Advanced learners benefit from focusing
on many different forms together.
Advanced learners need to extend their lexical repertoire.
Learners need to have a range of functional exponents at their
disposal.
Analysis of grammar through contrasting
items is effective.
Authentic materials are an important
source of language.
Form and meaning cannot be separated so it is
useful to present both together. It is not necessary to
focus explicitly on the form of this TL at an advanced
level.
Guided discovery/learners working out
language is a valid form of language
input.
Inauthentic texts are useful for presenting language.
It is important for target language to be contextualized.
Listening texts are a good way of introducing language items.
It is important that learners leave a
lesson with their own written record of
target language.
It is important to focus on
discourse/adjacency pairs/responses.
It is important to focus on style.
It is important to include contexts from
different cultures.
It is useful for learners to do cognitively
challenging tasks when focusing on the target
language/to work out language patterns.
It is useful for learners to use dictionaries.
It is important to encourage learner autonomy.
It is useful to focus on form/highlight
problems of form through focused
exercises/focus on accuracy.
It is useful to give learners explicit
grammar rules.
It is useful to guide learners to use
reference sources (grammar references).
It is useful to have a task which doesn't focus on target language
even if the prime reason for the text is linguistic.
Learners need to understand meaning of a text before focusing
on target language.
It is useful to teach language functions.
It is valid to focus on discrete items of
grammar.
It is valuable to activate schemata.
1a
Because this enables learners to engage with materials and Presenting the ____ forms together helps them notice their own weaknesses.
target language.
Because it presents a motivating challenge.
Because it is important to present more than one English (reflects
Because it allows the teacher to notice learners' weaknesses.
the many Englishes in the world).

Because engaging with the language aids retention.

So that they can express themselves more concisely and with more variety.
Because it allows the teacher to check how much learners know.
So they can sound more like a native speaker.
Because it is motivating for the learners to check what they know and
Because they need to understand a range of speakers.
discover what they don't know.

Because learners will not always have a teacher on hand to help them.

Because it forces them to take responsibility for their own learning.

Because it assists with understanding
meaning.
Because it helps their learning outside the classroom.

Because students will learn better if there is an explicit focus on points of Because they provide language as it is used-exposure to 'real'
difficulty/form they need to consider. language in 'real' contexts helps learners use it 'realistically'.
Because it makes students aware of what they are learning.
Because it helps motivate learners by reminding them there is a
Because many students expect an explicit language focus. real context for the language they're learning.

Because these are fundamental to language learning and Because advanced learners will feel patronized if the material focuses on the form.
provide structure for learning/developing fluency.
Because they will have learned the form at previous levels.

Because it's encouraging for learners to feel there is a clear Because it is the subtle differences in use which are the key problems with this area of
language.
system.

Because this encourages them to work Because it will activate knowledge they already have
independently (so they can learn outside and involve them more in the learning process (this
class). should increase the effectiveness of the learning).

Because it is important for learners to have opportunities to listen as this is often something which they need practice
in. Because the language can be controlled.

Because it encourages learners away from focusing too soon on language items. Because there is no defective language.

Because it might help activate their existing knowledge of the language. Because the examples of the target language will be clear.

Because an initial focus on meaning provides a context for the language. Because context provides meaning.

Ensures the learners process the text for meaning before they attend to the language and will encourage good reading Because it is similar to learning L1.
habits outside the classroom.

Because writing a record will aid

Because functional language has high memory.
surrender value for learners.
Because the teacher can check the
Because requests on their own are not so useful.
Because many students respond well as this is what they expect
(previous learning experience).
Because learners can both use them and respond to them.
Because this approach appeals to certain types of learners.
Because responses are part of the use.

Because it will help with top-down Because learners need to be aware that language is appropriate
in different situations.
processing.
Because it's part of knowing the meaning/use of
language/particularly relevant to this target language.
Because it will lower the affective filter
1b
 It is valuable to categorize language Learners need a task to focus them on
according to meaning/function. the overall meaning of the text.

Learners need a task to help extract

It's important to appeal to learners with
language examples from a text/notice
a range of learning styles, in this case ____.
the language.

It's important to focus on both skills and Learners need a task to help them
systems/integrate different skills. understand the meaning of a text.

A jigsaw reading/info gap/opinion gap is

Learners need practice in skills work.
useful.

Learners benefit from categorizing language.

Learners need receptive practice before
Cognitively engaging tasks are useful. productive practice.

Learners benefit from knowing and using Learners need to hear/see the language
metalanguage. in context.

Learners need to see/hear language in

Learners benefit from noticing language.
context.

Learners need to understand the meaning/gist of a text before

Learners benefit from working focusing on language.
collaboratively/interacting/communicating
It is sufficient to understand only main points of a text/read text
with peers. without needing to understand everything.

Learners can learn from being exposed to/using target language Learners need to understand the
before it is presented.
meaning of a text before focusing on
It is good to move from implicit to explicit language focus. specific language.

Learners have studied these structures

Learners need/want idiomatic
before and should focus on use rather
expressions.
than form.
2a
Because it prevents them from trying to understand every word. Because categorizing language in this way makes it
easier to focus on its use and appropriacy.
Because this mirrors real life use as we usually listen to
something for a specific purpose. Because it helps learners store the language efficiently.

Because otherwise they won't know which part of the text to Because different learners learn language in
focus on.
different ways and it is necessary to cater to
Because it ensures that they identify the correct TL quickly. all different learners.

Because otherwise they don't know

which part of the text to pay attention to. Because they reinforce one another in
language learning.
Because otherwise they might "tune out."
Because it encourages learners to engage further with the text/collaborate.
Because they may not transfer skills from L1, teacher intervention is needed.
Because it offers another opportunity for communicative practice.
Because skills are integrated. Developing one will help the others.
Because it reflects what happens in real life (where we often summarize
Because learners expect this from a language class.
articles we've read or heard about).

Because it helps them to see similarities and differences.

Because listening/receptive recognition should precede Because recording lexis in this way makes it easier for them to retrieve.
production of language. Because learners are motivated by such tasks.

Because cognitive engagement encourages them to process the language forms and leads to greater retention.
Because this is how languages are learned in the real world. Because it helps learners to notice the language.

So that they can see how it is used. Because this will help them refer to
other sources for information and
Because this mirrors how the L1 is learned. encourage their independence.

Because they will better understand the Because it aids acquisition.

meaning of language if it is in context.
Because it helps learners notice the gaps
Because it reflects real-life language. between their own language use and
Because this will help them to understand the meaning of the language. Because they feel more secure speaking to a peer individually instead of in front of whole class or to teacher.

Because the confidence of collaboration will help them speak fluently and extensively.
Because this helps to develop the listening skill they need for much of real life listening.
Because it encourages them to engage cognitively with the language, which helps them retain the language.

Because learners will often read/listen to a text with a specific purpose in mind. Because speaking helps retention.

Because they can learn from each other and promote a learner-centered classroom.
Because it is a useful skill to transfer from L1.

Because focusing on meaning first Because learners may then notice how it
provides the context for the language is used.
focus.
Because learners may become curious

Because it is important to understand common

Because they need opportunities to
native speaker chunks of language/learners feel
motivated by learning these. recycle and build on what they know.

2b
Learners should be encouraged to respond
Listening texts are a good way of
personally to texts. Identification with the
introducing language items.
topic is an effective aid to learning.

Learners should be encouraged to work

Listening texts are a good way of
out language use themselves/use guided
presenting functional language.
discovery.

Learners should be exposed to natural

Providing prompts/examples of a
features of spoken discourse (e.g. false
language/a written record is helpful.
starts, [semi]authentic texts)

Reading texts are a good way of

Learners should develop the skills
introducing/exposing students to
necessary for independent learning.
language items.

Students need different exponents for the

Learners should extend their knowledge
same function. Upper intermediate students
of language items previously met.
already have knowledge of basic exponents.

Learners should learn lexical

Teacher should act to facilitate learner
chunks/phrases/idiomatic language
independence.
especially in spoken functional language.

Learners should learn lexical chunks

Visual stimuli/pictures are useful.
without deconstructing them.

Learners will benefit from moving from

receptive to productive skills.

Learners will benefit from scaffolding or

a framework, e.g. filling the gaps and
filling the table.

Learners will benefit from selecting

language items to fill the gaps or fill the
gaps or fill the table/seeing distinctive
formatting.
3a
Because it is similar to learning in L1 or
'real life.'
Because listening provides a model for
Because this reflects what happens in
real life.
Because this may encourage them to
Because it provides scaffolding during
activities.
Because it allows learners to revise what
Because it is similar to learning L1/real
life.
Because it provides a link to written form
Because students need different/more sophisticated
ways of expressing the same function to deal with
more complex situations/make them more native-
like.
Because this helps them to learn outside
the classroom.
Because they are engaging.
Because they appeal to visual learners.
Because they are a useful way of conveying meaning.
Because they are recognizable.
Because they contain a lot of information.
Because this generates interest.
Because listening is an interactive process.
Because this reduces the affective filter.
Because it is motivating.
Because this makes skills and language meaningful.
Because it is easier to talk about concrete things than it is to talk abu abstract things.
Because they can utilize the knowledge that they already have which is
motivating.
Because it allows learners to see where the gaps in their knowledge are.
Because cognitive involvement enhances the learning process.
Because they may not have exposure to these features if they are
not learning in an L1 environment.
Because they provide good models for learners whose use of
the L2 sounds a little unnatural.
Because guessing the meaning of
unknown expressions from context is a
key strategy to be encouraged.
Because learners will need to understand different aspects of the TL.
Because learners will need to process the TL at more sophisticated levels as
they progress in their learning.
Because this approach allows learners to see the gap in their knowledge.
Because it helps them to retrieve language more easily/quickly.
Because it has high surrender value outside the classroom.
Because this may be how L1 is learnt (i.e. through recall of prescribed chunks
of language).
Because pre-fabricated chunks will increase the speed of production.
Because fluency reflects the way native speakers use lexis.
Because this may reflect how languages
are learned outside the classroom.
Because support gives learners
confidence/they won't feel
overwhelmed.
Because they will notice the language if
it is flagged up.
3b