally much amplified at the mounting holes, which
higher than those for metals (see table act as stress concentrators.
3-8). When designing parts that will
be exposed to a range of temperatures, To avoid the problem, choose an
you must account for the expansion attachment method that allows
the plastic component to slide
differences between materials.
relative to the other material. In the
aforementioned example, affix a
Figure 3-33 gives an example of a screw to one end of the shield and
long gauge housing made of aluminum design a slotted screw hole on the
with a nylon impact shield rigidly other end to accommodate expansion
attached at both ends, with screws and contraction. Refer to the Joining
placed ten inches apart. This gauge Dissimilar Materials section of Joining
has an in-use temperature range from Techniques, A Design Guide for more
20° to 120°F. When assembled at room information.
temperature and then heated to the
upper temperature limit, the nylon
shield will expand much more than
the aluminum housing. This expansion
equals the difference in the CLTE for
the two materials, multiplied by the
temperature difference and the part
length.
ΔL = (αplastic-αmetal) • ΔT • L
= (4.5-1.3) x 10-5 • (120-70) • 10
= 0.016 inch
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78 Page 78 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
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MECHANICAL FASTENERS
Cable Guides Figure 4-2
Mechanical fasteners — screws,
bolts, rivets, and others — and their
installation often represent a large
portion of total assembly costs. They
also add to the cost of dismantling
products for repair or recycling.
To reduce costs, consider replacing
mechanical fasteners with snap-fit
joints, molded-in hinges, latches, and
other similar design features. Use
interlocking and/or nesting features to
reduce the number of screws needed.
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Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
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SNAP-FIT JOINTS
Snap-Fit Joints Figure 4-5
Both economical and versatile,
snap joints can eliminate fastening
hardware, as well as reduce assembly
and disassembly costs in a wide range
of applications. Although they vary
in appearance, all snap-fit joints rely
upon the brief deflection of a flexible
member to interlock a depression
or undercut with a protrusion on a
mating part. Varieties include cantilever
snap-arms, and torsional or annular
snap-joint styles (see figure 4-5). The
shape of the undercut determines if the
joint can be separated later. Snap-fit
designs with an angled undercut
contact can be disassembled without
first deflecting the snap feature to
disengage the connection.
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Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
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The molding process offers the
Snap-Fit Assembly Figure 4-7
versatility to customize snap-fit designs
for each application. For example,
snap arms on frequently used doors
or access panels could have finger
tabs added for easier opening (see
figure 4-9). Limited-access doors could
have hidden snap-fit joints or require
special tools. Some applications may
require modifications in the snap arm
to prevent excessive material strain
during deflection. Consider lengthening
the snap arm, reducing the undercut,
or tapering the arm thickness in these
situations (see figure 4-10).
Snap-fit hook molded through hole to form undercut. Special “U”-shaped snap latch with thumb tab.
84 Page 84 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
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Ultrasonic Welding Vibration and Hot-Plate Welding
Ultrasonic welding, one of the most • The equipment size and welding- To form continuous welds over large
widely used joining techniques, is horn design limitations determine areas — particularly those too large
an excellent bonding method for the size and number of ultrasonic for conventional ultrasonic welding
thermoplastics. It makes permanent, welds per operation; — consider vibration or hot-plate
aesthetically pleasing joints, at welding. A friction-welding technique,
relatively high rates of speed. In this • Mating materials must be vibration welding requires wide joint
welding technique, an ultrasonic compatible and rigid enough to surfaces to accommodate the sliding
assembly unit generates mechanical transmit the ultrasonic energy to vibration. To avoid dampening the
vibratory energy at ultrasonic the joint area; and vibration, part geometry must rigidly
frequencies. The ultrasonic vibrational support the mating joint surfaces.
energy is transmitted through one • Stray welding energy can damage In this process, one part remains
of the mating parts to the joint free-standing features and delicate stationary, while the second vibrates on
area where frictional heating melts components. Consult your welding the joint plane, generating heat. When
the plastic and forms the weld. experts for help in resolving this the joint interface reaches a melted
When designing parts that will be problem. state, the parts are aligned and clamped
ultrasonically welded, consider the until the bond has set.
following: For more specific information on
ultrasonic welding, request a copy For permanent, non-cosmetic welds
• For strong, consistent welds, of Joining Techniques from your along a single plane, hot-plate welding
ultrasonic joints need properly LANXESS representative. offers an economical joining method.
designed energy directors (see In this joining method, a heated platen
figure 4-11) or shear weld contacts two plastic parts until the joint
features; area melts slightly. The platen retracts,
and the parts are then pressed together
until the bond sets.
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Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
Spin welding is used extensively to Probably the most versatile joining Adhesive bonding offers more
weld circular parts with continuous methods, solvent and adhesive bonding versatility for bonding different types
joints. Spin welding relies on frictional produce permanent bonds. These of plastics together and also dissimilar
heat generated between mating parts, techniques place few restrictions on materials, such as plastics to metal,
one spinning and one stationary, to the part design. Solvent bonding plastics to glass, fabric to plastic,
melt plastic in a circular joint. After the joins one plastic to itself or another etc. The LANXESS brochure Joining
friction melts a sufficient amount of plastic by softening small areas on the Techniques lists various adhesives and
plastic in the joint, the rotating stops joining surfaces with a volatile solvent. their suitability for use with different
and pressure increases to distribute Adhesives are one-part or two-part LANXESS resin families.
melted material and complete the “glues” that adhere to mating surfaces
bonding process. and cure to form the bond. When selecting an adhesive, consider
curing time and cost as well as special
Parts designed for spin welding often Solvent bonding limits your choice of adhesive system requirements. UV-
have an alignment feature, such as a materials to plastics for which there cured adhesives, for instance, work best
tongue and groove, to index the parts is a suitable solvent. When bonding with transparent plastic parts. The part
and make a uniform bearing surface. dissimilar materials, the same solvent design must accommodate direct-line-
Joints for spin welding can also include must work on both materials. If your of-sight access from the UV source to
flash traps to avoid visible welding part will be made of polycarbonate the bond area or the bond edge.
flash. resin, allow for vapor dispersion after
bonding. Trapped solvent vapors can
attack and damage polycarbonate
resins.
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Retention Features Figure 4-14 Assembly Features Figure 4-15
The molding process offers the freedom To help in assembly, consider designing
to custom-design features to locate and your part with alignment features. Parts
retain components during assembly. must assemble easily and efficiently,
Components can nest between ribs despite minor misalignments. Parts
or slide into molded-in retainers for with sharp leading edges can snag or
assembly without hardware (see figure catch during assembly, requiring more
4-14). In some products, halves of the time and effort. Chamfers added to
assembly can captivate components either or both leading edges quickly
without additional attachment (see align mating features, reducing the
figure 4-15). This joining method positioning accuracy needed for
permits efficient assembly and assembly (see figure 4-16).
simplifies dismantling for repairs or
recycling.
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Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
Tongue-and-groove or stepped
features ensure proper edge
alignment.
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ORIENTATION EXPANSION DIFFERENCES
To ensure proper orientation during assembly, add features that either mark the correct position or prevent
assembly of misaligned components.
90 Page 90 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
TOLERANCES
If all components of an assembly • Avoid specifying arbitrarily tight Exercise discretion when assigning
could be produced and joined with tolerances to components and the available tolerances between the
perfect repeatability and accuracy, the assembly process, as it can add components and assembly processes.
task of assigning tolerances would be needlessly to costs; Give the tightest tolerances to the
simple. However, each manufacturing part, feature, or process that adds the
step introduces its own variability and • Accommodate part and process least cost to the entire process. It may
with it, potential tolerance problems. variability in your design; be more economical to loosen the
For instance, molded-plastic part tolerance on the plastic component and
dimensions vary with processing • Include design features such as tighten the tolerance on the assembly
fluctuations. Stamping and machining slotted holes, alignment features, procedure or mating components.
create part-to-part differences in metal and angled lead-ins to lessen the Consider all the sources of variability
components. Assembly steps such need for tight tolerances; and optimize tolerances for the lowest
as positioning, guiding, indexing, overall cost. See the mold design
fixturing, and welding present • Take advantage of the ability of chapter for more information on
additional sources of variability. When the injection-molding process to tolerances.
developing part tolerances, consider the mold small features with excellent
following: repeatability; and
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92 Page 92 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
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For smoothly drilled holes, remove most Consider a water spray mist or water-
Feed Rate Table 5-2
of the plastic with a roughing drill. Then soluble coolant when a forced-air
finish and size the hole with a second stream cannot provide sufficient
drill. Or, as an alternative method, use a cooling.
two-step drill as illustrated in figure 5-1.
For accurate work and to minimize drill Reaming creates smooth finishes and
breakage, consider using jigs with guide precise hole dimensions, making it
bushings (see figure 5-2). ideal for determining final tolerances in
prototype parts. Additionally, reaming
Some rules of thumb for drilling removes gate vestige or flash from
thermoplastics include: holes, as well as enlarges drilled or
thermoformed holes. As in drilling,
• Use carbide-tipped drills, because reaming requires sharp cutting edges
they resist gumming and maintain and relatively slow cutting speeds to
edge sharpness longer than prevent heat buildup and gumming.
standard drills;
94 Page 94 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
TAPPING SAWING
Tapping adds screw threads to drilled While molded parts seldom require Band sawing, the preferred method for
or molded holes in plastic parts. sawing, thermoformed plastic parts plastics, can cut contoured or irregular
Coarse threads, such as National are sawed regularly to trim edges shapes in addition to straight lines. As
Coarse (NC), tend to work better in and form openings. Some fabricated rules of thumb:
plastics because they provide greater prototype parts or molded designs
thread depth relative to the overall using extruded sheet components • Use precision or standard blades
diameter. This improves the thread may also need to be sawed. LANXESS for thin parts;
strength. Coarse threads also make plastics are best cut on band saws or
chip removal easier because there are circular saws. The reciprocating action • Use buttress or skip-tooth blades
fewer threads per inch. of a jigsaw makes it difficult to control for wall sections greater than 1/8
cooling, feeding, and pressure. If you inch;
The tap flutes should be finish ground must use a jig saw, keep the feed rate
and highly polished to reduce friction slow and the pressure light with the • Choose band-saw blades with a
and heat. The cutting flutes might part held firmly. Choose blades with generous set to reduce friction and
need to be somewhat oversized to generous set to minimize friction. heat buildup;
compensate for plastic recovery and Most LANXESS plastics have been
subsequent reduction in the diameter successfully cut with standard jig saw • Cool the cut junction area with air
of the tapped hole. The amount of blades operating at 875 cycles per or a water mist;
recovery will depend on the size of the minute.
tap and the properties of the material. • Control the feed speed carefully to
prevent binding or gumming; and
For a given tap size, the hole size
needs to be slightly larger for plastics • Use saw guides whenever possible.
than for metals. The hole size for
tapped plastic threads should yield
about 75% of the full thread. This
helps to prevent breakage and peeling
of the threads. For blind holes, use
a tapered tap before a bottom tap or
employ the three-tap system as used
with metals. Low spindle speeds,
about 50 feet per minute, and use
of a coolant will minimize frictional
heating and thread distortion. All rigid
LANXESS plastics can be tapped, but
because of its brittle nature, tapping is
not recommended for Lustran SAN.
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Table 5-3 lists suggested band saw
Band Saw Conditions Table 5-3
speeds and configurations for most
LANXESS plastics including Lustran
and Novodur ABS, Centrex ASA, and
Triax PA/ABS.
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Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
MILLING
Used to remove large volumes of plastic Table 5-4 lists a generic range of • Excessive feed rates can cause
with relatively high accuracy and conditions when using a steel tool to rough surfaces;
precision, milling finds applications in mill most other types of LANXESS
prototype fabrication or as a secondary plastics. • Insufficient feed rates can generate
operation for trimming parting lines, too much heat and cause part
glue joints, or gate excess. Additionally, Carbide cutters generally provide melting, distortion, or poor surface
molders often use end mills to trim smoother finishes and higher feed rates quality;
sprue gates. for all types of rigid plastics, especially
glass-filled materials. Special cutters • Water mists help to remove heat
Mounted in a drill press, an end mill designed specifically for plastics produce and prevent buildup. Use them on
can plunge repeatedly to a preset the smoothest finishes at the fastest feed all but the very shortest of milling
depth to produce flush, smooth final rates. Check with your cutter supplier for operations; and
trims of fixtured parts. High-speed the latest designs for plastics. Consider
end mills with four cutting flutes and the following when milling plastics: • Improper milling can induce
a 15° rake angle give good results for high stress levels, causing
most plastics. Additionally, parts can later problems. Proper milling
follow guides to side mills or reamers techniques are particularly
for accurate trimming of thick edge important for parts made of
gates or tab gates. Always keep mills polycarbonate, which can stress
extremely sharp and well polished to crack and craze long after milling.
reduce friction. Consider annealing milled
polycarbonate parts to relieve the
machining stresses. Do this by
heating the supported work to 260
Milling Conditions Table 5-4 – 270°F for 1/2 hour for each 0.2
inch of part thickness.
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TURNING AND BORING
Cutting Tool for Plastics Figure 5-3
Turning is often used to manufacture
round shapes from bar stock. Exercise
care when turning thermoplastics to
prevent vibration or chatter. When
turning plastics, consider the following:
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Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
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SANDING POLISHING AND BUFFING
Use a conventional belt or disc sander Use polishing and buffing to Wheels for cut-and-color buffing often
to remove gate excess, flash, mold create uniform high-gloss or satin consist of unbleached cotton discs laid
marks, and imperfections in most finishes, as well as to remove surface alternately with two layers of 5 inch
parts made of rigid plastics. To inspect imperfections, sanding marks, discs and two layers of 12 inch discs.
internal features and assemblies, you scratches, and gate marks. Buffing can Final wheels have two layers of 12 inch
can sand parts for cross-sectional involve different types of finishing and four layers of 5 inch unbleached
views, although sanding will destroy operations including: cotton discs laid alternately. The
the part or assembly. buffing wheels mount to conventional
• Satin Finishing — for a satin or buffing equipment and spin at 1,500 to
Frictional heating, the primary brushed finish; 3,000 rpm.
source of difficulties when sanding
thermoplastics, can melt plastic • Cut-Down Buffing — for a smooth Buffing to a high gloss requires a
surfaces and clog sanding media. Heat finish; sequence of steps that may vary from
dissipates slowly in most plastics, so material to material. For ABS, the
dry sanding must usually be done at • Cut-and-Color Buffing — for a process usually starts with unbleached
slow speeds with coarse-grit paper. Dry lustrous finish; cotton buffing discs for cleaning and
sanding produces quick results and preparation. A cutting or polishing
rough finishes, and requires provisions • Final Color Buffing — for a high step, followed by a wiping or coloring
for dust collection and/or removal. gloss, mirror-like finish. step, increases gloss. After buffing with
an appropriate polishing compound
In wet sanding, a liquid — usually water Satin finishing, or ashing, removes — such as rouge or greasy tripoli — the
— alleviates frictional heat and removes major irregularities on the surface and part receives a final polishing on a
sanding debris, reducing the chance of leaves a satin finish. Cut-down buffing, clean finishing wheel made of a soft
gumming. When wet sanding, you can with a cotton or muslin wheel and material, such as muslin, flannel, or
use a wider range of grit sizes, from buffing compound, brings the luster to felt. Light application pressure and
coarse to very fine, depending upon the an intermediate, smooth finish ready cooling liquids help prevent heat
requirements. Although wet sanding for final color buffing. Cut-and-color buildup and resulting surface damage.
can produce very smooth surfaces, buffing produces a high-gloss finish in
plastic parts will generally need an most LANXESS materials.
additional buffing step to achieve a
glossy finish.
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Chapter 5
MACHINING AND FINISHING
In addition to the machining and Because both of these processes add Another method, tumbling, removes
finishing methods discussed earlier to your overall costs, try to position flash by tumbling parts together in
in this chapter, molders have a wide gates so they are not visible in the final a special rotating drum with a mild
variety of hand- and pneumatically assembly or choose a less-noticeable abrasive media such as crushed cocoa
operated nippers, cutters, and scrapers, gate, such as a valve gate. Do not rely bean shells. Commonly used to remove
as well as some remelting and honing on unrealistically small gates to hide flash from rigid thermosets, tumbling
techniques to remove gate excess and or lessen the appearance of the gate usually does not work well with
flash. These techniques and equipment mark. Part geometry, molding resin, LANXESS plastic materials. Tumbling
are discussed in this section. and processing requirements dictate in these materials tends to bend or
appropriate gate size. Please refer to flatten flash rather than remove it by
For aesthetic reasons, gate marks and the mold design chapter in this manual breaking or abrasion.
flash on some parts must be totally for information on gate size and
removed. Two common techniques to placement. In one new and novel approach, parts
remove these blemishes are hot-air placed in a specially designed chamber
remelting and vapor honing. The Most of the machining and finishing are exposed to a flash detonation that
hot-air method uses a heat stream from methods described in this chapter are instantaneously melts flash, without
a hot-air gun to remelt and smooth the used to remove flash from molded damaging the part. While expensive, if
area. Vapor honing uses a chemical plastic parts. Another more common your part has difficult-to-remove flash,
vapor to dissolve the surface, resulting method, scraping or trimming uses this method may prove economical.
in a similar effect. specially designed, knife-edged scrapers
that remove flash as a continuous Always compare the cost of reworking
filament without digging into the part. the mold to the cost of secondary
A variety of scraper shapes and sizes are flash removal operations. Many times,
available commercially. repairing the mold could result in
long-term cost savings.
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Paint Curing Paint-Selection Considerations
Several factors determine the type of There are a variety of methods to cure Semi-crystalline plastics, such
paint systems you choose, including paints: as nylons, tend to be chemically
the specific plastic substrate, the resistant to most solvent systems and
type of finish required, available • Air-curing paints solidify as the often require special pre-treatments
painting facilities, and local regulatory solvent evaporates, leaving the or primers. Acetal, polypropylene,
restrictions. To some degree, the paint resin to polymerize on the part and polyethylene, which have waxy
system should chemically react with surface. surfaces, are chemically resistant
the plastic surface for good adhesion, to most solvent systems as well.
but it should not damage the plastic • Heat-curing systems bake parts Amorphous plastics, such as ABS,
substrate. for rapid and complete curing. The because they are less chemically
curing temperature for these paints resistant, achieve good adhesion with
Paint systems also differ in the types may limit your choice of plastics many more paint systems.
of solvent system used. Solvent on which these paints can be used.
systems generally fall into two types: Parts must withstand the required Look for a system that is not too
organic solvent systems or water-based curing temperature. Polycarbonate chemically aggressive: especially for
systems. parts can usually withstand paint polycarbonate blends. To achieve the
bake temperatures of about 120°C optimum match of substrate and paint
Organic solvents penetrate the (250°F). system, consult both your resin and
plastic substrate to form strong paint suppliers before making your
chemical bonds for superior adhesion. • Two-component paint systems final selection. The cost of the paint
Excessively aggressive solvents may use a chemical reaction to drive is usually insignificant compared to
damage the substrate. Damage and the curing process. These systems the labor and overhead costs, and the
chemical attack tend to be worse in generally give off very few cost of complying with environmental
areas of high molding or assembly volatiles, but have a short pot life protection regulations. Be sure to
stresses. Always test your solvent after mixing: often only minutes. consider the cost of the entire process
system on an actual, finished part to when making your selection.
determine its suitability. • Other paints rely upon exposure
to oxygen or UV radiation to Government regulatory agencies,
Water-based systems are generally completely cure. especially OSHA and EPA, limit
less aggressive to plastic parts but the emission of volatile organic
tend to form slightly weaker bonds. compounds (VOCs) into the air.
An increasingly important advantage, Many organic-solvent- based paint
water-based systems avoid most of systems and application systems
the environmental, health, and safety cannot meet current emission limits
issues associated with organic-solvent without elaborate and expensive
systems. environmental-protection equipment.
Generally, waterborne coatings and
high-solid polyurethane systems
comply with most government
regulations. Check the current and
near-future regulations in your area,
because these regulations vary.
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Other Painting Methods Masking
In addition to spraying, other common Wiping applies paint to molded inlays Part drawings should clearly specify
methods of paint application include such as dial numerals and indented areas to receive paint, areas which must
brushing, pad painting, rolling, wiping, letters. In this method, high viscosity be free from paints, and areas that can
and dipping. Each has advantages in paint is first applied to coat the inlay receive over-spray. Paint-free areas will
specific kinds of applications. features and surrounding area. After probably require masking: a procedure
a period of time, usually ten to thirty often more complicated and labor-
Brushing is most commonly used in minutes, the excess paint is wiped from intensive than the actual painting.
automated stripe-painting applications. the surrounding areas with a solvent Some considerations to address with
Programmable machines manipulate the impregnated rag or brush, leaving paint masking include:
brush position and vary the application in the inlays.
pressure to adjust the stripe pattern and • Take steps in the part design
width. Dipping, a simple and inexpensive stage to avoid masking or at least
painting method, uses a conveying simplify the masking process;
Pad painting uses a patterned resilient system to first submerse parts in a tank
pad to transfer paint to the plastic of paint and thinner, and then move • Avoid vaguely defined transitions
substrate much like a rubber ink stamp the parts through subsequent stages for between masked and painted
applies ink to paper. In an automated dripping, draining, and drying. Because features such as fillet radii and
process, a roller applies a film of paint few applications require complete paint rounded or irregular surfaces;
to a transfer plate. The patterned pad coverage on all surfaces, dipping is
with raised figures is first pressed onto used less often than spraying. Dipping • Allow at least 1/8 inch between
the film of paint and then onto the is commonly used to apply base coats masked areas and the part edge;
plastic part being decorated. to parts prior to vacuum metallizing or
sputtering. • Avoid thin or intricate masking;
Rolling applies paint to raised surfaces and
on a plastic part by means of a rubber
or felt roller (see figure 6-2). A transfer • Work closely with your painting
roller is commonly used in production and masking experts to avoid
to maintain a uniform film thickness on unnecessary work and expense.
the paint roller. The paint viscosity must
be high enough to prevent running. To prevent leakage between the stencil
or mask and the plastic part, the mask
Roller Painting Figure 6-2 and stencils must fit tightly against
the molded part. For this to happen,
the parts must be molded to tolerance
without shot-to-shot variations in size
or shape. The masks and stencils must
also be held to tight tolerances. Buildup
on the masks and stencils must be
periodically cleaned to maintain a good
fit. To avoid interrupting production to
clean masks, try to have several masks
for each masking job.
The roller transfers paint to the raised features on the molded part.
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FILM-INSERT MOLDING
Film-Insert Molding Figure 6-4
Film-insert molding differs from
conventional in-mold decoration in
that the decorated film, either flat or
formed, becomes an integral part of
the molded product during the molding
process. Typically the process begins
by forming a pre-heated, printed film,
by means of vacuum or high-pressure
forming, into the exact shape required
to fit tightly into the mold. The formed
film is then cut and placed into the
mold. During molding, plastic injects
behind the film forming a molded part
with an integral film layer. Figures 6-3
and 6-4 show a decorated film in place
in the mold in preparation for molding
and the final mold part.
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Design Considerations for
Electroplating
Prior to electroplating, the non- During plating, molded parts mounted
conductive plastic surface of most The electroplating process places on specially designed plating racks pass
plastics must first undergo an special requirements on the plastic part on conveyors through the various baths
electroless chemical process to deposit design. Because electric current density and rinses. These racks both secure and
a conductive metallic film layer. The distribution over the part surfaces orient the parts for total immersion
electroless process usually involves determines plating thickness, high and complete draining at each step.
immersing the parts in a series of current density at edges, notches, and Your part must be stiff enough to resist
specially formulated, aqueous baths outside corners can lead to excessive flexure and distortion when clamped
and rinses to clean, etch, and activate plating buildup (see figure 6-7). onto the rack. Otherwise, the thin-
the part surface. Then, a metallic film Recessed areas plate at lower current plated layer could crack as the parts
layer, such as copper, is chemically densities and tend to plate much are removed and handled. Consider
deposited on the part. After this thinner than other areas. To minimize edge-stiffening and surface-crowning
treatment, more conventional metal- these problems consider the following: to reduce flexure and cracking (see
plating methods apply additional metal figures 6-8 and 6-9). The points where
layers to the now conductive surface. A • Add a radius of at least 0.010 inch the rack clamps contact the part will
common plating combination is nickel to all plated edges. not plate. Plan for these contact points
over copper. Many electrical-shielding and work with your plater to find
applications skip the electroless step • Include a 1/16 inch minimum suitable clamp locations. Other design
and apply only an electroless plating radius on all outside corners. considerations include:
layer to the inside surface of the
housing or device (see figure 6-6). • Avoid extreme recesses that • Avoid features that may trap air
could lead to inadequate plating during immersion in the baths, or
thickness. hinder rinsing afterwards.
Electroless plating provides EMI shielding for electrical Round corners and edges to prevent
housings. excessive plating buildup.
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Vacuum Metallization Vacuum Metallization Figure 6-10
The vacuum metallizing process
deposits an extremely thin metallic
film (typically 1.5 microns) onto plastic
parts in a vacuum chamber. The process
usually begins with the application
of a specially formulated base coat to
smooth out surface irregularities and
improve metal adhesion. After curing,
the coated parts move to special racks
that rotate within the vacuum chamber
to provide the uniform coverage during
the line-of-sight deposition process.
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PRINTING
Printing is often used to apply designs, Screening, an inexpensive technique The sublimation ink transfer process,
characters, and markings to parts used to decorate flat or cylindrical commonly used on computer and
made from LANXESS plastics. The plastic parts (see figure 6-11), begins calculator keys, relies on deep ink
most common printing processes used with an open-weave fabric or screen, penetration to produce abrasion-
on plastic parts are discussed in this commonly made of silk, polyester, or resistant printed symbols. In this
section. stainless steel, which has been stretched process, heat and pressure vaporize inks
in a frame. Stencils, often made using printed on special transfer papers that
Pad printing involves pressing ink onto a photoetching process, are then placed rest against the part surface. Depending
the part from a custom-designed soft on the screen where ink transfer is on the material and ink system, the ink
ink pad. In one process, the patterned not desired. A rubber squeegee forces vapors can penetrate 0.008 inch into
ink pad picks up a film layer deposited ink through the screen and onto the the part surface.
onto a transfer plate by a roller. In part surface. The screening process
another process, a smooth pad picks up requires careful control of the ink
a pattern of ink from an etched plate viscosity and ambient conditions to
that was flooded with ink and then avoid fluctuations in temperature and
wiped with a blade, leaving ink in the humidity that could cause the screen to
etched recesses of the pattern. In both stretch or shrink. Screens also require
processes, the loaded ink pad then periodic cleaning to remove dried ink
stamps the pattern onto the plastic part. that could clog screen.
The soft pad can accommodate textures
and many irregular shapes. Irregular
shapes cause distortions in the printed
pattern that must be compensated by
adjustments in the ink pad pattern.
The screen-printing process can apply designs and Laser printing can produce light or
markings to flat and cylindrical parts. dark markings on plastic parts.
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Laser printing produces designs and Hot stamping provides a quick and Your ink and printing-equipment
symbols in plastic parts either by direct easy method for creating colored suppliers can offer assistance in
marking of the plastic or by selective indentations for numbers, letters, selecting the correct process for your
evaporation of a coating applied to and demarcations. In this process, a part. Their early involvement can
the plastic. In direct laser printing, the heated stamp presses against a color prevent problems later in the design
laser usually burns dark symbols into foil positioned on the part surface. The and production process. Always
light colored parts (see figure 6-12). force and heat simultaneously melt a pretest printing processes on actual,
Some dark-colored plastics have been recess and transfer ink from the foil production assemblies.
developed that produce light-colored (see figure 6-13). Dome printing, a
symbols during laser printing. This variation of the hotstamping process,
process usually does not produce prints on top of raised features or
suitable results for back lighting. patterns in the molded part (see figure
6-14). The reinforced silicone rubber
White, back-lit symbols can be pad used in this process compensates
produced on a dark background by first for minor deviations in the part surface.
coating white plastic with an opaque
dark paint. The laser then vaporizes the
paint in the shape of the symbol, and
exposes the white plastic substrate. The
pigmented, white plastic reflects the
laser beam without marking.
In standard hot stamping, a pattern on the heated die In dome printing, a heated silicone rubber pad
transfers color from the foil to the plastic part. transfers color to the raised features on the molded
part.
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LABELS AND DECALS TEXTURE
Self-adhering printed labels and Texture affects the look and feel of a
decals provide an easy means for molded part, as well as our perception
applying items such as logos, model of its quality. Textures can reduce
identification, and decorative graphics. glare, hide molding imperfections, and
Available in transparent, opaque, improve scratch resistance. Because of
metallic, or embossed materials, they their ease of molding, thermoplastic
offer an unlimited choice of shapes and resins can duplicate the surface
colors. Opaque labels are particularly appearance of many natural materials
helpful for hiding trimmed sprue gates. — such as wood, leather, and fabric
Instead of relying upon a self-adhering — to disguise plastic parts.
backing, heat-transfer labeling uses a
heated platen to release the print from The thermoplastic molding process
a carrier and attach it to the plastic also accommodates surfaces ranging
part. Labels and decals occasionally from high-gloss to deep texture. For
have problems with adhesion. Carefully ease of cleaning, many food-contact
pretest and evaluate any proposed and health care products require
adhesive system on actual production glossy finishes. Achieving high levels
parts. Also, avoid placing decals and of gloss requires the correct resin,
labels on irregular surfaces, as they will careful mold-steel selection, expensive
lift more easily. mold polishing, and meticulous mold
care. Glossy finishes are sensitive to
mold and processing imperfections,
and may readily show scratches. Mold
finishing with somewhat coarser
abrasive media can produce a brushed
finish that doesn’t show scratches and
imperfections as easily. Glass-bead
blasting and light sandblasting of the
mold surface can produce uniform
matte finishes of varying degrees.
Mold surface finishing is discussed
in more detail in Chapter 7 (Mold
Design) of this manual.
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Electric discharge machine (spark Likewise, parts from molds with similar
erosion) and photoetching processes textures may look different because
offer greater control over the mold one used photoetching and another
texture. They also make possible spark erosion. The inherently smooth
patterned textures such as leather and rounded textures produced by
and wood grains. Spark-eroded spark erosion tend to exhibit better
mold-surface textures tend to be scratch resistance than sharp textures.
smoother and more rounded than the Photoetched mold finishes can be
sharp-edged textures produced by blasted with glass beads to reduce
photoetching. High-viscosity materials, sharp edges and enhance scratch
such as ABS, tend not to reproduce resistance when molding low-viscosity
the sharp edges and porous micro resins. Consider the following when
finishes of photoetched cavities, as designing parts with texture:
do low-viscosity resins such as nylon.
Consequently, the molding resin • Avoid abrupt changes in wall
and processing conditions can lead thickness, as they can cause
to quite different part textures from noticeable differences in the
photoetched cavities. texture appearance, especially with
sharp-etched textures;
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Three-Plate Mold Figure 7-2A
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
Schematic of a two-cavity, three-plate mold with cutaway Three-Plate Mold Figure 7-2C
view showing second stage of opening.
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Mold Components Figure 7-3
Components of a standard
two-plate mold base with
two cavities.
The mold base comprises the majority Leader pins projecting from corners Mold cavities, here meaning core and
of the bulk of an injection mold. of the “A” half align the mold halves. cavity sets, can be incorporated in
Standard off-the-shelf mold bases Return pins connected to the ejector the mold three ways: they can be cut
are available for most molding needs. plate corners project from the mold directly into the mold plates, inserted
Typical mold bases are outfitted with face when the ejection mechanism is in pieces into the mold base, or inserted
a locating ring (see figure 7-3) and in the forward (eject) position. As the as complete cavity units. Cutting
provisions for a sprue bushing in the mold closes, the return pins retract the cavities directly into the mold base can
stationary or “A” half of the mold and ejector plate (if not retracted already) in be the most economical approach for
an ejector assembly in the moving “B” preparation for the next cycle. large parts and/or parts with simple
half. Both halves come with clamp geometries. When doing so, select the
slots to affix the mold in the press. mold base steel carefully. The physical
The “B” half has holes to accommodate properties of standard mold base steels
bars that connect the press ejection may be inadequate for heavy-wear
mechanism to the ejector plate in the areas or critical steel-to-steel contact
mold. points. Use inserts made of appropriate
materials in these areas.
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MOLDING UNDERCUTS
Assembling the cavity in the mold base Undercuts, part features that prevent Undercut features that cannot be
lets you select different metals for the straight ejection at the parting line, avoided through redesign require
various cavity components, optimizing tend to increase mold complexity and mechanisms in the mold to facilitate
the mold’s durability and performance. lead to higher mold construction and ejection. These types of mechanisms
It also simplifies and speeds repairs for maintenance costs. Whenever feasible, include side-action slides, lifter rails,
worn or damaged cavity components, redesign the part to avoid undercuts. jiggler pins, collapsible cores and
especially if you maintain spare mold Minor part design changes can often unscrewing mechanisms. The remainder
pieces for vulnerable components. eliminate problematic undercuts in the of this section discusses these options.
Additionally, assembling the cavities mold. For example, adding through-
from pieces can simplify component holes can give access to the underside
fabrication. Some of the drawbacks of of features that would otherwise be
mold-base cavity assemblies include undercuts (see figure 7-4). Likewise,
high initial mold cost, less-efficient simple modifications enable the
mold cooling, and potential tolerance mold to form a hole in the sidewall
accumulation problems with the cavity with bypass steel rather than with
components. a side-action mechanism. For more
information on design alternatives to
Cavity units offer many of the same avoid undercuts, see the section on
advantages found in mold-base cavity undercuts in Chapter 2 of this manual.
assemblies. Because many cavity units
are face-mounted in the mold base
for quick removal, worn or damaged
cavities are easily replaced. Some mold
bases are designed to accept standard
Undercut Alternatives Figure 7-4
cavity-insert units for rapid part change
while the mold is still in the molding
press. These cavity units typically have
independent cooling circuits and ejector
mechanisms that automatically connect
to the mold-base ejector system.
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Side-Action Slide Figure 7-5
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PART EJECTION
Ejector Pins and Blades Figure 7-9
Typically, molds have ejector systems
built into the moving “B” half. The
ejection unit of the molding press
activates these systems. Rods linking
the press-ejector mechanism to an
ejector plate in the mold enable the
press controller to control the timing,
speed, and length of the ejection stroke.
Reverse injection molds eject parts
from the stationary side of the mold
via independent ejection mechanisms
operated by springs or hydraulic
cylinders. This configuration facilitates
direct injection onto the inside or back
surface of cosmetic parts. The added
complexity of reverse-injection molds
adds to the mold cost. Ejector pins and ejector blades push the part
off of the core as the ejector plate moves
Specialized ejection components, such forward.
as knockout (KO) pins, KO sleeves, or
stripper plates, project from the mold
ejector plate to the part surface where
they push the part out of the mold (see
figures 7-9 through 7-11). These topics
are discussed in this section. Ejector Sleeves Figure 7-10
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KO pins usually extend to the surfaces KO pins leave witness marks, small Many factors determine the amount of
lying parallel to the mold face. If KO indentations or rings where the ejector area needed, including the part
pins push on angled surfaces, consider pin contacts the part, that could be geometry, mold finish, material-release
adding grooves to the part design to objectionable on cosmetic surfaces. characteristics, and part temperature at
prevent pin deflection (see figure 7-12). Additionally, they can read-through the time of ejection. To prevent damage
KO pins extending to narrow walls and to the opposite surface if the part is during ejection, thin-walled parts
edges can be stepped or positioned, so difficult to eject, or if the ejector area is generally require larger ejectors and
that only a portion of the pin contacts too small. greater ejector area than comparable
the molded part (see figure 7-9). This parts with thicker walls.
avoids using small-diameter KO pins
that are more difficult to maintain and
can deflect or bend.
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MOLD VENTING
Air-Poppet Valve Figure 7-13
As molten plastic enters the mold,
it quickly displaces air in the tightly
sealed mold. Although some air escapes
through the parting line or loose-fitting
ejectors or slides, most molds need
strategically placed vents for rapid
and complete air removal. This section
discusses vent design and placement.
Parting-Line Vents
Draw polishing the mold steel in the Ejection difficulties can arise if a
direction of ejection generally helps vacuum forms between the part and
ejection. Also, adding a generous mold during ejection. Typically, this
amount of mold draft helps ejection. difficulty develops in deeply cored,
Draft refers to the slight angle or taper closed-bottom parts. Off-the-shelf
added to part features to ease part mold components such as air-poppet
ejection. Most LANXESS materials valves (see figure 7-13) can alleviate
require at least one degree of draft the problems. Air-poppet valves relieve
for easy ejection. Lustran SAN resins the vacuum and deliver pressurized
require at least two degrees of draft. air between the part and mold surface
See the section on draft in Chapter 2 during ejection.
for additional information.
Core shift and mold flexure can pinch
Materials with internal mold release part surfaces, hindering ejection. To
can reduce the required ejection force prevent this problem, add support to
and alleviate some ejection problems. the mold or core, or change the filling
Spray mold releases, though often pattern to balance the injection forces.
effective as a short-term fix, can
lengthen the molding cycle and lead
to cosmetic problems. If planning to
use a spray mold release, check it for
chemical compatibility with your resin.
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Figure 7-14 shows standard parting- For the vast majority of resins and part Vent Placement
line vent guidelines for LANXESS geometries, more vents are better. The
plastic resins. To prevent material from exceptions are resins with components Vents should be placed at various
flowing into the vent during filling, — usually flame retardants or other locations along the runner system and
the depth of the first 0.150 inch to additives — that can boil to the surface part perimeter, but they are especially
0.300 inch of vent length must be at the flow front and deposit on the needed at the last areas of the mold to
small, typically less than 0.0020 inch mold surface and vents. These resins fill (see figure 7-15). Typically these
for amorphous resins and less than rely on pressurized air in front of the areas are located on the parting line
0.0015 inch for semi-crystalline resins. flow front to hold volatiles in the and lie farthest from the gate. When
Your resin selection and processing material. Over-venting can prevent the the last area to fill is not vented, air
conditions determine the vent’s flow front from generating the required may become trapped in the mold,
maximum depth. The ranges given in pressure. preventing complete filling of the
figure 7-14 apply to typical molding cavity and causing a gas burn on the
conditions. Other rules of thumb for Add vents sparingly in molds for these part. The trapped air is super heated
venting: materials. Carefully review LANXESS’s during compression and in severe cases
Product Information Bulletin for can pit or erode the mold steel.
• The amount of venting needed specific venting recommendations,
increases with part volume and particularly for flame-retarded
filling speed; materials.
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When feasible, move gates or vary part Part features produced by blind holes Severe weld lines often form where
thickness to change the filling pattern in the mold, such as posts and bosses, flow streams meet head on, especially
and direct air to parting-line vents. If require venting at the last area to fill, at the end of fill. You can often
air-trap areas persist, consider using usually the tip or end. Bosses can improve the strength and appearance of
ejector pins modified with flats for usually vent along the core insert these weld lines by installing overflow
venting (see figure 7-16). Ejector-pin forming the inside diameter of the boss. wells (see figure 7-17). Overflow wells
vents usually self clean with each Posts usually require ejector-pin vents are modified vent features that provide
ejection stroke. Air-trap areas not at the tip of the post. Other venting an extra-deep vent channel, usually
accessible by ejector-pin vents may issues you should address: about one-third the part thickness,
require vents placed along mold inserts that empties into a cylindrical well.
or splits in the mold. This type of vent • Direct mold filling along the length Venting air escapes the well around
usually requires periodic disassembly of the rib so gasses can escape at a shortened ejector pin fitted with a
for cleaning. Porous metal inserts the ends; and 0.002 inch clearance. Cool material at
can also provide venting for difficult the leading edge of the advancing flow
air-trap areas but may require periodic • Round or angle the ends of fronts merges and enters the overflow
cleaning. standing ribs to prevent air well leaving hotter material to mix and
entrapment (see figure 2-21 in fuse at the weld line. The overflow well
Chapter 2). is ejected with the part and clipped off
after molding. Overflow wells can also
Air trapped in unvented pockets or provide ejector-pin locations for parts
recesses in the mold can exit these such as clock faces or instrument lenses
areas behind the flow front and lead that cannot tolerate ejector-pin marks
to splay or teardrop-shaped surface on the part surface.
defects.
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MOLD DESIGN
Standard horizontal clamp presses The sprue, oriented parallel to the press
deliver molten resin to the mold injection unit, delivers resin to the
through a hole in the center of the desired depth into the mold, usually the
stationary press platen. A material parting line. Though they can be cut
delivery system — usually consisting directly into the mold, sprue bushings
of a sprue, runners, and gates — then are usually purchased as off-the-shelf
leads the resin through the mold and items and inserted into the mold (see
into the cavity. These components figure 7-18). The head end of the sprue
of the material delivery system are bushing comes pre-machined with a
discussed in this section. spherical recess — typically 0.5- or 0.75
inch radius — to receive and seal off
against the rounded tip of the press
injection nozzle. The sprue bushing
flow-channel diameter typically tapers
larger toward the parting line at a rate
of 0.5 inch per foot. This eases removal
of the molded sprue. The sprue orifice
size, the diameter at the small end,
comes standard in odd 1/32s from 5/32
to 11/32 inch.
Sprue bushings convey the melt from the press nozzle tip to the
mold parting line.
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Figure 7-19
• Large parts and/or parts needing Figure 7-19 shows typical sprue sizes The diameter at the base of the sprue
fast filling speeds require large for LANXESS amorphous resins as a increases with increasing sprue
sprue orifice diameters to avoid function of shot size and filling time. length. Standard sprue taper, typically
problems associated with excessive Because the maximum shear rate in one-half inch per foot, leads to large
flow shear. a sprue occurs at the orifice and the base diameters in long sprues. For
majority of shear heating and pressure example, a 6 inch sprue with a 7/32
• As a general rule, amorphous resins loss takes place in the first two inches, inch orifice diameter will have nearly a
and blends such as Lustran SAN, these guidelines should apply to sprues 0.5 inch diameter at the base. This large
Lustran and Novodur ABS, Centrex of various lengths. Part geometry base diameter lengthens cooling and
ASA resins require larger sprues influences filling time to some extent. cycle times and also leads to regrind
and runners than semi-crystalline For example, parts with a mix of thick problems.
resins such as Durethan PA 6 and and thin features may need a fast filling
Pocan PBT. speed to prevent premature cooling of Hot sprue bushings provide one
the thin features. Other geometries may solution to this problem. Hot sprue
require slower filling speeds to prevent bushings have a heated flow channel
problems such as cosmetic defects or that transports material along its
excessive clamp tonnage requirements. length in molten form, eliminating
or shortening the molded cold sprue.
Additionally, some molds rely on
extension press nozzles that reach deep
into the mold to reduce sprue length.
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Runners
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Figures 7-21 and 7-22 provide a As an approximation, calculate Rounding up, the secondary runner
means for estimating primary-runner secondary-runner diameters so that diameter becomes 3/16 inch. The
diameters based on volumetric flow the total cross-sectional area of the methods outlined above for calculating
rate and runner length. Calculate the secondary runners equals the cross- runner diameters usually generate
flow rate by dividing the part volume sectional area of the primary runner, reasonable, but not necessarily
of material passing through the runner and then round up to the nearest optimum, runner sizes. Consider
segment by the anticipated filling time. standard cutter size. For example, to computerized mold-filling analysis to
For example a primary runner section calculate diameters for two secondary achieve a higher level of optimization.
feeding half of a 6 in3 part, with an runners branching from a 0.25 inch
anticipated filling time of 3 seconds, primary runner, first solve for a runner
would have a volumetric flow rate of 1 diameter with half the cross-sectional
in3/sec. Use figure 7-21 for amorphous area of the 0.25 inch primary runner:
LANXESS resins, and figure 7-22 for
semi-crystalline LANXESS resins.
rsec = (rprim2÷ 2)1/2 so
rsec = (0.1252 ÷ 2)1/2 and dsec= 0.177
where r = radius and d = diameter
Runner-diameter guidelines based on volumetric flow rate Runner-diameter guidelines based on volumetric flow rate
and runner length. and runner length.
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Often, it makes more sense to orient
Naturally Balanced Runners Figure 7-25 cavities in rows rather than circles.
Rows of cavities generally have
branched runners consisting of a
primary main feed channel and a
network of secondary or tertiary
runners to feed each cavity. To be
naturally balanced, the flow path to
each cavity must be of equal length
and make the same number and type of
turns and splits. This generally limits
cavity number to an integer power of
two — 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. — as shown
in figure 7-25. Generally, the runner
diameter decreases after each split in
response to the decreased number of
cavities sharing that runner segment.
Assuming a constant flow rate feeding
the mold, the flow-front velocity in
the cavity halves after each split. The
molding press flow-rate performance
may limit the number of cavities that
can be simultaneously molded if the
press cannot maintain an adequate
flow-front velocity.
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Common Edge Gate Figure 7-28 Variations of the Edge Gate Figure 7-29
Common edge-gate guidelines. Fan gates and chisel gates can provide better cosmetics in
some applications.
Gates
Except for special cases, such as A variety of gate designs feed directly Fan gates and chisel gates, variations
sprue-gated systems which have no into the parting line. The common of the edge gate, flare wider from the
runner sections, gates connect the edge gate (see figure 7-28) typically runner (see figure 7-29) to increase
runner to the part. Gates perform two projects from the end of the runner and the gate width. Chisel gates can
major functions, both of which require feeds the part via a rectangular gate provide better packing and cosmetics
the thickness to be less than the runner opening. When designing edge gates, than standard edge gates on some
and part wall. First, gates freeze-off limit the land length, the distance thick-walled parts. Like the standard
and prevent pressurized material in the from the end or edge of the runner to edge gate, the land length for fan gates
cavity from backing through the gate the part edge, to no more than 0.060 should not exceed 0.060 inch at the
after the packing and holding phases inch for LANXESS plastics. Edge gates narrowest point. Chisel gates taper
of injection. Applied pressure from the generate less flow shear and consume from the runner to the part edge with
press injection unit can stop earlier less pressure than most self-degating little or no straight land area. Edge
in the cycle, before the part or runner designs. They are therefore preferred for gates can also extend to tabs (see figure
system solidifies, saving energy and shear-sensitive materials, high-viscosity 7-30) that are removed after molding
press wear-and-tear. Secondly, gates materials, highly cosmetic applications, or hidden in assembly. These tab
provide a reduced thickness area for and large-volume parts. gates allow quick removal of the gate
easier separation of the part from the without concern about gate appearance.
runner system.
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
Tab Gate Figure 7-30 Gate Under the Edge Figure 7-32
The gate tab can be hidden in the assembly or trimmed off This gate can be trimmed without leaving a gate mark on the
after molding. cosmetic part surface.
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Knockout-Pin Gate Figure 7-33 Stationary-Side Tunnel Gate Figure 7-34
Tunnel gates that extend below the parting line on the Tunnel gates into non-ejector side of the mold degate and
ejector side of the mold degate during ejection. separate from the part during mold opening.
Because they extend under the mold similar to a sprue puller to hold the
parting surfaces, tunnel gates can runner on the ejector half of the mold.
reach surfaces or features that are The runner must flex for the gate to
not located on the parting line. The clear the undercut in the mold steel.
gates typically feed surfaces oriented The gate may break or lock in the mold
perpendicular to the mold face. if the runner is too stiff or if the ejector
Depending upon their design, they pin is too close to the gate. Normally,
degate during ejection or mold opening the ejector pin should be at least two
(see figures 7-33 and 7-34). Tunnel runner diameters away from the base of
gates that degate during mold opening the gate.
often require a sucker pin or a feature
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MOLD DESIGN
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This gate design works well for unfilled
Curved-Tunnel-Gate Design Guidelines Figure 7-39
materials that remain somewhat
flexible at ejection temperature such as
Lustran ABS and amorphous blends.
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
Both of these pinpoint gate designs provide a well-defined Typical filter-bowl gate avoids knit-lines and provides even
break-off point for clean de-gating. Design permitting, flow around the core..
pinpoint gates should be placed in recessed gate wells to
accommodate gate vestige.
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Gate Optimization
Factors affecting optimum gate size Volumetric flow rate and gate size Materials differ in the maximum
include part thickness, part volume, control shear rate in the gate. Bulk shear shear rate they can tolerate before
filling speed, material properties, rate in the gate is roughly proportional problems occur. Table 7-1 lists the
and number of gates. Gate thickness to the volumetric flow rate. Reducing suggested shear-rate limits for a variety
controls packing ability. For proper the filling speed or flow rate by half of LANXESS resins. Shear-related
packing, gates must remain open reduces the shear rate by about half. problems seldom occur below these
and free from freeze-off long enough limits.
to inject additional material during
packing to compensate for shrinkage. The effect of gate size on bulk shear To minimize packing and gate shear
In general: rate depends on the gate geometry. For problems:
example, increasing the diameter of a
• Unfilled materials require gates round gate by 25% cuts the shear rate • Set edge-gate thickness according
that are at least half as thick as the to half. For rectangular gates, doubling to the packing rules and adjust
part. the width or increasing the thickness the width to achieve an acceptable
by about 40% reduces the shear rate by gate shear rate;
• Use gates that are two-thirds the half.
part thickness for highly cosmetic • Adjust the diameter of round gates,
parts or parts that could exhibit Computer flow analysis can take into such as tunnel gates and pinpoint
read through from features such as account the best filling-speed and gates, based upon the packing
ribs and bosses. injection-velocity profile for a given rules or on the size needed to stay
system when calculating the maximum within the shear-rate limits of the
• Glass- and/or mineral-filled nylons shear rate encountered in the gate. A material: whichever is larger; and
may pack sufficiently with gates less accurate but simpler method is
as small as one-third the wall to calculate bulk shear rate using an • Increase the quantity of gates if the
thickness. estimated, uniform volumetric flow rate calculated gate size is too large to
in the appropriate shear-rate formula: degate cleanly.
The volumetric flow rate through the
gate may dictate gate sizes larger than
needed for packing alone. High flow shear rate = 4Q/πr3
rates in gates can generate excessive for round gates
Bulk Shear-Rate Limits Table 7-1
shear rates and shear heating, damaging
the material and leading to a variety of shear rate = 6Q/wt2
molding problems.
for rectangular gates
Thin-walled parts — those with nominal
wall thicknesses less than 1.5 mm
— often require disproportionately large Where:
gates to accommodate the very high Q = flow rate (in3/sec)
filling speeds needed for filling. r = gate radius (in)
w = gate width (in)
Gate diameters that are greater than t = gate thickness (in)
80% of the wall thickness are often Note: See figure 7-28 for edge gate
required to prevent excessive gate shear. nomenclature.
Ideally these gates should feed into
thickened wells that ease flow from the To calculate flow rate, divide the
gate into the part wall sections. Hot- volume passing through the gate by
runner valve gates are often required to the estimated time to fill the cavity.
achieve the required gate size without For parts with multiple gates, this will
excessive gate vestige. mean assigning a portion of the part
volume to each gate. Note that the
rectangular gate formula becomes more
accurate when the gate width is much
greater than the gate thickness.
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MOLD DESIGN
Gate Position
Gate position can have a direct impact Flow orientation also affects part Gates typically generate elevated levels
on part moldability, performance, shrinkage in the mold. Shrinkage in of molded-in stress in the part area
appearance, and cost. The location unfilled plastics, which tend to shrink near the gate. Also, gate removal often
of the gate determines the filling just a little more in the flow direction leaves scratches or notches that can act
pattern and maximum material flow than in the cross-flow direction, is only as stress concentrators that weaken the
length. Ideally the gate would be slightly affected by flow orientation. area. For these reasons:
positioned to balance filling and Flow orientation has a large effect on
minimize flow length, typically near fiber-filled plastics, which typically • Avoid gating into or near areas
the center of the part or at strategic exhibit two or three times as much that will be subject to high levels
intervals for multi-gated parts. Often shrinkage in the cross-flow direction. of applied stress such as screw
these best gate locations for filling are As general rules: bosses, snap arms or attachment
unacceptable for other reasons. For points.
example, they might result in unsightly • To minimize warpage and
gate marks or weld lines in cosmetic dimensional problems in glass- The flow length resulting from the
areas, or increase mold construction filled plastics, position the gates to chosen gate locations must not exceed
costs. Cavity layout restrictions and provide uniform flow orientation the flow capabilities of the material.
mechanisms in the mold such as slides along the part length. Check the calculated flow length,
or lifters may also restrict gating to usually the shortest distance from the
less-than-ideal locations. The best gate • In parts with varying thickness, gate to the last area to fill, against
position is often a compromise between always try to gate into the thickest the published spiral flow data for
molding ease and efficiency, part sections to avoid packing problems the material. Consider computerized
performance and appearance, and mold and sink. mold-filling analysis if the flow
design feasibility. The Applications length is marginal or if the wall
Engineering Group at LANXESS Avoid thin-to-thick filling scenarios. thickness varies or is outside the range
Corporation has the experience and When gating must feed a thinner wall, of published spiral flow data. Flow
resources to assist you in choosing the consider adding a thickened channel or leaders, thickened areas extending
optimum gate locations. flow leader from the gate to the thicker from the gate toward the last areas to
wall sections to facilitate packing and fill, can aid filling without thickening
Gate position determines the filling minimize shrinkage variations. The the entire part. See Chapter 2 for more
pattern and resulting flow orientation. advancing flow front in parts with information on flow leaders.
Plastics typically exhibit greater thick and thin wall section will often
strength in the flow direction. Glass hesitate in the thin walls until the The pressure imbalance from uneven
fiber- filled plastics can often withstand thicker walls have filled. This flow flow around long, unsupported cores
more than twice the level of applied hesitation can lead to freeze-off and can bend or shift the cores within the
stress in the flow direction as in the incomplete filling of the thin-wall mold. This core shift increases the wall
cross-flow direction. Keep this in mind section. Often, positioning the gate so thickness on the side nearest the gate
when choosing gate locations for parts that the thinnest walls are near the and reduces the wall thickness opposite
subjected to mechanical loads. When end of fill reduces the hesitation time, the gate. In severe cases, this can lead
feasible: enabling the thin sections to fill. This is to non-fill opposite the gate and/or
particularly helpful in thin-walled parts mold opening or ejection problems as
• Position gates to direct filling in which are prone to flow-hesitation the core springs back after filling and
the direction of applied stress and problems. pinches the thicker wall. Such parts
strain. require symmetric gating around the
core or wall-thickness adjustments to
balance flow around the core.
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HOT-RUNNER SYSTEMS Hot-Runner Designs
Hot-runner systems use heated or Commercially available in a wide Hot-runner systems are available in
insulated channels to transport molten array of standard designs, hot-runner both externally and internally heated
resin through the mold, delivering it systems range from simple, hot sprue configurations (see figure 7-43).
directly into the mold cavity or to a bushings costing a few hundred dollars Externally heated designs maintain
cold-runner system. Used to eliminate to large, valve-gated, sequential-filling the temperature through heat supplied
or reduce cold-runner size and runner designs costing tens of thousands from outside the molten flow channel.
regrind, hot runners add to mold of dollars. Most hot runners consist These systems rely on heaters or
construction and maintenance costs, of a center drop that receives melt thermal conductors attached to the
and can complicate processing and from the press nozzle, a manifold to outside of the hot-runner components
mold startup procedures. Properly distribute flow parallel to the mold or encapsulated, embedded, or inserted
designed hot runners efficiently face, and drops that move material under the metal surface. Internally
distribute flow to widely dispersed perpendicularly through the mold heated designs typically maintain melt
gates with little pressure loss or melt plate to the mold cavity or cold temperature by way of torpedo heaters
temperature change. They also facilitate runner. Zones of electrical-resistant or heated probes placed inside the flow
gating in areas inaccessible from heaters maintain uniform melt channel.
parting line runners and gates. This temperature throughout the system via
section discusses hot-runner design separate temperature controllers and
issues. strategically placed thermocouples.
The many wires feeding the heaters Although both types of hot runners
and thermocouples are usually guided have been used successfully with
through channels or conduits in the LANXESS engineering thermoplastics,
mold to prevent shorting or pinching internally heated designs have an
of the wires between mold plates. inherent disadvantage in some
Pinched thermocouple wires can cause applications. Internally heated flow
erroneous temperature measurements channels tend to form a stagnant layer
and lead to excessive heater of material on the cooler outer surface
temperatures and degraded material. of the flow channels. Over time, this
In addition to resistance heaters, some material can degrade and produce
designs use high-conductivity metals black specks, brown streaks, and other
and/or heat pipes to distribute heat. cosmetic problems in molded parts. The
same problems can occur in all types of
Internally vs. Externally Figure 7-43 hot-runner systems if the flow channels
Heated Hot Runners are not streamlined to prevent material
hang-up at trouble spots such as corner
plugs and the transitions between
components.
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Chapter 7
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Valve Gates
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MOLD DESIGN
Because of the high operating The length of the hot drops also grows To avoid excessive heat loss to the
temperatures of hot-runner systems, significantly during startup. Some mold, minimize metal-to-metal
typically between 400 and 600°F designs only create a positive seal contact between the heated hot-runner
for LANXESS resins, you must at the tip of the drop when at the components and the mold. When
address both thermal expansion and intended operating temperature. Plastic feasible, use materials with low
thermal isolation within the mold. injected before the drop reaches this thermal conductivity at the contact
Usually, hot runners are fixed at the temperature could flow into the gap points. In addition to an insulating
manifold centering ring and at the between the hot-runner drop and the air gap around the hot-runner system,
end of each hot drop. The design must mold plate, creating a messy problem. some designs surround the heated
accommodate the substantial growth of Hot-runner manufacturers calculate components with insulating material
the system between these fixed points the expansion and make expansion and/or infrared reflectors.
as the components heat and expand provisions based on the hot-runner
during startup. Systems with short configuration and anticipated operating
drops often have a sliding fit between temperatures.
the drop and the manifold to allow for
expansion. Designs with long drops
may simply allow the drops to flex.
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Stagnant Flow Figure 7-48
As in cold-runner systems, flow the pressure gradient corresponding careful adjustment of the hot-drop,
channels and gates require proper to the flow rate and channel size. flow-channel diameters to balance
sizing for optimum performance. To estimate the pressure drop in psi, flow. Typically, smaller diameters are
Generally hot-runner gate sizes multiply the channel length in inches assigned to the channels or hot drops
should follow the size guidelines for by the pressure gradient. The pressure- feeding the shorter flow path. The
cold-runner gates outlined in the gradient range for a given flow rate choice of channel diameters is often
gate-optimization section of this and channel diameter correlates to the limited to the standard sizes offered
chapter. With regrind or runner waste range of material viscosities. Use the by the hot-runner manufacturer. Most
not a concern, hot-runner channels lower pressure gradient values for low- hot-runner manufacturers will calculate
can be considerably larger than cold viscosity materials such as Durethan PA the required diameters for you. If not,
runners and consequently consume less 6 and higher values for high-viscosity consider computer flow simulation.
pressure. grades.
The process of drilling flow channels
Figure 7-47 shows the approximate Most hot-runner systems are naturally can produce dead spaces where
correlation between pressure gradient balanced and provide an equal flow material can stagnate and degrade
and flow rate at various diameters for a distance to each hot-runner gate. (see figure 7-48). Plug and streamline
range of LANXESS engineering resins. As the hot-runner channels branch the flow in these areas to prevent
To estimate the pressure drop through a off to form secondary or tertiary black specks, burnt streaks, and
given hot-runner channel section, first channels, the channel diameters can material discoloration. Dead spaces
calculate the flow rate in that section become smaller to accommodate can also occur at gaps between poorly
by dividing the volume of material, the corresponding drop in material fitting components and at unblended
in cubic inches, fed by that section by throughput. Unbalanced configurations transitions in the flow channel.
the number of seconds required to fill — for example a row of drops fed from
the mold. Then read from the graph a common manifold channel — need
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
In thermoplastic molding, the mold Good mold-cooling design maintains Mold-surface temperature can affect
performs three basic functions: forming the required mold temperature, the surface appearance of many parts.
molten material into the product provides uniform cooling, and achieves Hotter mold-surface temperatures
shape, removing heat for solidification, short molding cycles. Optimizing mold lower the viscosity of the outer resin
and ejecting the solid part. Of the cooling promotes improved part quality layer and enhance replication of the
three, heat removal usually takes the and cost savings. Improper cooling can fine micro-texture on the molding
longest time and has the greatest introduce elevated levels of thermal surface. This can lead to reduced gloss
direct effect on cycle time. Despite and shrinkage stresses resulting from at higher mold-surface temperatures.
this, mold cooling-channel design cooling- rate variations throughout the In glass-fiber-reinforced materials,
often occurs as an afterthought in the part. Differences in cooling rate cause higher mold-surface temperatures
mold-design process; after the feed areas to shrink and solidify at different encourage formation of a resin-rich
system, mold mechanism, and ejection rates and by different amounts. In surface skin. This skin covers the fibers,
system designs are already designed. parts made of semi-crystalline resins reducing their silvery appearance on
Consequently, many cooling designs such as PA 6 or PBT, the cooling rate the part surface. Uneven cooling causes
must accommodate available space and affects the degree of crystallization variations in mold-surface temperature
machining convenience rather than the and shrinkage. Variations in shrinkage that can lead to non-uniform part-
thermodynamic needs of the product within the part can lead to warpage, surface appearance.
and mold. This section discusses mold distortion, and dimensional problems.
cooling, a topic to consider early in the
mold-design process.
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Thermal Conductivity of Various Figure 7-47
Mold Materials at 68°F
Before heat from the melt can be
removed from the mold, it must first
conduct through the layers of plastic
thickness to reach the mold surface.
Material thermal conductivity and part
wall thickness determine the rate of
heat transfer. Generally good thermal
insulators, plastics conduct heat
much more slowly than typical mold
materials. Cooling time increases as
a function of part thickness squared;
doubling wall thickness quadruples
cooling time.
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
Cooling-Channel Placement
Cooling-channel placement determines Because of size and/or machining When designing cooling channels,
cooling efficiency and uniformity. constraints, standard round cooling pay special attention to the sections
Positioning the channels too close to channels may not be feasible for some of the mold forming inside corners
the cavity surface can cause cold spots deeply-cored part geometries. Parts in the part design to prevent possible
and uneven cooling. If they are too far tend to shrink tightly onto deep cores, part distortion problems. Corners
away, cooling becomes more uniform separating from the cavity wall. This place a higher thermal load on this
but less efficient. separation transfers more heat to the mold area than on the mold area in
core. contact with the outside corner (see
• Place cooling-channel center lines figure 7-53). The resulting heat buildup
approximately 2.5 cooling-channel • Consider using baffles (see figure slows cooling and shifts the molten
diameters away from the mold 7-10) and bubblers (see figure 7-51) core toward the inside. As the shifted
cavity surface. to remove heat from deep cores; molten core shrinks and solidifies, it
pulls disproportionately on the inside
The spacing between adjacent • Adjust the bubbler tube or baffle corner, leading to corner warpage
cooling channels also affects cooling length for optimum cooling. If and a reduction in corner angle.
uniformity. they are too long, flow can become This phenomenon causes the classic
restricted. If too short, coolant flow hourglass distortion in box shaped
• As a general rule of thumb, use may stagnate at the ends of the
center-to-center spacing of no hole; and
more than three cooling-channel
diameters (see figure 7-50). • Consider using spiral channels cut
into inserts for large cores (see
figure 7-52).
IN
T
OU
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Spiral Cooling Channels Figure 7-52
IN
T
OU
IN
OUT
Heat Buildup in Corner Figure 7-53 Improved Corner Cooling Figure 7-54
Illustration of heat distribution through the cross section of a Illustration of heat distribution through a corner cross
corner showing heat buildup in the corner of the core. section showing improved cooling with cooling line moved
closer to the inside corner.
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
parts.
Ejectors in Corners Figure 7-56
There are several possible ways to
correct heat buildup on inside corners
including:
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Cooling Circuits Figure 7-57 Cooling-Line Configuration
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
For efficient heat transfer from the Do not underestimate the cooling • Avoid flow restricting, quick
mold to the coolant, design the cooling requirements of thin-walled parts. disconnects, and other obstructions
system to achieve turbulent flow, that Decreasing wall thickness by half that increase pressure drop and
is, a Reynolds number significantly reduces minimum cooling time to one reduce coolant flow rate;
higher than the turbulence onset value fourth. To realize the full cycle-time-
of about 2,500. At a Reynolds number reduction potential, the cooling system • Use flow-control meters to check
of 10,000, the normal design target must remove heat at four times the for obstructions and to adjust
value, water coolant transfers heat an rate. Other cooling considerations to the coolant flow rate through the
order of magnitude faster than laminar address: cooling circuits; and
flow (see figure 7-58). You can estimate
Reynolds number using the following • Provide enough coolant flow to
formula. limit the coolant temperature rise
in the circuits to no more than 4°F.
3,160Q
R =
e Dη
= 0.5 gal/min
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MOLD SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage vs. Wall Thickness Figure 7-59
Typically, thermoplastics shrink
significantly as they cool and solidify
during the molding process. Mold
designers make the mold cavity
larger than the desired final part size
to compensate for shrinkage. Mold
shrinkage data published by the resin
supplier for the specific material can
be used to estimate the amount of
compensation needed. Published mold
shrinkage data, based on simple part
geometries and standard molding
conditions, is calculated using the
following formula:
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Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
packing.
Packing forces additional material into The mold constrains the part and Published shrinkage data represents
the mold to compensate for volume prevents significant dimensional the typical range of shrinkage based
reduction, lowering shrinkage. Gate change until after part ejection. The on laboratory conditions. Applying
size, part thickness, and gate position type and duration of this constraint this data to a specific part and mold
can limit the level of packing that can affect net shrinkage between part requires a combination of engineering
can be achieved through processing features. For example, the shrinkage judgment and educated guess. Tend
adjustments. Large gate thickness and percentage between holes in a molded toward the lower end of the range for
high mold temperature delay gate plate will tend to be less than between parts thinner than 0.100 inch, and for
freeze-off and promote higher levels the unconstrained edges of the plate. highly constrained features such as
of packing. Packing typically decreases Long cycle times constrain the part the distance between holes. Anticipate
and shrinkage increases further from in the mold longer and reduce initial flow orientation in glass-filled parts
the gate, particularly in distant thick- shrinkage, but can induce stresses that and apply the flow and cross-flow
wall sections. lead to additional shrinkage over time shrinkage values appropriately. Areas
as the stresses relax. of random orientation will tend to
shrink at a level midway between
As explained above, many factors the flow and cross-flow values.
can affect the level of shrinkage. You Computerized shrinkage analysis takes
can usually obtain the most accurate some of the guesswork out of shrinkage
shrinkage values for new molds by prediction and is worth considering if
calculating the actual shrinkage in the resin has undergone the required
existing molds producing similar testing. Consider designing critical
parts sampled in the same material. features and dimensions “steel safe” to
Ideally, the gating, flow orientation, simplify modifications to correct for
mold cooling, and processing should errors in shrinkage prediction.
be similar to that expected for the
new mold. Prototype molds can also
be a good source of shrinkage values,
but may not replicate production
conditions.
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MOLD METALS
Mold designers consider a variety Cavity and cores steels vary based As a general rule, the Rockwell
of factors when selecting the mold on the production requirements, hardness of mold components that
metal including, machining ease, machining complexity, mold size, slide against each other, such as bypass
weldability, abrasion resistance, mechanical needs, and the abrasive or cores, should differ by at least 2 HRC
hardness, corrosion resistance, and corrosive nature of the molding resin. to reduce galling and damage to both
durability. Metals can range from the P-20 steel (30-36 HRC) provides a components. The less expensive or
soft, low-melt-temperature alloys used good mix of properties for most molds more easily replaced component should
in inexpensive, cast-metal, prototype running non-abrasive materials such as have the lower hardness.
molds to the porous metal used in unfilled PC or ABS. Pre-hardened 420
vent inserts. Metals are chosen based stainless (30-35 HRC) can also be used Inserts made of BeCU or high-
not only on the cost, manufacturing, when corrosion resistance is needed. conductivity alloys can reduce heat
and performance requirements of the For longer mold life and increased buildup in difficult-to-cool areas of
mold or component, but also on the durability, many medical molders select the mold. The metals with the best
experience and comfort level of the 420 stainless hardened to 50-52 HRC thermal conductivity tend to be the
mold design and construction shop. for their molds running unfilled resin softest. To protect the soft metals from
grades. This highly polishable stainless abrasion and deformation, they are
Aluminum, long a popular choice for steel resists corrosion and staining but often inserted into harder steel cores or
prototype molds, is gaining acceptance provides less efficient cooling than components.
in moderate-run production molds. most other mold steels.
Improved aluminum alloys, such as Mold Steels able 7-3
QC-7, exhibit greater strength and Most abrasive glass or mineral-filled
hardness than standard aircraft-grade resins require mold steels with hardness
aluminum, and sufficient durability ratings of at least 54 HRC. Air hardened
for some production molds. Hard steels, such as H-13, machine more
coatings can raise the surface hardness easily than pre-hardened steels and can
of aluminum molds to more than 50 be hardened to 54 HRC for use with
Rockwell C (HRC) for improved wear most abrasive glass or mineral-filled
resistance. Steel inserts and mechanical resins. Air hardened S-7 sees similar
components are usually used in high applications as H-13, but can be
wear areas within the aluminum mold hardened to 54-56 HRC for higher-wear
to extend mold life. Aluminum offers areas. Air hardened D-2 (54-56 HRC)
easier machining and faster cycle times provides superior abrasion and is often
than conventional mold steels at the used in high wear areas such as runner
expense of wear resistance and mold and gate inserts for abrasive materials.
durability. Small inserts and components that see
steel-to-steel wear can be manufactured
Most high production injection molds from steels that can achieve hardness
designed for engineering plastics are levels greater than 56 HRC such as
fabricated from high-quality tool steel. O-1, O-6, A-2, and A-10. Table 7-3 lists
Mold bases are usually made of P-20 some of the common steels used in
pre-hardened to 30 – 35 HRC and mold making. Steel manufacturers also
are often plated to resist corrosion. offer a variety of specialty grades with
Specifications for high-quality molds, properties tailored to mold making. The
especially for medical parts, often heat-treating process used to achieve
specify 420 stainless steel to eliminate the high hardness values of some of
corrosion concerns. the mold steels, can result in cracks in
large cores, particularly if the cross-
sectional thickness is not consistent.
Consider pre-hardened mold steels for
these applications.
160 Page 160 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Chapter 7
MOLD DESIGN
SURFACE TREATMENTS
To varying degrees, plastics replicate Molding-surface treatments can produce Mold components are coated or
the finish and texture of the molding a variety of surface finishes and plated for a variety of reasons. Flash
surface. Fine scratches and roughness on textures in the molded part. Textures chrome and thin deposits of electroless
the molding surface will tend to create can enhance the overall part aesthetics nickel less than 0.001 inch thick offer
a non-glossy part surface and potential and hide surface blemishes such as protection against rust and corrosion.
part-ejection problems. Polish molding- minor sink and gate blush. Relatively Thicker deposits of hard chrome, usually
surface roughness in the direction of flat surfaces can be blasted with sand more than 0.002 inch thick, prolong
ejection to ease part release and remove or glass beads to produce a low-luster the life of molds running glass-filled
surface defects. Most thermoplastics matte finish. The spark-erosion process or mineral-filled resins. Hard chrome
eject more easily from polished mold for manufacturing mold cavities in and electroless nickel plating can also
surfaces. Thermoplastic urethane resins, an EDM machine can also produce build thickness to correct dimensional
exceptions to this rule, release more textured surfaces ranging from very problems or refurbish worn areas. Mold
easily from mold surfaces that have fine to coarse. Textures produced this release coatings such as PTFE modified
been blasted with sand or glass beads, or way tend to have rounded peaks that hard chrome or electroless nickel have
vapor honed to an SPI D2 (formerly SPI resist scratching and marring better performed well in molds with ejection
#5) finish. than comparable photoetched textures. problems such as medical parts with
In general, coarser textures resist insufficient draft.
Polishing with 240 – 320 grit paper scratching better than fine textures.
can produce a uniform brushed finish.
High-gloss finishes typically require Photoetching uses an acid etching
a sequence of polishing steps using process to create a wide array of
progressively finer silicon carbide surfaces ranging from leather finishes
stones ranging from 220 to 900 grit. to wood grain. The process creates
The surface is then polished and buffed detailed textures by photographically
with increasingly finer diamond pastes applying an acid-resistant masking
ending with a 3-micron paste. The material to the mold surface and then
level of gloss attainable on the molding etching the exposed areas with acid. To
surface generally increases with greater avoid variations in texture, make sure
steel hardness. A surface hardness of that the molding surfaces for matching
at least 30 HRC is usually required for textured parts are manufactured from
moderately fine gloss finishes. High the same mold steel and have undergone
gloss finishes typically require hardness the same heat treatment process.
in excess of 50 HRC. The steel type and Texture uniformity and gloss level can
quality, heat treatment, and polishing be adjusted to some extent through
technique all affect the attainable gloss multiple etching steps or by blasting the
level. surface with glass beads.
Different molding resins and processing
conditions can change the surface
appearance of parts molded from
the same mold surface texture. Low-
viscosity resins such as Durethan PA
6 and Pocan PBT can replicate the
fine micro-texture and sharp edges
of photoetched textures. The molded
surface appears duller than that
produced by higher-viscosity plastics
such as Lustran ABS which tends to
round off the micro-texture. Higher melt
temperatures and pressures increase the
matte level by enhancing the ability of
the resin to replicate the fine features of
the mold texture.
Page 161 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 161
MOLD COST AND QUALITY
The true cost of a mold includes • Hardened steel molds last longer • In the long run, it is usually more
not only the costs of design and and require less maintenance and economical to adjust the mold steel
construction, but also mold- rework than soft steel molds. to produce parts in the middle of
maintenance costs and the mold-related the tolerance range at optimum
costs associated with scrap, cycle • Money spent on enhanced mold processing conditions than to
time, part quality problems, and cooling can pay back many times adjust dimensions by processing
press down time. In the long run, the over in reduced cycle time and within a narrow processing
least-expensive mold option seldom improved part quality. window at less-than-optimum
produces the most economical, high- conditions.
quality parts. Extra engineering and • Hardened mold interlocks and
expense up front can improve molding alignment features ensure proper When obtaining quotations for new
efficiency and increase the number of mold alignment and prevent wear mold construction, make sure that
good parts the mold can produce. When or damage due to misalignment. every mold maker works from the
developing the mold specifications, specific set of mold specifications. Also
consider the following. • Spare parts for items prone to wear consult processing, mold-maintenance,
or breakage are usually cheaper and inspection personnel at the
to manufacture during mold molding facility for mold-design input
construction than after the mold is based on experience with similar
in production. Spare parts reduce molds.
costly down time.
162 Page 162 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
INDEX
A chemical exposure, 8 E
Acme threads, 35 chisel gates, 138 edge gate, 138, 139
acrylic paints, 103 circular sawing, 96 edge-stiffening, 110
adhesive bonding, 87 clamp slots, 122 ejector assembly, 122
adhesives, 87 clicker dies, 96 ejector blades, 126
agency approvals, 9 coefficient of friction, 52 ejector plate, 122
air-curing paints, 104 coefficients of linear ejector-pin vents, 130
air entrapment, 18 thermal expansion (CLTE), 90 elastic limit, 49
air-poppet valves, 128 collapsible cores, 32, 123 elastic modulus, 55
alignment, 88 compressive properties, 50 electric discharge machine, 117
alignment features, 88 compressive stress, 57 electrical performance, 8
alignment fingers, 89 consolidation, 14, 79 electroless nickel, 161
aluminum, 160 coolant flow rate, 156 electroless process, 110
American National (Unified) thread, 35 cooling-vent design, 34 electroplating, 109
amorphous plastics, 103 cooling channel placement, 153 electrostatic systems, 105
annealing, 97 cooling rate, 157 elongation at yield, 49
apparent modulus, 51 cooling time, 152 EMI/RFI shielding, 113
appearance, 8 core pulls, 32 end mills, 97
artificially balanced runners, 137 core shift, 128, 145 energy directors, 86
ashing, 100 cores, 31, 119 engineering strain, 56
automated assembly, 84 corner radius, 28 epoxies, 103
B corner warpage, 153 equivalent thickness, 67
baffles, 153 corners, 19 equivalent-thickness factor (ETF), 67
balance filling, 20 corrugations, 64 external threads, 35
balanced flow, 135 crazing, 56, 105 extension press nozzles, 132
band sawing, 95 creep, 44, 51, 70 externally heated, 146
beam bending, 60 creep and recovery data, 51 extrusion, 11
bearings, 41 creep modulus, 51, 55, 70 extrusion blow molding, 12
bending, 58 creep properties, 51 F
bending moment, 58 critical thickness, 17 fan gates, 138
black specks, 146, 150 crowns, 64 fasteners, 80
blanking, 96 crystallinity, 158 fatigue, 54, 75
blind holes, 130 crystallization, 151 fatigue curves, 54
blow molding, 12 curved-tunnel gates, 141 fatigue data, 75
bolts, 80 cutting oils, 94 fatigue endurance, 75
bonding, 85 cyclic loading, 74 fiber orientation, 47, 54
bosses, 25, 130 D filing, 98
break point, 49 decals, 116 fillet radius, 75
brown streaks, 146 depth-to-diameter ratio, 31 film-insert molding, 108
brushing, 106 design formulas, 55 “filter-bowl” gate, 143
bubblers, 153 design process, 7 finger tabs, 84
buffing, 100 diaphragm gates, 96, 143 first-surface film decorating, 108
bulk shear rate, 144 die cutting, 96 flash, 101
burnt streaks, 150 dimensional tolerances, 9 flash chrome, 161
buttress threads, 33 dipping, 106 flexural modulus, 52, 55
bypass steel, 123 distortion, 151 flow channels, 146, 150
C draft, 23, 30 flow-control meters, 156, 157
cable-guide hardware, 79 draw polishing, 128 flow hesitation, 22, 145
cam pins, 124 drilled holes, 94 flow leaders, 20, 145
cams, 32 drilling, 94 flow length, 18, 143, 145
cavities, 122 drills, 94 flow orientation, 145
cavity, 117 drops, 149 flow restrictors, 20
cavity assemblies, 123 dry sanding, 100 free-flowing gates, 148
cavity units, 123 dry spray, 104 G
chamfers, 88 dynamic friction, 50 gas-assist molding, 23, 66
Page 163 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 163
gas burn, 129 lifter rails, 123 parting-line vent, 128
gate marks, 100, 101 lifters, 32 permissible strain, 54
gate optimization, 144 locating ring, 122 photoetching, 114, 161
gate position, 145 logos, 15 pinpoint gates, 142
gate size, 142, 150 long-term loads, 55, 67 plate deflection, 62, 72
gate vestige, 142, 148 lost-core process, 66 plating adhesion, 111
gates, 101, 138 louvers, 34 plating racks, 110
gears, 41 Luer tubing connectors, 36 Poisson’s ratio, 51
geometric tolerancing, 39 M polishing, 100, 161
glass-bead blasting, 116 machining stresses, 96 polyurethane paints, 103
gloss differences, 19 manufacturing costs, 15 porous metal, 130
glossy finishes, 116 markings, 15 powdered paint, 107
glue, 87 masking, 105 press nozzle tip, 131
gussets, 28 manifold, 149 pressure gradient, 150
H material discoloration, 150 primary-runner diameters, 134
hard chrome, 161 mating edges, 89 proportional limit, 49
hard coats, 108 matte finish, 161 prototype testing, 16
hardware, 14, 89 mechanical fasteners, 80 prototype molds, 159
heat-curing systems, 104 mechanical loading, 8 punching, 96
heat pipes, 155 metallic coatings, 109 PV factor, 41
hex holes, 80 milling, 97 PV limit, 41
high-gloss finishes, 161 mini-sprue gates, 147 Q
hot-air remelting, 101 mismatch, 31 quick disconnects, 157
hot-plate welding, 86 modified-tunnel gate, 141 R
hot runner designs, 146 mold base, 122 radiation, 8
hot-runner gates, 147 mold cooling, 151 radius-to-thickness ratio, 28
hot runner systems, 146 mold draft, 128 reamers, 97
hot sprue bushings, 132 mold flexure, 128 reaming, 93
hot stamping, 115 mold interlocks, 162 recycling, 79, 80, 82, 85, 88
I mold metals, 160 repair, 80, 82, 85, 88, 101
impact, 73 mold release, 129 retention features, 88
impact performance, 17, 73 mold-filling analysis, 134, 135 return pins, 122
in-mold decorating, 107 mold-release coatings, 161 reverse-injection molds, 126
in-mold transfer decoration, 107 molded-in hinges, 80 rework, 16
injection blow molding, 13 molded-in stress, 145 Reynolds number, 157
injection molding, 10 molded-in threads, 35 rib design, 22
interlocking edge, 89 moment of inertia, 58 rib location, 24
internal runners, 20 multi-shell process, 66 rib size, 23
internal threads, 35, 124 N rib thickness, 22
internally heated, 146 naturally balanced runners, 135 ribs, 24, 71, 72
isochronous stress-strain curve, 51 nesting features, 80 rivets, 80
J O Rockwell hardness, 160
“jiggler” pin, 123 orientation, 90 rolling, 106
K overflow wells, 130 rotomolding, 13
knockout pins, 126 P “round-bottomed” trapezoid, 133
KO sleeves, 126 packing, 133, 144, 158 runner system, 133
L pad painting, 106 runner thickness, 133
labels, 116 pad printing, 114 runners, 133
laser, 99 paint curing, 104 S
laser machining, 99 paint soak, 104 S-N curves, 54
laser printing, 115 paints, 103 safety factors, 56
latches, 80 parallel circuits, 156 sandblasting, 119
leader pins, 122 part design checklist, 169 sanding, 100
lettering, 38 part ejection, 30, 126 sanding marks, 100
life expectancy, 9 parting line, 119 satin finishing, 100
164 Page 164 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
INDEX
Page 165 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 165
PART DESIGN CHECKLIST
LANXESS CORPORATION • 111 RIDC Park West Drive • Pittsburgh, PA 15275-1112 • Phone: 800-LANXESS
For further design assistance in using LANXESS’s engineering thermoplastics, contact a field market development representative at a regional office near you.
USA Sales Offices:
Michigan: 2401 Walton Blvd., Suite A , Auburn Hills, MI 48326-1957 • 1-248-475-7790 • Fax: 1-248-475-7791
Ohio: 356 Three Rivers Parkway, Addyston, OH 45001 • 1-513-467-2479 • Fax: 1-513-467-2137
Canadian Affiliate:
Ontario: 77 Belfield Road, Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 1G6 • 1-416-248-0771 • Fax: 1-416-248-6762
Quebec: 7600 Trans Canada Highway, Pointe Claire, Quebec H9R 1C8 • 1-514-697-5550 • Fax: 1-514-697-5334
166 Page 166 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety.
Radii Wall Uniformity
Avoid Avoid
Sharp
Prefer Prefer
R
.015 in
min.
Ribs Bosses
Avoid Avoid
Too Thick Too Close Too Too
Thin Tall
Tall Sharp
Prefer Thick
w Screw Lead-In Prefer
2w
2 3w
R Gussets
w
Draft Snap-Fit
Avoid Avoid
No Draft
Prefer Undercut
Prefer vs. Length
1/2° min. Draw Polish vs. Material
R
Shallow
Taper Lead-In
Screws Molded-In Threads
Avoid Avoid
Thread Forming
(Avoid for PC
Blends)
Prefer Prefer
1/32 in
Lead-In
Thread Cutting
Avoid Avoid
Ejector
Pins
Page 167 of 168: This document contains important information and must be read in its entirety. 167
LANXESS Corporation • 111 RIDC Park West Drive • Pittsburgh, PA 15275-1112 • 800-LANXESS
http://techcenter.lanxess.com
Sales Offices:
Canadian Affiliate:
LANXESS Corporation
111 RIDC Park West Drive • Pittsburgh, PA 15275 • Phone: 1-800-LANXESS • www.US.LANXESS.com
The manner in which you use and the purpose to which you put and utilize our products, technical assistance and information
(whether verbal, written or by way of production evaluations), including any suggested formulations and recommendations are
beyond our control. Therefore, it is imperative that you test our products, technical assistance and information to determine to
your own satisfaction whether they are suitable for your intended uses and applications. This application-specific analysis must at
least include testing to determine suitability from a technical as well as health, safety, and environmental standpoint. Such testing
has not necessarily been done by us. Unless we otherwise agree in writing, all products are sold strictly pursuant to the terms of
our standard conditions of sale. All information and technical assistance is given without warranty or guarantee and is subject to
change without notice. It is expressly understood and agreed that you assume and hereby expressly release us from all liability, in
tort, contract or otherwise, incurred in connection with the use of our products, technical assistance, and information. Any
statement or recommendation not contained herein is unauthorized and shall not bind us. Nothing herein shall be construed as a
recommendation to use any product in conflict with patents covering any material or its use. No license is implied or in fact
granted under the claims of any patent.
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