Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Air Conditionning Systems
Air Conditionning Systems
Air Conditionning Systems
Chapter 1 : Definitions
Chapter 2 : All-air systems
Chapter 3 : All-water systems
Chapter 4 : Air-water systems
Chapter 5 : Direct-expansion systems
Chapter 6 : Computer room systems
Chapter 7 : Energy storage
21July 2006
Thermal exchange guide
Version 1.0
Preamble
Having been informed of the type of problem to be solved and after analysis of the consequences,
the designer will try to outline the type of installation which will guarantee the best results.
In order to carry out the air handling installation, the designer has at his disposal some basic
elements to be used alone or in association with others.
However the choice or implementation of these various elements will take into account the
following factors :
Page 1/1
21July 2006
Air conditioning systems
Version 1.0
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Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................... 3
Space cooling ........................................................................................................... 4
Definition..................................................................................................................... 4
Aim ............................................................................................................................. 4
Parameters taken into account ................................................................................... 4
Fields of application .................................................................................................... 4
Comment .................................................................................................................... 4
Comfort air conditioning .......................................................................................... 5
Definition..................................................................................................................... 5
Aim ............................................................................................................................. 5
Parameters taken into account ................................................................................... 5
Fields of application .................................................................................................... 5
Air conditioning ........................................................................................................ 6
Definition..................................................................................................................... 6
Aim ............................................................................................................................. 6
Parameters taken into account ................................................................................... 6
Fields of application .................................................................................................... 7
Systems ..................................................................................................................... 8
Definition..................................................................................................................... 8
Potential system components ..................................................................................... 9
System identification ................................................................................................. 10
Method 1: Local systems .......................................................................................... 11
Method 1: Central systems ....................................................................................... 12
Heating and refrigeration equipment .................................................................... 13
Definition................................................................................................................... 13
Heating equipment.................................................................................................... 13
Refrigeration equipment............................................................................................ 16
Fresh-air conditioning ............................................................................................ 21
Definition................................................................................................................... 21
Heat recovery units................................................................................................... 26
Introduction
This chapter defines the various terms used in the industry to address the field of
air handling:
• space cooling,
• comfort air conditioning,
• air conditioning.
It also defines what is meant by a system and its components, and identifies the
criteria for categorising systems.
The types of heating and refrigeration equipment are also redefined.
Last but not least, it discusses fresh-air conditioning and examines the energy
savings afforded by various aspects of heat recovery.
Space cooling
Definition Cooling is the simplified conditioning of ambient air in order to lower the
temperature by a few degrees.
Parameters taken Only temperature is taken into account. The system must maintain it two or
into account three degrees lower than the outdoor air (for calculations at least).
Note:
Relative humidity is not taken into account. Occupants may therefore
occasionally experience a feeling of discomfort.
Fields of They remain rather varied in cases where cost outweighs technical aspects.
application
Comment This conditioning method must be used with precaution. It is not suitable for
sites where significant amounts of moisture are released.
Definition The term comfort air conditioning encompasses all the conditioning processes
applied to ambient air to obtain an indoor environment that is comfortable in
terms of temperature and relative humidity.
Aim Obtain, all year round, conditions that are favourable to occupants, their health
and well-being or even improve their conditions.
Comfort can mean two things:
• In homes, comfort targets the well-being of occupants,
• In businesses, it targets:
− improved worker productivity,
− increased customer satisfaction.
Parameters taken Air conditioning takes into account the following parameters:
into account • temperature,
• relative humidity,
• air cleanliness (impurities, odours),
• noise level,
• quality of diffusion (air motion, velocity).
Air conditioning
Definition Air conditioning encompasses all the processes applied to the air in a space to
obtain specific temperature and humidity levels for:
• an activity,
• a process,
• product storage conditions.
Aim Obtain specific, constant and reliable conditions all year round for the activity
or process being carried out in the space.
Example:
• Abattoir cutting room:
− temperature of +12°C,
− dew point temperature: +4°C to prevent moisture forming on carcasses
taken out of coolers at +4/+5°C,
• Operating theatre:
− highly efficient filtration (HEPA filter), no return air,
− temperatures of +20°C to +22°C (or even 18°C),
− relative humidity greater than 50% (static electricity).
Systems
Definition Whether used for comfort or process applications, the air conditioning system
is the backbone or flow chart connecting all the basic components used to
solve the problem at hand.
The components listed in detail on the following page are divided into four main
categories:
• energy production,
• air conditioning,
• coolant supply (air, water, refrigerant),
• air diffusion.
filter
energy recovery
device
water recycling
chiller
chilled water
CIATCOOLER
coil
In the example opposite:
• Cooling and heating energy is generated by a
water chiller and a water boiler,
fan • Air, distributed by a system of ducts, is used as
hot water
the coolant,
heating coil
generator • The air is conditioned in an air handling unit
(filter, recovery unit, cooling coil, heating coil,
humidifier
humidifier, forced-draught fan),
• The air flows out of ceiling registers,
• And is drawn out of the space by the exhaust fan.
fan
filter
Systems (continued)
Potential system The potential components of a system are the basic elements:
components • hot water production:
− independent boiler,
− exchanger (from a distribution system),
− heat pump,
− heat transfer cooling unit (heat recovery condenser),
• chilled water production:
− independent chiller,
− exchanger (from a distribution system),
• direct-expansion refrigeration:
− packaged,
− split,
− multisplit,
• air conditioning:
− air handling unit,
− terminal units,
• ductwork:
− distribution,
− return,
− supply of fresh air,
− removal of stale air,
• air diffusion equipment:
− supply registers,
− return grilles.
Systems (continued)
System Depending on the criteria used, there are two methods of categorising air
identification conditioning systems (see note):
• Method 1:
The cooling of one or more spaces is the main criterion. It does not take into
account the type of system:
− individual air conditioning, or local system,
− shared air conditioning, or central system,
• Method 2:
The main coolant is the main criterion.
If Then
the system is an AIR-WATER system both water and air are used
Note:
These two categorisation methods are the most common.
Systems (continued)
Method 1:
Local systems
INDOOR UNIT
HEAT EXCHANGER
REFRIGERANT/INDOOR AIR
EXPANSION VALVE
REFRIGERANT LINE
OUTDOOR UNIT
COMPRESSOR
HEAT EXCHANGER
REFRIGERANT/OUTDOOR AIR OR WATER
Use Local systems are generally used in existing single-family homes and small
businesses.
Systems (continued)
Method 1: Central
systems
Definition Each space is supplied with air conditioned in a central unit containing:
• an air handling unit (AHU),
• heating equipment (+),
• refrigeration equipment (-),
• the necessary ductwork
Exhaust air
Fresh air
Supply
Return
Water boiler
Water chiller
Use As old buildings were not designed with air conditioning in mind, this type of
system is found more often in new or recent buildings. A building’s design takes
into account the entire system, i.e. mechanical room and duct runs.
Boiler A self-contained vessel used to heat water. Electricity, gas or fuel oil may be
used as a heating source. The temperature of the hot water can vary from 50 to
80°C.
BOILER
SUPPLY SUPPLY
RETURN
RETURN
Heating
equipment
(continued)
Heat exchanger Actual production is centralised (district heating or the boiler room in a factory
or for a group of buildings),
A heat exchanger is used locally to raise the hot fluid to the desired temperature.
The operating temperature can vary from 50 to 80°C.
EXCHANGER
RETURN
Heating
equipment
(continued)
Heat pump Heat pumps draw heat from a cold source and transmit it to a heat source.
The cold source may be:
• Water: ground water, river, lake, sea, process cooling water,
• Air: outside air, exhaust air (buildings, processes).
The temperature of the hot water (heat source) is between 40 and 55°C.
HEAT PUMP
SUPPLY SUPPLY
RETURN RETURN
air
DISCHARGE
Transfer unit Transfer units are found on cooling systems that operate all year long (process
cooling).
The refrigeration circuit may be equipped with an additional water-cooled
condenser known as a heat recovery condenser.
No heat is produced unless refrigeration is also produced. The temperature of
the hot water is between 40 and 50°C.
SUPPLY
RETURN
Evaporator
Water chiller A water chiller is a machine that cools water, which is used as a refrigerant.
Refrigeration
equipment
(continued)
Direct- The evaporator is removed from the central system and placed inside the air
expansion handling unit, where it cools the air that will be supplied to each space.
refrigeration
unit
Thermostatic
expansion valve
Motor compressor
Water-cooled condenser
(or air-cooled)
EXCHANGER
RETURN
Refrigeration
equipment
(continued)
Cooling tower A cooling tower is a specific type of cooling device. It uses humidified ambient
air to produce chilled water. The air is cooled to its wet bulb temperature.
Example: Air at a temperature of 30°C with 40% RH is cooled to its wet bulb
temperature of +20°C. It serves as a refrigerant.
There are two types of cooling tower:
• Closed-circuit towers, in which heat is exchanged between air and water by a
sprayed heat exchange coil. The air and the water in the condenser circuit
do not enter into contact.
Refrigeration
equipment
(continued)
Cooling tower • Open-circuit towers, in which air and water come into direct contact. Drops
(continued) of water run along a distribution pan over which air flows. The water in the
condenser circuit and the air are in direct contact with each other.
Fan
Droplet separator
Spray nozzle
Wet deck
Overflow Makeup
water
Screen filter
Bypass Water-cooled condenser
valve
pump
Drain
Gutter
Refrigeration
equipment
(continued)
Drycooler A drycooler is a type of cooling device that uses dry air as a refrigerant.
Example: When the air temperature is 30°C with 40% RH, the temperature taken
into account is +30°C (not +20°C, as in the case of the cooling tower). Heat is
transferred from water to air by a dry heat exchanger.
As with a closed-circuit cooling tower, the water in the condenser circuit of a
drycooler never enters into contact with the air.
This eliminates the risk of spreading Legionellosis.
Fresh-air conditioning
Definition Before discussing the subject of fresh-air handling, one should understand what
is meant by the following terms:
• pollution,
• removal of stale air,
• supply of fresh air,
• fresh-air handling,
• heat recovery units.
Pollution People, their health and activities, as well as processes are all sources of
pollution:
• dust,
• germs,
• water vapour,
• carbon dioxide, etc.
The concentration of contaminants that can endanger health and adversely affect
processes rises quickly in enclosed rooms.
Supply of fresh The extracted air is replaced with air from the outside. This air is often referred
air to as “fresh air”. This outside air is assumed to be of better quality than the
extracted air. This is not always the case however. This is why fresh air must be
conditioned before it is introduced into a space.
Definition
(continued)
Definition
(continued)
Heat recovery The phenomenon is most flagrant in winter. Fresh air drawn in from outdoors is
units at low temperature (e.g. -10°C) and stale air discharged outdoors is at high
temperature (+20°C at comfort levels).
A heat recovery unit is a device used to transfer heat without any direct contact
between both types of air. More specifically, a portion of the heat in the exhaust
air is transferred to the supply air. This exchange of heat results in lower energy
consumption.
Energy recovery
system
Exhaust
air
Air-conditioned
Outdoors space
-10˚C/90% 20˚C/50% (winter)
32˚C/40% 25˚C/50% (summer)
Fresh AHU
air
Air purification: The Néo concept is based on the combination of an adsorbent such as
the Néo concept activated carbon and photocatalysis.
ULTRAVIOLET radiation
ACTIVATED carbon
Air purification: The activated carbon [Navarri et al., 2001] absorbs large quantities of
the Néo concept contaminants along its surface (it has a specific surface area of
(continued) approx. 1000 m²/g). These contaminants are trapped by low-intensity
electrostatic forces, called van der Waals bonds, with interaction energies of
5 to 40 kJ/mol. The main drawback of this kind of filter is the saturation
point of activated carbon. Known as the breakthrough point, this threshold
is very difficult to predict in cases where concentrations and flow rates vary.
Once this point is reached, the filter can no longer achieve the desired
concentration efficiency. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) photocatalysis in the gas
phase [Nguyen, 2001] is a heterogeneous catalysis process in which the
solid catalyst is activated only by ultraviolet radiation. Under certain
conditions, the heterogeneous photocatalysis process is capable of
mineralising pollutants completely. It is split into five phases:
• transfer of gaseous reagents to the photocatalytic surface,
• adsorption of the gaseous reagents on the photocatalytic surface,
• photochemical reaction between the adsorbed gaseous reagents and the
photocatalytic surface; mineralisation of organic compounds,
• desorption of gaseous photocatalytic reaction products,
• diffusion of the gaseous products off the photocatalytic surface.
The main drawback of photocatalysis used on its own is the low adsorption
capacity of the catalyst (titanium dioxide) which prevents it driving down
high pollution levels. Pollutants are thus only partially mineralised when
concentrations and/or flow rates are high. Combining a filter containing an
adsorbent such as activated carbon with a photocatalysis system eliminates
the drawbacks inherent to each process and also significantly cuts down on
maintenance.
Heat recovery The term heat recovery unit, or HRU, covers various types of equipment:
units • dual-coil recovery units,
• plate heat exchangers,
• heat pipes,
• heat recovery wheel.
Dual-coil As is implied by its name, a dual-coil recovery unit consists of two standard
recovery units finned coils connected by a circuit through which refrigerant (antifreeze if
necessary) is circulated by a circulator pump.
One coil is placed in the exhaust air circuit and the other in the supply air circuit.
The air and water circuits are arranged for counter-current circulation.
HEAT
RECOVERY Drain valve
COIL
+20˚C
air 50%
Exhaust
d
Coole ir
s t a
exhau
Circulator
Safety valve
HEAT
RECOVERY Expansion
COIL vessel
ated
Prehe ir
a
fresh
air
Fresh
-10˚C
90% Drain
Circuit
filling
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Dual-coil This system allows for much flexibility, and the coils can be integrated inside the
recovery units air handling unit.
(continued)
+/-
Exhaust Return air
air
Water
Air-conditioned
Outdoors
space
+/-
Fresh AHU Supply
air air
In more complex cases where an air extraction system cannot be installed in the
same space as a fresh-air conditioning system, both can be connected
hydraulically.
Forced-draught Extraction
fan fan
Conditioned Exhaust
Fresh supply air Air air
air extrait
Water
Pump
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Heat pipe A heat pipe is a metal tube usually with fins on its outside and containing a fluid
in the form of two balanced phases:
• a liquid phase,
• a gas phase.
It transfers heat through a cycle of evaporation and condensation.
1. The fluid evaporates in the hot end (evaporator).
2. The vapour thus formed condenses on the cold end (condenser).
3. The fluid from the cold end returns to the hot end:
− By gravity, in which case the condenser section must be above the
evaporator section,
− Via a capillary (or wick) structure lining the inside wall of the tube. The
heat pipe can also operate horizontally in this case; a slight angle of 7-8°
will promote movement.
Liquid
Capillary
Vapor
structure
Liquid
Cooled air Cool fresh
exits air enters
(cold source)
Evaporation section Condensation section
Heat recovery
units (continued)
The pipes are arranged in arrays split into two by a sealed partition separating the
two streams of air.
The evaporation and condensation temperatures are highly similar and the
operation is virtually isothermal. The transfer occurs only through the latent heat
of the change in state.
Vapor
Evaporation
Heat transfer
section
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Heat pipe
(continued) led
coo r
ai
r
l ai
coo
air
rm
wa
partition
heat pipe
ed
rm
wa ir
a
Fresh air-10˚C
Air supply
Fresh
Air air
supply -10˚C
Exhaust
air Exhaust
+20˚C air
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Plate heat In this type of heat exchanger, horizontal and vertical streams of air flow
exchanger between thin plates stacked in parallel:
The exhaust air transfers its heat to the air flowing between the plates.
There are two types of flow arrangement:
• cross-flow,
• counter-flow.
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Plate heat
exchanger (con
tinued)
Cross-flow Counter-flow
exchanger exchanger
Gap
Inside
Fresh air
Exhaust
Plate air
Preheated
thickness fresh air
Exhaust
air
Cooled
exhaust
air Fresh air
Outside
This figure illustrates a ClimaCIAT dual-flow AHU with a plate heat exchanger
but no mixing box:
− constant flow of exhaust air,
− constant flow of fresh air.
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Plate heat The figure below illustrates a ClimaCIAT dual-flow AHU with a plate heat
exchanger exchanger and a mixing box. The flow of air over the plate heat exchanger can
(continued) be adjusted.
exhaust air
+20˚C fresh air-10˚C
exhaust air
supply air
Example of an air handling process: fresh air in with recovery of heat from
exhaust air by a plate exchanger.
Dual-flow AHU
exhaust frost protection dampers fresh
air air
AIR-TO-AIR
heat exchanger
exhaust
supply air
air
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Heat recovery A heat recovery wheel is a low-speed wheel (10-20 rpm) with many small
wheel channels through which air passes. A little less than half the front surface is
connected to the exhaust air circuit. A little less than half the surface is
connected to the supply air circuit. A small surface is used as the purge sector.
As the wheel rotates, the section heated by the warm air gives up its heat to the
stream of cool air flowing through it.
The two air streams thus flow through the channels alternately.
st
x h au
e ir
a
purge sector
a ir
fresh
motor
drive belt
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Heat recovery A purge sector is usually built over the wheel to minimise carryover from the
wheel exhaust air. To facilitate this, the pressure of the exhaust air must be lower than
(continued) that of the supply air.
direction of
rotation
P4
P1
purge sector
fresh air
exhaust air
purge stream
purge sector
seal whell
Heat recovery
units (continued)
Heat recovery The figure below illustrates a ClimaCIAT dual-flow AHU with a rotary heat
wheel exchanger without a mixing box bypass:
(continued) • constant flow of exhaust air,
• constant flow of fresh air.
supply
fresh air
air
-10˚C
The figure below illustrates a ClimaCIAT dual-flow AHU with a rotary heat
exchanger, mixing box and adjustable air flow:
exhaust air
exhaust air
+20˚C
fresh air
supply air
-10˚C
Heat recovery
(continued)
Important Choosing the right fresh-air conditioning method is part of the design process.
information It depends on the type of air handling equipment that will be used:
• When the air in a large number of spaces is to be handled by standard
terminal units (e.g. fan coil units), fresh air should be handled completely by
one central unit,
• When the air in a space is handled by an AHU, a single or double mixing box
may be added to help to condition fresh air.
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Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................... 2
Basic concept ........................................................................................................... 3
Definition..................................................................................................................... 3
Air handling unit .......................................................................................................... 5
Possible solutions ....................................................................................................... 6
Local air handling unit.............................................................................................. 7
Concept ...................................................................................................................... 7
Operation .................................................................................................................... 8
Mollier chart ................................................................................................................ 9
Single-zone air handling unit................................................................................. 10
Concept .................................................................................................................... 10
Operation .................................................................................................................. 11
Mollier chart .............................................................................................................. 13
Field of application .................................................................................................... 14
Dual-duct AHU ........................................................................................................ 15
Concept .................................................................................................................... 15
Operation .................................................................................................................. 16
Mollier chart .............................................................................................................. 17
Field of application .................................................................................................... 17
Multizone unit.......................................................................................................... 18
Concept .................................................................................................................... 18
Operation .................................................................................................................. 19
Mollier chart .............................................................................................................. 21
Field of application .................................................................................................... 21
Air handling unit with variable-volume diffusion boxes for each space ........... 22
Concept .................................................................................................................... 22
Operation .................................................................................................................. 23
Field of application .................................................................................................... 25
Impulsair ................................................................................................................... 25
Basic concept
Definition Air is preconditioned by an air handling unit then supplied to a space via a duct.
All the heat needed to cool a space is carried by air:
• Air conditioning is generally centralised,
• The mechanical room contains:
− refrigeration equipment,
− heating equipment,
− an air handling unit in which air, including fresh air, is conditioned,
• The ductwork contains:
− return ducts running from each space,
− stale air exhaust ducts,
− fresh air supply ducts,
− supply ducts running to each space.
Definition The drawing below illustrates the basic design of an all-air system.
(continued)
exhaust air
A.H.U.
chilled water
hot water
fresh air
retrurn air
supply air
water boiler
water chiller
Air handling unit The flow of the air handled by the unit is determined by:
• thermal loads,
• the acceptable ∆t between the supply and return air (see comfort air
conditioning and air handling).
For obvious reasons of economy, the supply of fresh air is limited (unless
required otherwise for safety) to minimum healthy levels set out by regulations.
The type of handling needed is defined by the influencer, who then builds the air
handling unit to fit the needs of the space.
For example, the AHU below contains the following equipment:
7
6
5
4
3
return air
1
In some cases (such as cleanrooms; see our document on filtration) the final filter
⑦ may be placed at the entrance to a space instead of inside the AHU to allow
for potential pollution from ductwork.
Air handling unit The drawing below shows an air handling system with a heat recovery unit
(continued) installed on the fresh air/exhaust air circuits.
⑧ heat recovery unit on exhaust air circuit
8 2 1
3 4 5 6 7
Possible solutions The solutions depend on the type of space and changes in loads, as well as
investment possibilities and the requirements for each space.
Concept Each space is supplied with conditioned air by its own specific unit:
• constant flow of air,
• fresh air (suction) is usually conditioned in the AHU which also extracts stale
air,
• the components (filter, cooling and heating coils, humidifier) are determined
based on the requirements of each space.
Heating and refrigeration equipment is with the unit in the mechanical room or
outside (cooling system with air-cooled condenser).
exhaust fresh
air air
volume = constant
T˚ = f (space requirement)
Operation The unit adjusts conditions based on the space loads. It:
• regulates the temperature (summer and winter),
• regulates the humidity (winter),
• and, in certain cases, dehumidifies the air (summer).
In the drawing below, regulation occurs with the following sequences:
Sensors Effect on
E
fresh M F C
air
supply air
T
S
O
(1) (2) (3)
R room
A
T : Temperature sensor
H : Humidiy sensor T H
O : Occupancy meter
Mollier chart Changes in air temperature and humidity are plotted in the following manner on
what is called a Mollier chart.
O : outdoor air
I : indoor environment
10 0 % w M : mixing
S : supply air
q'
A.H.U.
chilled water
hot water
fresh air
supply air
return air
water boiler
water chiller
Operation • This system is used for spaces where the following loads are identical:
− distribution of sensible heat and latent heat,
− changes and variations in the same direction and proportions,
• The properties of the air supplied to each space are the same,
• Fresh air is distributed based on the total load, not on the density of occupants
in the space.
The control devices and temperature and humidity sensors may be installed:
In a control room (e.g. The other spaces (A2, A3 etc.) are governed by the A1
A1) law.
In the main return air All the spaces (A1, A2, A3 etc.) are governed by the
section law of averages.
Operation The figure below shows an installed single-zone air handling unit.
(continued)
S
A3
S
A2
A1
S
T H
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Mollier chart Changes in the air supplied to the spaces are plotted on the Mollier chart.
q'
A3
A1=A
γ2
A2
γ1 S
γ 3
This diagram does not show the various handling/conditioning processes the air
undergoes in the unit. It shows changes in the air in each space based on
sensible and latent heat.
γ1, γ2, and γ3 are the line segments. A is the space setpoint. When the same
amount of air S is distributed to all the spaces, it is clear that the space
conditions A cannot be controlled when their loads are different,
• the space line segments γ1, γ2, γ3 are rarely completely identical,
• all pass by the same supply air point.
The indoor environment A1, A2, A3, should have the same value A, but as the
loads are not really identical, the value of A is controlled only for the space
where the sensors are installed (i.e. space A1 for which A1 will equal A).
fresh air
return air
duct
zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 4
Field of Because it is economic, the system may be used for spaces with identical thermal
application loads and where conditions do not need to be adjusted to personal preferences.
Dual-duct AHU
space
sensor
Operation Contrary to what might be thought, the system is not particularly energy
consuming:
• Most often (in spring and autumn, amongst other periods) only one of the
ducts (heating or cooling) is supplied with air that has been conditioned
simply by mixing the outdoor air with the recirculated air,
• When both ducts are needed, the hot water is delivered by the condenser in the
water chiller unit (the condenser then becomes a heat transfer unit).
Fresh air is introduced when the outdoor temperature drops below room
temperature and cooling is needed.
S3
A3
S2
A2
T
S1
A1
T
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Mollier chart Changes in air temperature and humidity are plotted on the Mollier chart.
O : outdoor air
I : indoor air
M : mixing
H : warm air stream properties
O S : supply air
C : cool air stream properties
q'
E
t
Field of This system is advantageous for handling the air in spaces with heavy load
application conditions that vary.
It is often used with laminar-flow ceilings:
• business spaces,
• exhibition halls,
• upscale spaces: large glazed surfaces subject to varying loads.
Multizone unit
outdoor sensor
R thermostat
outdoor sensor
heating (2) warm air
coil
R zone 3 (H)
zone 2 (H)
zone 1 (H)
zone 3 (C)
zone 2 (C)
fresh zone 1 (C)
air
cool air
(1)
cooling coil
filter fan R
recirculated
air
(1) and (2) 2-way or 3-way modulating or on/off valve
• The heating and cooling coils are installed in parallel (not in series) on the air
circuit. This creates a stream of warm air and a stream of cool air,
• The fan is installed upline and blows air on the coils,
• Two rows of dampers downline of the coils (one on the warm stream, the
other on the cool stream) are used to mix warm air and cool air,
• Vertical barrier walls are used to divide the free areas (i.e. volumes of air) and
create zones inside the unit. The air flows at work are a function of the thermal
balances. A unit is typically split into no more than four or five zones.
T C
fresh M
air F
(1)
recirculated air
(1) and (2) 2-way or 3-way modulating or on/off valve
S1 S2 S3
T1 T2 T3
A1 A2 A3
The sets of dampers are used to mix air in all types of proportions possible for each zone :
Warmed air (H) mixed with conditioned air (M) by the mixing box in winter
Cooled air (C) mixed with conditioned air (M) by the mixing box in summer
Mollier chart Changes in the air supplied to a given space are plotted on the Mollier chart.
w
q'
O : outdoor air
O I : indoor air
M : mixing
H : supply from heating coil
M S : supply air
H C : supply from cooling coil
S1
γ γ S summer line segment
S I1
I1 γ H winter line segment
C C
γ
M S1 W
O C
Field of The system’s advantage lies in its quick responsiveness and the ability to adjust
application spaces to individual needs:
• Groups of spaces with load conditions that vary quickly,
• Series of spaces, each with occupancy loads that are never the same or vary
from zone to zone (this makes it possible to lower the total installed capacity).
It is therefore well-suited to spaces such as:
• company canteens, dining halls, homes (day zone, night zone).
air outlet
variable-volume
box
return air
return air
grille
window B A
T
exhaust air
T
fan coil unit with fresh air inlet
H
fresh air
Mollier chart Changes in the air in the AHU are plotted as follows on the Mollier chart.
w
q'
O
O :outdoor air
M I : indoor air
M : mixing
S : supply air
γ
S I γ S summer line
S segment
t
Air is conditioned in the conventional manner inside the unit. The regulation
system ensures that the temperature and humidity of the supply air are at
particular levels. However, the amount of air delivered to each space is adjusted
as needed.
Issues and • Variations in flow in a given space should not disrupt the balance of the whole
precautions for or the flows delivered to the other spaces.
use • A system is needed to control and maintain the pressure in the distribution
circuits.
• High variations and significant drops in flow rates may cause the geometry of
the air stream introduced and its range to create uncomfortable conditions for
occupants.
• As regards air change, a number of problems may arise:
− The fresh air is conditioned entirely inside the unit.
− Each space receives the required amount of fresh air under full load
conditions.
− Losses (e.g. insulation) may cause heat load variations in the space
whereas the occupant density (i.e. the need for fresh air) stays even. The
modulation of the flow of supply air in turn modulates the amount of fresh
air introduced.
• Adjusting flow and pressure may be tricky; an adjusting device may need to
be installed to maintain the pressure inside the ducts at a constant level.
• Installing ceiling registers specially designed to keep air streams horizontal is
recommended.
stream of fluid
Coanda effect
Impulsair
(continued)
Concept A stream of air directed towards a Y-duct can be deflected to either branch if two
lateral openings A and B are placed just before the Y-duct.
Opening A and closing B will direct all the air to the right branch. Conversely,
closing A and opening B will direct all the air to the left branch.
A B A B
Impulsair
(continued)
Concept
(continued)
If Then
Space cooling under full load is The control damper is maintained in a position set by the
required. thermostat while the main damper directs the entire volume of air
to the space.
The temperature in the space The thermostat controls the impulsair. The air from the unit is
decreases, as does the need for cool directed to either the space or the recirculation duct. At the start,
air. the supply time is longer than the recycling time.
Cooling requirements continue to The impulsair responds by gradually shortening the supply time
decrease. and extends the recycling time.
ceiling
impulsair damper
supply air damper
diffuser
T
return air grille
Operation Note:
Although it is theoretically conceivable that the entire volume of air be
recycled and that no more air be directed to the space, this possibility should be
excluded in a well-designed system. Firstly, lighting and people are a basic
cooling load. By carefully selecting the supply air temperature, however, a high
rate of air can be obtained even if the heat gain is minimal.
What occurs between 100% supply air and 100% recycling is depicted in the
figure on the following page. The surfaces at the top show the air flows
delivered to the space. The surfaces at the bottom show the flow rates of
recirculated air.
Impulsair
(continued)
Operation
(continued)
AIR VELOCITY
2 HZ (max.frequency)
percentage of velocity
spaces
100
100
return
time in seconds
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
spaces
100
25
0
return
100
AIR FLOW
Impulsair
(continued)
Operation The figure below shows an installed system with impulsair units.
(continued)
it
ndling un
air ha
forced-draught fan
impulsair
diffuser
diffuser
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Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................... 2
Basic concept ........................................................................................................... 3
Definition of an all-water system ................................................................................................ 3
Possible solutions........................................................................................................................ 4
Fan coil units............................................................................................................. 5
Basic concept ............................................................................................................................... 5
Two-pipe fan coil unit .................................................................................................................. 7
Four-pipe fan coil unit.................................................................................................................. 9
Two-pipe, two-wire fan coil unit................................................................................................ 11
Air-change fan coil unit.............................................................................................................. 13
Non self-contained air-handling terminal units.................................................... 15
Basic concept ............................................................................................................................. 15
Equipment type .......................................................................................................................... 15
Fan coil units .............................................................................................................................. 15
Mini air handling units ............................................................................................................... 20
Individual water-loop heat pumps......................................................................... 29
Basic concept ............................................................................................................................. 29
Advantages ................................................................................................................................. 29
Heating and refrigeration equipment........................................................................................ 30
Heat pumps................................................................................................................................. 32
Field of application..................................................................................................................... 33
Basic concept
Note: With this type of system, fresh air may be conditioned inside the terminal
unit or introduced directly in the space without being conditioned (see fan coil
unit, air change).
Possible solutions The solutions generally depend on the type of space, as well as investment
possibilities and the requirements for each space.
The most common solutions include:
• A fan coil unit that can also be used in a number of versions (two-pipe,
four-pipe, two-pipe/two-wire).
• Cassette or mini non self-contained air-handling terminal units.
• Individual water-loop heat pumps.
Each of these solutions will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Ceiling- Fresh air inlet with mixing dampers fitted in a suspended ceiling.
mounted
horizontal
uncased fan
coil unit
Basic concept
(continued)
Vertical cased Fresh air inlet with mixing dampers attached to a partition wall.
fan coil unit
with fresh air
inlet
Horizontal An horizontal cased fan coil unit is also called a ceiling unit.
cased fan coil
unit
Operation The unit has just one coil supplied by two pipes (supply and return).
The coil operates as follows:
• The circuit is supplied with warm water for winter heating,
• And with chilled water for summer cooling.
The term changeover refers to the changing from heating to cooling and vice
versa.
coil :
air/water
exchanger
fan
filter
Principle
central plant :
hot water / cold water
Energy Heating and cooling energy is produced in a central plant consisting of:
production • water heating equipment (e.g. furnace or exchanger),
• water chilling equipment (water chiller).
An air-to-water or water-to-water heat pump can also be used to produce hot
or chilled water depending on the season.
Field of This system is used for divided spaces, such as offices and hotels, where needs
application fluctuate but are of the same type.
It does not satisfy simultaneous heating and cooling needs; heating is provided
in the winter, and cooling in the summer.
Operation The unit consists of two coils, one connected to a hot water loop, the other to a
cold water loop.
Both water loops are necessary. The flow of water is usually regulated by valves
(on/off or modulating) on each water circuit.
Field of This system is used for offices, hotels and other spaces with significant heating
application and cooling needs that fluctuate and are not of the same type.
It delivers heating and cooling at the same time.
heating
coil
cooling
coil
fan
filter
Principle
or
Operation The unit has two coils: a two-pipe water coil and a two-wire electric heater.
Under conventional operation, the water coil is connected to the chilled water
circuit to provide cooling. There is no hot water circuit; the electric heater
serves as a heating battery.
electric
heater
cooling or
heating
coil
fan
filter
Principle
or
Field of This system is advantageous for heavily insulated modern buildings, such as
application offices and hotels, where heating needs are reduced.
Concept Although there are fan coil units with fresh air inlets, in most cases the air in
spaces is changed by independent, central equipment:
• single-flow ventilation,
• dual-flow ventilation.
Single-flow Single-flow ventilation generally consists of using a roof ventilator (T) to expel a
ventilation portion of the air from a building with passageways and spaces containing
specific pollutants. Fresh air is introduced via inlets along the exterior walls.
Although inexpensive, this type of ventilation has the drawback of being unable
to adequately control air change in each separate room. Nothing guarantees that
fresh air will actually enter through the inlets and in the expected proportions. As
a result, some spaces could be under-ventilated while draughts could be created
in others.
Furthermore, the inlets along the outer walls also allow outside noise to enter
indoor spaces. This technique is therefore to be avoided in noisy environments.
It should also be avoided in polluted environments.
Air-change fan
coil unit
(continued)
Comment: A chilled water coil can be added to cool incoming fresh air slightly
in the summer. The aim here is not to chill the indoor air, but rather to avoid
supplying fresh air at too high of a temperature in the summer (this is not a true
chilled dual-ventilation system, which is much more elaborate).
Basic concept These units have the same components as conventional fan coil units (heat
exchange coil, fan motor, filter, condensate drain pan), but are designed
specifically for installation in ceilings, suspended ceilings and raised floors.
Equipment type There are two types of such terminal units: fan coil units and mini air handling
units.
• Fan coil units are designed for installation in suspended ceilings. They both
supply air to and recirculate the air in spaces directly. They have no available
pressure and cannot be connected to ductwork.
• Mini air handling units can be installed in false ceilings or raised floors
(uncased models) or directly in spaces (cased ceiling or vertical models).
They can be connected to a mini-duct system (available static pressure).
Fan coil units There are two models of cassette type fan coil unit:
• Melody fan coil units, designed specifically for installation in the centre of a
space, far from walls.
• Coadis fan coil units, designed for easy installation near walls.
7 3 4 2 1
1 6 1 5 1
A Melody cassette type fan coil unit discharges air laterally in four directions.
It contains the following components:
① Directional supply louvers.
② Heat exchange coil in three possible versions: two-pipe, four-pipe,
or two-pipe/two-wire.
③ Condensate drain pan with draining pump.
④ Fan motor assembly.
⑤ Cleanable filter.
⑥ Centre air inlet.
⑦ Electrical panel.
Coadis cassette type units are specifically designed for installation near walls in
the corners of spaces.
Coadis type fan This type of unit can be installed in the corner of a space.
coil units
(continued) fresh air
cassette UTA
suspended ceiling
water
condensates
office
Cassette The hot water and chilled water supplies are located in a central mechanical
controls type room. They have their own control systems and deliver water at a particular
fan coil unit temperature setpoint.
Water is supplied to each space by supply pipes (two- or four-pipe). Several
types of regulation systems are possible and are summarised in the table below:
Coadis Slim Coadis Slim is specially designed to meet the requirements of heavy commercial
applications in which noise levels must be kept to a minimum.
Its slim size makes it ideal for installation in buildings with low ceiling void
depths.
Coadis Comfort Coadis Comfort is an air-conditioning terminal unit that makes use of the Coanda
effect. It is specially designed for the hotel and catering industry and the
healthcare sector (hospitals, clinics, retirement homes, etc.).
Compact and discreet, it features an exclusive all-in-one diffusion system that
allows it to be hidden in a suspended ceiling in hallways leading to bedrooms.
UTA air UTA units are compact mini air handling units similar to fan coil units with
handling unit available pressure on the air circuit. Available uncased only, they are designed to
be concealed in suspended ceilings or raised floors and can be connected to a
mini-duct system.
Suction or discharge plenums can be added for connection with various duct
systems:
UTA air The compact UTA is smaller in size than the standard UTA.
handling unit
The supply and return duct connections are built in.
(continued)
UTA air The figure below shows an installed standard system and an installed compact
handling unit system:
(continued)
Residenciat The Residenciat system heats and cools entire flats of up to six rooms.
system
It consists of:
• A UTA compact ducted terminal unit per flat and equipped with a multizone
PI controller.
• Wall terminal units with displays (one master and up to five slaves).
• Motorised dampers (one per room).
• A Coanda effect supply air/return air distribution system with grille.
• A central plant per building or group of buildings.
bedroom 1
kitchen
living room
bedroom 3
bedroom 2
bathroom
WC
ClimaCIAT Club This is a small double-skinned air handling unit. It is designed for connection to
ductwork.
ClimaCIAT Club is available as an horizontal version (for installation on floors
or ceilings) and a vertical version (for installation on walls).
It features components typically found in air handling units:
• regenerative filter,
• water heating coil,
• water cooling coil,
• electric heater (optional),
• fan motor assembly.
ClimaCIAT Club Accessories such as a straight plenum, elbow plenum, multiple-outlet plenum
(continued) and mixing box can be added.
Air handling An air handling module (AHM) is a compact version of a fan coil unit.
module
How they work These mini air handling units lend themselves particularly well to multizone air
conditioning:
• Heating and refrigeration equipment is located together in a mechanical room.
• Hot water and cold water are circulated throughout the building(s).
• Terminal units connected by ducts to the spaces they serve are located in individual
mechanical rooms.
Heating and refrigeration equipment can be installed near each terminal unit instead
of together in a single room. Fresh air can be conditioned separately and delivered by
ducts to the right of each terminal unit.
Mini air handling units are designed for use in divided spaces such as hotels and
Field of
offices (with, possibly, one mechanical room per floor). The advantage of these units
application
is that all technical equipment is located in a single room, making maintenance
easier. Buildings must be specifically designed (with mechanical rooms and
suspended ceilings for routing ducts) for their installation.
Basic concept Each space is equipped with an air-to-water reversible heat pump.
A heat pump operates by moving heat to or from a space. In the figure below,
the heat pumps in the building are interconnected via a water loop.
Advantages Heat pumps are extremely efficient in recovering and transferring heat:
• In the summer, a space heat pump rejects heat from the condenser to the water
loop,
• In the winter, it extracts heat from the water loop.
The water loop temperature therefore fluctuates based on whether heat is added
to it or taken from it.
Heating and The water circuit temperature must, however, be maintained between a low limit
refrigeration and a high limit compatible with the operating range of the heat pumps.
equipment
Heating and The water circuit has a maximum temperature of between 30°C and 40°C and a
refrigeration minimum temperature of 16°C.
equipment
(continued)
Based on this temperature range, the following heating and refrigeration
equipment may be used:
Heating Cooling
Heat pumps Each space is equipped with a heat pump controlled by a space thermostat.
Concept The heat pump is an air/water heat pump with reversing valve. The pump’s
cooling circuit is illustrated in the figure below:
1 Compressor,
2 Control unit,
3 Coil (refrigerant/air heat exchanger),
4 Thermostat,
5 Fan,
6 Motor,
7 Refrigerant reversing valve,
8 Refrigerant/water heat exchanger (connected to water loop).
Heat pumps
(continued)
Concept This heat pump looks like a standard horizontal or vertical cased air conditioner.
(continued)
supply air
control unit
electrical
refrigerant-to-air compartment
heat exchanger refrigerant water
condensate heat exchanger
drain pan 4 way valve
fan
compressor
electrical
connection
hydraulic return air
connection condensate
drain outlet
Field of This type of system is generally installed in new and extensively renovated
application commercial buildings where both heating and cooling are required:
• Transfer between exterior walls.
• Central zone without outer walls.
• Zones with specific gains (processes, computer equipment).
• Offices, hotels, businesses in glass buildings and oriented in multiple
directions (e.g. east-west).
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Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................... 2
Basic concept ........................................................................................................... 3
Definition..................................................................................................................... 3
Air handling unit .......................................................................................................... 3
Possible solutions ....................................................................................................... 4
Central air handling unit with local adjustments ................................................... 5
Concept ...................................................................................................................... 5
System components ................................................................................................... 5
Control ........................................................................................................................ 5
Operation .................................................................................................................... 6
Operation space by space .......................................................................................... 9
Air handling unit with induction units .................................................................. 17
Concept .................................................................................................................... 17
Operation .................................................................................................................. 18
Mollier chart .............................................................................................................. 21
Field of application .................................................................................................... 21
Fresh-air handling unit and fan coil unit............................................................... 22
Concept .................................................................................................................... 22
Mollier chart .............................................................................................................. 25
Area of use ............................................................................................................... 27
Basic concept
Air handling unit While the air handling unit itself is conventional in design, its components vary
depending on the air quality desired and the type of space.
It can be:
• Basic: single or dual-flow mixing box, filter, cooling coil, heating coil,
humidifier,
recirculated air
supply
fresh air
air
exhaust exhaust
air air
fresh supply
air air
the mixing box exhausts stale air and supplies fresh air
Air handling unit • Or more elaborate by adding, for example, a recovery unit on the exhaust
(continued) air/fresh air circuits.
fresh exhaust
air air
supply
exhaust air
air
supply
fresh air
air
exhaust exhaust
air air
Concept In a common air handling unit, air is conditioned then distributed to a group of
spaces.
Where necessary, terminal units in each space adjust the properties of the air
before it enters the space.
System Air is conditioned inside a central air-handling unit serving all the spaces in a
components building. Although the components vary with the results to be obtained, a unit is
generally made up of:
• a mixing box (single- or dual-effect),
• filters,
• heating and refrigeration coils,
• a humidifier,
• a forced-draught fan (or an exhaust fan).
The conditioned air is distributed to each space by a system of ducts.
Terminal units defined and sized depending on the loads of each space are
supplied by a system of pipes:
• hot water,
• chilled water.
They condition the air one last time just before it enters a space.
Control The common central air handling unit houses a control system that operates
based on:
• the environment in a reference room,
• the properties of the return air (mix of air flows from all spaces).
Located in the stream of air at the entrance to each space, the terminal units are
controlled based on the parameters of each space (temperature and humidity) and
variations in heat loads.
Operation In order to describe how such a unit operates, let us look at a group of spaces
located in a single area. The loads in most of these spaces are relatively identical
and generally change in the same way.
Consider the change, at a given moment in time, in four spaces (L1, L2, L3, L4)
with different thermal loads (sensible heat and latent heat).
The same environment is to be maintained in all four:
A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 =A (e.g. 27°C, 50% RH).
Although the line segments (γ1, γ2, γ3, γ4) have different values, all converge at
the same point, which corresponds to the environment (27°C, 50% RH).
The supply air conditions (S1, S2, S3, S4) determined as a function of the thermal
loads are also different.
L1 is the reference space. 80
75
70
25
65
60
55
20
50
40
0
10
ε=
45
90
ε=
80
35
ε=
70
γ2
=
S2
ε
60
ε= A = 27˚C-50%
30
15
50
ε=
20
40
ε=
25
S1 = S
30
γ1
15
ε=
10
γ4 S4 S3 ε=
20
γ3 ε=
10
-5
0,760 0,770 0,780 0,790 0,800 0,810 0,820 0,830 0,840 0,850 0,860 0,870 0,880 0,890
190
180
17
16
2600
2500
2700
2400
2800
2300
2200
2100
2900
0
0
0
00
200
300
310
320
00
00
33
0
0
0
Operation
(continued)
Control At this given moment in time, the control system acts in the following way:
Central air handling unit Cooling coil The control system adjusts the
properties of the supply air,
which correspond to the supply
air conditions S1 in the reference
space L1, based on the
temperature and humidity
measured by the sensors in L1
L1 N/A The control system regulates the
central unit
L2 Heating coil
Steam humidifier The control system (temperature
L3 Cooling coil and humidity) regulates the
terminal units
Heating coil
L4 Cooling coil
Operation
(continued)
Schematic The figure below shows an example of an installed system.
diagram
T H
F3 T H
C2 T H
reference space
S1 = S
S L1
T H
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Operation space This section describes how the system operates in each space.
by space
Space L1 This is the reference space; it controls the central air handling unit. Changes in
the thermal loads (sensible heat and latent heat) in this space will have an effect
on the conditions of the supply air (S) delivered by the central unit.
The properties of the air delivered to the space S1 are the same as those of the
supply air S.
No terminal equipment is installed in space L1.
reference space
S1 = S
S L1
T H
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L1
(continued)
80
75
70
25
65
60
55
20
50
40
0
10
ε=
45
90
ε=
80
35
ε=
70
=
ε
60
ε= A1 = A = 27˚C-50%
30
15
50
ε=
40
ε=
25
S1 = S
30
γ1 10
ε=
20
ε=
10
ε=
0,770 0,780 0,790 0,800 0,810 0,820 0,830 0,840 0,850 0,860 0,870 0,880 0,890 0,900
190
180
17
16
2600
2500
15
2700
2400
2800
2300
2200
2100
2900
0
0
0
200
300
310
320
00
00
00
0
0
0
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L2 At this given moment there is little sensible heat and no humidity in this space.
The space will be warmed (heating coil) and humidified.
The terminal units (heating coil and humidifier) are controlled by the
temperature and humidity sensors in space A2.
This type of system, in which air that has been cooled and dehumidified is
warmed and rehumidified, is not ideal and should be used in exceptional cases
only.
C2 T H
reference space
S1 = S
S L1
T H
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L2
(continued)
55
20
50
40
0
10
ε=
45
90
ε=
80
35
ε=
70
γ2
=
S2
ε
60
ε= A2 = A = 27˚C-50%
30
15
50
ε=
40
ε=
25
S
30
ε=
10
C2
20
ε=
10
ε=
0,770 0,780 0,790 0,800 0,810 0,820 0,830 0,840 0,850 0,860 0,870 0,880 0,890 0,900
190
180
17
16
2600
2500
15
2700
2400
2800
2300
2200
2100
2900
0
0
0
200
300
310
320
00
00
00
0
0
0
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L3 The humidity in this space is high at this particular moment in time. The air thus
needs to be cooled to condense the moisture in it, then warmed in order to obtain
a correct supply air temperature.
The humidity sensor controls the cooling coil (cooling with dehumidification
SC3) and the temperature sensor controls the heating coil (warming C3 S3).
F3 T H
C2 T H
reference spaces
S1 = S
S L1
T H
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L3
(continued)
80
75
70
25
65
60
55
20
50
40
0
10
ε=
45
90
ε=
80
35
ε=
70
=
ε
60
ε= A3 = A = 27˚C-50%
30
15
50
ε=
40
ε=
25
S
30
ε=
10
F3 S3 ε=
20
γ3 ε=
10
0,770 0,780 0,790 0,800 0,810 0,820 0,830 0,840 0,850 0,860 0,870 0,880 0,890 0,900
190
180
17
16
2600
2500
15
2700
2400
2800
2300
2200
2100
2900
0
0
0
200
300
310
320
00
00
00
0
0
0
γ3 = line segment
S = primary air supply (from AHU)
C3 = supply conditions from additional cooling coil (cooling and
dehumidification = SC3)
S3 = supply conditions from additional heating coil (warming C3 S3)
S3 = supply air conditions
I3 = desired indoor environment = I
I3 I3 = change in the air in the space
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L4 The sensible load and humidity in this space are high at this particular moment in
time. Low-temperature air may be supplied, as the space is unoccupied.
The control system will regulate the cooling coil based on the temperature and
humidity levels measured.
T H
F3 T H
C2 T H
reference space
S1 = S
S L1
TH
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T
Operation space
by space
(continued)
Space L4
(continued)
80
75
70
25
65
60
55
20
50
40
0
10
ε=
45
90
ε=
80
35
ε=
70
=
ε
60
ε= A4 = A = 27˚C-50%
30
15
50
ε=
40
ε=
25
S
30
ε=
S410
γ4 F4 ε=
20
10
ε=
0,770 0,780 0,790 0,800 0,810 0,820 0,830 0,840 0,850 0,860 0,870 0,880 0,890 0,900
190
180
17
16
2600
2500
15
2700
2400
2800
2300
2200
2100
2900
0
0
0
200
300
310
320
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
γ4 = line segment
S = supply of primary air from AHU
F4 = S4 = supply conditions from additional cooling coil (cooling)
S4 = supply air conditions
I4 = desired indoor environment = I
S 4 I4 = change in the air in the space
Concept This system, which combines a central air handling unit and induction units, is
mentioned simply as a reminder. Used widely in large building complexes
starting in the mid-1960s, it was abruptly abandoned in 1973, when the world
faced its first oil crisis.
What makes this system different is that it makes use of fanless terminal units:
• primary air is injected through an array of nozzles at high velocity, creating an
induction effect that pulls space air through an induction unit coil,
• only fresh air is fed into the central air handling unit. The air must be fully
conditioned, i.e. warmed, cooled, dehumidified or humidified. The air velocity
is relatively high, and represents two to three times the volume of the space.
The primary air is distributed at high velocity (HP) for efficient induction. On
the one hand, this decreases the dimensions of the ducts. On the other, it
increases fan power and noise levels.
Operation
Air handling While the air handling unit itself is conventional in design, its components vary
unit depending on the type of conditioning desired.
The fan inside the unit must be designed to deliver air at high velocity and high
pressure.
Operation
(continued)
Induction unit Primary air is injected into the space at high velocity by nozzles. Space air
(secondary air) is pulled into the unit by induction. The volume of the secondary
air may be up to six times greater than that of the primary air.
The temperature of the primary air can be raised or lowered
by the induction unit coils.
The secondary air is conditioned by these coils, which may be two-pipe,
four-pipe or two-pipe/two-wire.
Operation
(continued)
Induction unit A thermostat in each space controls the induction unit coils to produce the
(continued) necessary space conditions.
C or F
fresh
air
only
Mollier chart Primary air (PA) conditioned in the fresh-air handling unit is mixed with space
air (secondary air) that has been conditioned by the induction unit.
C
I
PA
Field of This system lends itself to use in office buildings, where there is a need for air
application that is tailored to individual needs.
Single-flow Fresh air is introduced into a space through self-adjusting outdoor air inlets
mechanical located near the ceiling, leading to uneven temperatures (uncontrollable streams
ventilation of warm or cool air) which are unpleasant.
Fresh air can also be introduced directly into the fan coil unit.
discharge
hallway office
service shaft
hallway office
Concept
(continued)
Dual-flow A special air handling unit that both supplies and extracts air as well as
mechanical conditions fresh air.
ventilation
If fresh air is conditioned by the unit (cooling-heating-humidification), an
air-water system can be added.
In this case fresh air is carried to the space and delivered:
• directly in the served space,
• or to the intake on the fan coil unit.
exhaust
air
fresh
air
T H
R (3) (2) (1)
office
service
shaft hallway
office
hallway
Concept
(continued)
air extraction
hallway
room entrance airlock
bedroom
fresh air
hallway
room entrance
airlock bedroom
Mollier chart Several scenarios can be compared. The indoor and outdoor conditions are the
same in each case. The thermal loads remain the same and the space line
segment is constant.
The air is handled differently by the fan coil unit.
S
unconditioned fresh air introduced
in the fan coil unit
O
I
O M
Mollier chart
(continued)
M
N
S
cooled fresh air introduced in the fan
I coil unit
O
N
M
γ : space line segment
E
O : properties of the outdoor air S I
I : properties of the indoor environment γ
E
N : properties of the cooled fresh air
M : properties of the fresh air (N)
recirculated air (I) mix
S : supply air conditions (supply from
cooling coil on fan coil unit)
SA : change in the air in the environment
Area of use This system (fan coil unit with separate distribution of preconditioned fresh air)
is satisfactory for use in:
• office buildings,
• classrooms,
• hotel rooms,
• small computer rooms.
The adjustable fan speed and temperature settings are positive points.
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Basic concept
Definition A direct-expansion system makes use of the phenomenon of the change in state
of a fluid known as a refrigerant.
Refrigeration unit The concept of direct expansion is related to the concept of refrigeration units.
A direct-expansion system is any type of system that directly uses a
refrigeration unit to cool the air in a space:
• packaged rooftop air conditioners or self-contained rooftop units.
• vertical self-contained air conditioning units,
• vertical self-contained units for computer rooms,
• self-contained air conditioners,
• variable refrigerant flow systems.
Components In addition to its accessories, a refrigeration unit contains four components, each
with a particular role of its own:
evaporator compressor
Refrigeration unit
(continued)
Components The following table describes the changes that refrigerant undergoes in each of
(continued) the four components as well as its effect on air or water:
Note: the change in state at constant temperature and pressure occurs only with
refrigerants that are:
• single-compound (R-22, R-134a),
• azeotropic blends (R-502).
In the case of non-azeotropic refrigerants (such as R-407c and R-410a), the
change in state occurs with a change in temperature and pressure throughout the
exchanger (evaporator and condenser).
Refrigeration unit
(continued)
compressor
evaporator condenser
LP HP
Refrigeration unit
(continued)
Circuit A refrigeration unit uses an evaporator to cool indoor air when the weather is
reversibility warm.
This cycle can be reversed to make the evaporator work like a condenser so that
it warms indoor air in cool weather.
This is achieved by a four-way reversing valve.
In this case, the unit is referred to as a heat pump or a reversible air conditioner.
Definition This type of air conditioning unit is used to meet the following needs:
• cooling,
• heating,
• filtration,
• ventilation,
• air change (fresh air in, stale air out).
It is called self-contained because the cooling section and heating section are
housed inside the same enclosure. The enclosure is a one-piece unit designed
specifically for installation on building rooftops.
The air distribution system is connected to ductwork via a base, or roof curb,
that can be levelled to accommodate a slightly sloped roof. Once this base is
installed, it is connected to ducts that run throughout the building. It is then
sealed and the air conditioners are delivered.
exhaust air
(if discharged)
control
dampers
refrigerant coil
centrifugal fan
smoke detector
location of gas module
(gas-fired unit)
Concept
(continued)
Air handling
The components and their features are described in the following table:
compartment
Components Features
or • Electric
• Gas-fired
Built-in gas burner
Centrifugal fan motor assembly Air moved vertically through the bottom of
the unit
Axial fan motor assembly Air extraction
(options)
Energy This is a refrigeration unit that can be equipped with a reversing valve.
production
compartment
Components Features
Axial fan motor assembly Circulates air through the condensation coil
Locations of The figure below shows the locations of the various components in their
components individual compartments.
Locations of The figure below shows the locations of the various components in their
components individual compartments.
(continued)
Gas heating
module
Components Features
Operation Self-contained rooftop units were initially designed for use in large commercial
spaces open to the public, as the amount of fresh air introduced can be adjusted
to the number of people present. The mixing box is usually motorised and the
amount of fresh air introduced into the circuit can be varied.
Minimum fresh Minimum fresh air control is used for both indoor cooling (when the outdoor
air control temperature is higher than the indoor temperature) and indoor heating needs.
The diagram below shows standard summer or winter operation with a minimum
amount of fresh air introduced for a reversible heat-pump system.
fresh air
supply
return air air
Operation
(continued)
Free cooling During mild weather the outdoor temperature can at times be lower than the
(economiser) indoor temperature. However, the indoor loads may occasionally be high enough
to necessitate cooling. In such cases the economic option would be to use the
cooling capacity of fresh air from outdoors.
This is called free cooling: outdoor air that is lower in temperature than the
indoor air is used for cooling.
fresh air
The flow of air is adjusted by the control system and the compressors stop.
If the cooling demand is higher than the supply of cool fresh air, then:
• The dampers move to the all fresh air position.
• The compressors are turned on and off as needed by the control system.
Operation
(continued)
fresh air
gas
or
return air supply air
fresh air
exhaust air
gas
or
return air supply air
Use Self-contained rooftop units are delivered ready for use and simply require
connection to a building’s electrical, hot water, gas and duct systems.
In most cases, many units will be installed on the roof of a building at the same
time. Full coordination may prove difficult on account of manufacturing times
and how quickly heavy and light construction work is completed.
This is where the benefit of the roof curb, which is delivered in a matter of days,
can be easily seen.
Role of the roof The roof curb is an adjustable base that connects the rooftop unit to the roof of a
curb building and has the following features:
• Can be levelled to accommodate a roof slope of up to 6%.
• Protected by aluminium-covered thermal and acoustic insulation.
• Designed for easy connection to ducts and hydraulic lines and routing of
electrical wiring.
• Is sealed with gaskets and flashing.
Use (continued)
Role of the roof Rooftop units are airlifted onto roofs by helicopter.
curb
(continued)
Control and
communication
Control The MRS2 or pCOc control and display module performs the following
functions:
• Checks temperatures via a thermistor (return or ambient air, supply air,
outdoor air, mixed air, coil refrigerant).
• Monitors all safety parameters (hot-water antifreeze, overheating of electric
resistance heaters, HP, LP, smoke detection, filter fouling, low air flow,
motor thermal cut-outs).
• Optimises refrigeration and heating and controls the cooling and heating
stages.
• Manages the various functions: startup priority, short-cycle protection,
defrosting, load shedding, unoccupied mode.
Remote control A remote control with display, setpoint change keys, controls (on/off, heating,
cooling, ventilation) and operation and fault lights can be used.
Control and
communication
(continued)
Communication All rooftop air conditioners installed on the same building are series connected
with a BMS by a communication bus (two-wire phone cable) to a compatible or standalone
microcomputer. The system is controlled by a user-friendly software program
that can be used in particular to program on-off times and zone-by-zone load
shedding.
This computerised communication system offers the following benefits:
• flexibility,
• quick action,
• remote maintenance monitoring.
Field of Rooftop units are designed for large volumes of air with high thermal loads and
application relatively slow variations.
Indoor thermal loads predominate over outdoor loads in the following types of
space:
• superstores (hyper- and supermarkets),
• speciality stores,
• workshops.
Concept
Water version A vertical water-cooled self-contained air conditioner houses air handling and
refrigeration components in the same enclosure:
• The one-piece cabinet houses a water-cooled condenser, among other
components.
• The air handling fan allows the unit to be connected to ductwork (possible
pressure loss of 100-150 Pa).
A distribution plenum and grilles with directional louvres may be added to
blow air directly in spaces.
• A heating coil (water or electric) may be installed inside the unit.
Return air is drawn in either through the front (unit inside space and direct
return) or the rear (unit in a mechanical room and ductwork).
Concept
(continued)
Air version In units with a separate air-cooled condenser, the compressors remain inside the
air conditioner (indoor section). The air-cooled condenser is equipped with axial
fans and designed for installation outdoors (outdoor section).
Operation
Water version A vertical water-cooled self-contained air conditioner has its own control
system, in the form of a two-stage thermostat, and a two-way water regulating
valve.
Note:
If the unit is connected to a cooling tower circuit (hence with a circulation
pump), a bypass with a relief valve must be installed in order to control
condensation pressure.
Operation
(continued)
Water version The diagrams below illustrate the various connections for a vertical water-cooled
(continued) self-contained air conditioning unit :
fan
Vertical AC with
water-cooled condenser
water spray
wet deck
space
conditioned
air air inlet cleaning tap
fan
collection basin
evaporator
filter overflow treated makeup
water inlet
screen filter
return air
compressor fresh air inlet
water-cooled
condenser
pump
vertical AC connected to a
municipal water supply system
space
conditioned
air
fan
evaporator
filter
return air
compressor fresh air inlet
water-cooled
condenser
Operation
(continued)
Air version Refrigerant is supplied to and from the indoor unit and the air-cooled condenser
through precharged lines measuring a maximum of 15 metres in length.
These lines are fitted with frangible-diaphragm couplings.
vertical AC with
water-cooled condenser
conditioned
air
fan
evaporator
filter
return air
fresh air inlet
compressor
Selection Balances are usually calculated for extreme conditions, i.e. maximum outdoor
temperatures, exposure to extreme sunlight, maximum space loads.
Direct expansion lacks flexibility:
• one stage for one compressor (0-100%),
• two stages for two compressors (0-50-100%).
It is therefore wise to avoid oversizing.
The heating coil should be at least of the same size as the cooling coil to avoid
any risk of temperature drift.
Location and Noise emitted by the air conditioning is transmitted in two ways:
distribution of • it is radiated by the entire enclosure,
air
• it is carried by the stream of air.
It is therefore clear that location and the air distribution method play an
important role.
The three examples on the following pages illustrate this design aspect.
Use (continued)
Use (continued)
space
Use (continued)
space
sound
attenuators
Field of Vertical self-contained air conditioners are generally designed for use in
application medium-size commercial and industrial spaces with high heat gains:
• laboratories,
• shops,
• offices,
• small meeting rooms.
Expansion valve
Structure Both sets of equipment can be housed together in single unit to form a
packaged air conditioner.
Or each set can be housed in its own enclosure to form a split air conditioner.
Purpose These types of air conditioner can be equipped with a heating coil (hot water or
electric) to provide heating during cold weather.
An air conditioner equipped with a refrigerant reversing valve is called reversible
and can be used to produce heat.
A self-contained air conditioner is generally a unitary system ready for
installation. It is designed more for comfort air conditioning than for precision
air conditioning.
Operation Self-contained air conditioners are especially designed for individual air
conditioning of small spaces.
Its control is usually simple. The compressor is turned on and off by a thermostat
either built into or outside the air conditioner.
Some models allow the air-handling fan speed to be controlled automatically or
manually (1, 2 or 3 speeds) for quick warm-up times and quite temperature
holding.
CIAT
INDOOR UNIT
HEAT EXCHANGER
REFRIGERANT/INDOOR AIR
EXPANSION VALVE
REFRIGERANT LINE
OUTDOOR UNIT
COMPRESSOR
HEAT EXCHANGER
REFRIGERANT/OUTDOOR
AIR OR WATER
Operation
(continued)
Operation
(continued)
On
Off Off
Off Off
0 6 12 18 24
hours
Automatic mode setpoint displayed and AUTOMATIC MODE
information sent by Heating Cooling
equipment sensors
Ventilation
Categories of air All air conditioners are designed using the same refrigeration principle. They are
conditioner categorised by type of operation:
• air-cooled condenser (axial or centrifugal),
• water-cooled condenser,
• packaged or split (single or multisplit),
• stationary or portable,
• wall or ceiling-mounted (with or without available pressure),
• cassette.
Concept In the direct-expansion system illustrated below, each outdoor unit serves
several indoor units via three refrigerant lines:
• HP gas,
• LP gas,
• HP liquid.
Operation Depending on the requirement (cooling or heating) in each served space, each
indoor unit taps onto the two lines needed and operates as either an evaporator or
a condenser.
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Contents .................................................................................................................... 2
Specific features of computer rooms ..................................................................... 3
General .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 3
Room design................................................................................................................................. 5
Air conditioning systems for computer rooms .................................................... 16
General ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Local systems............................................................................................................................. 16
Central systems.......................................................................................................................... 20
General Demands imposed by computer systems are what gave rise to new concepts in:
• spaces containing computers,
• air handling equipment (consoles or computer cabinets),
• maintenance and security.
Computer systems are very tough customers.
The design and building of a high-level computer room require the concerted
effort of a team made up of:
• the building designer,
• the user,
• the computer system vendor,
• the air conditioning specialist.
Requirements
Filtration Dust is certainly one the worst enemies of any computer system.
In his book La filtration de l’air, Jean-Yves Rault gives the example of the read
head in a computer hard drive, which flies at about ½ µm above the disk surface.
The figure below shows the size of a read/write head compared to conventional
types of dust.
Requirements
(continued)
The temperature may drift slightly during periods of non-use. Only the
manufacturer may provide the low limit value. This value is what determines the
risk of internal condensation specific to each item of electronic equipment
(mean value +17°C).
Reminder When a body heats up, it tends to take up (or absorb) moisture from the
surrounding air.
When a computer is turned off, its internal components cool down and return this
moisture (or desorb) back to the air. Desorption causes the humidity to rise
locally and drives the dew point higher than that of the ambient air.
Requirements
(continued)
Current trend As computers are becoming less sensitive, the number of space conditioning
requirements is also diminishing and accuracy is no longer a matter of concern.
The rate at which conditions vary must, however, remain low.
Security Given the important roles computer systems play in running a company’s
processes or services, security is a factor of prime consideration. A backup is
therefore a requirement for computer rooms.
Room design Logic implies that issues surrounding computer systems be taken into
consideration when designing spaces (new buildings) or selecting them
(retrofitted buildings).
Hardware is selected
For obvious economic reasons, this process, when followed to the letter, does not
always result in the ideal space.
A few factors that make up the ideal space are given on the following pages.
Room design
(continued)
Floor plan They depend on how the equipment will be placed to accommodate the
dimensions requirements of each technician.
This implies a concerted design effort from all trades involved.
Room design
(continued)
access
anteroom
-ramp
R
emergency exit
R R
In small rooms, equipment can be arranged in two parallel rows with a centre
aisle. Here, air handling units and return air fans are located at intervals between
the computers.
R R R R R
CPU
disks and tapes
printers
20 m
anteroom-ramp
console
R R R R R
In the case of large rooms, two particular factors must be taken into account:
• CPUs and disk drives release large amounts of heat,
• Printers generate both dust and noise.
Room design
(continued)
In addition to the height needed by computers and air conditioners, the aspect of
Height
raised floors and/or suspended ceilings also needs to be considered.
It is therefore clear that a small room can be retrofitted in standard existing spaces
(make sure the floor can withstand the extra weight).
Large rooms require custom spaces with high ceilings.
Room design
(continued)
Height The figure below illustrates an underfloor, or downflow, air distribution system.
(continued)
The supply air is delivered underneath the raised floor:
• either without any ducts (positive-pressure raised floor),
• or via ducts.
wall
covering
computer
room
computer computer
Room design
(continued)
Height The figure below illustrates an overhead, or upflow, air distribution system.
(continued)
Air is supplied via ducts concealed in a suspended ceiling.
computer room
computer computer
Room design
(continued)
Room design
(continued)
Access The raised floor is reached via a ramp with a maximum slope of 7 degrees to
(continued) prevent equipment casters coming off the floor at the top:
• If this slope is not possible, the top of the ramp may be rounded off if need be.
• A ramp with a slope of more than 5 degrees should be removable to reveal a
set of up to three steps. A guardrail (possibly removable) should be considered
if the height of the removable ramp exceeds 0.20 metres.
• In cases where computers use a great deal of paper and magnetic tape, ramps
should be permanent and have a maximum slope of 5 degrees.
All the above are reasons why more and more rooms in new buildings have
sunken floors. The surface of a raised floor installed in such rooms will be at the
same height as the entrance, thus obviating the need for a ramp. Potential
retrofits should, however, be taken into consideration.
Walls The walls in a computer room must meet the following criteria:
• They must be easily cleanable and be free of empty corners and angles to
prevent the buildup of dust.
Air supply inlets should therefore never be housed inside bench cabinets as
the joints between the panels may be irregular and thus trap dust.
Surfaces must be the smoothest possible and washable. Where possible,
corners and angles should be rounded. Nowadays companies manufacture
plastic skirting that can be bonded with a dust seal lip to raised floors. This is
an excellent solution, as are rubber seals in window beading.
• They must form a tight seal against air and moisture leakage.
• They must be made of a non-hygroscopic material or a material with a
minimum moisture absorption coefficient in order to prevent moisture
migrating:
− from indoors to outdoors in the winter,
− and from outdoors to indoors in the summer.
Room design
(continued)
Surfaces Extra attention should be paid to these last two points, as moisture:
(continued)
• Diffuses very quickly in air, which tries to balance its weight in water
throughout the space.
• Migrates easily through materials by osmosis.
The right level of stable humidity is necessary for electronic equipment to
operate correctly. Unless this issue is adequately analysed and dealt with, it will
be impossible to maintain humidity in rooms at minimum levels in winter or
maximum levels in summer.
Therefore:
• Materials such as plaster on bare concrete are to be avoided.
• Sound insulation batting in suspended ceilings must be encased in sealed bags.
Suspended ceilings with fabric panels are not to be used.
• All walls must be painted with two coats of virtually impermeable lacquer or
epoxy resin.
• Joints between materials of different types must be protected with beading or
sealing strips.
• The integrity of movable partitions must be ensured, particularly in spaces
between panels and window beading, along skirting boards and jacks, and in
suspended ceiling weatherstripping. All insufficiently sealed partition walls
must be rejected.
Room design
(continued)
Thermal Computer rooms are subject to the same regulatory requirements as office
insulation buildings.
Heat insulation must be sufficient, thermal bridges included, to prevent
condensation forming on inside surfaces.
The dew point in an indoor space with a temperature of 22°C and a relative
humidity of 50% is 11°C. The inside surface temperature must therefore be
above 11°C.
Therefore:
• Perimeter walls must be thermally insulated so that, under the site’s inside and
outside base temperatures, their surface temperature is at least 11°C.
• As the temperature of the supply air in a raised floor may drop to as low as
approx. 15°C:
− Either avoid locating a computer room along the perimeter of a building or
in a room that is too cold in winter.
− Or line the underside of the floor deck and the edges of the raised floor
with high-efficiency insulation.
Suspended ceilings along perimeter walls of a building are regarded as poor
insulators. This is because there are virtually always leaks and they leave a void
that is too large.
Example:
In the Paris area, where the base outdoor temperature is -7°C, condensation
forms on the walls of a room where:
• K (W/m2/°C) ≥ 3.45 for indoor temperature = 22°C,
• K (W/m2/°C) ≥ 2.27 for indoor temperature = 17°C.
In both cases, condensation forms on 6 mm single-glazed windows, for which K
= 5.7 W/m²/°C.
During periods of non-use, condensation also forms on double-glazed windows,
for which K = 3.4 W/m²/°C.
In both cases, condensation always forms on metal frames.
Lowering indoor window blinds in the winter lowers the ambient temperature
between the shades and windows, thus increasing the risk of condensation.
Lowering outdoor window blinds practically has no effect on the risk of
condensation.
In the case of a raised floor in a perimeter room, condensation forms when:
K (W/m2/°C) ≥ 1.07 for indoor temperature = 15°C
Room design
(continued)
General The balance of a computer room consists of three types of thermal load from
different sources:
Given the requirements of computer systems, a computer room should have its own
self-contained air conditioning unit that automatically adjusts space conditions.
Two types of system are possible:
Local system Each space is fitted with one or more self-contained air handling units.
Built-in refrigeration and humidity equipment.
Central system Each space is equipped with one or more air handling units.
Central refrigeration.
Units connected by pipework.
Local systems
Definition In a local system, spaces are equipped with self-contained air handling units. The
number of units depends on the amount of heat to be removed and the necessary
backups.
These units have their own control systems and are completely self-contained.
Split systems
(continued)
Self-contained A self-contained air handling unit is smaller in size for two reasons:
air handling • smaller footprint,
unit
• easier installation in spaces.
The unit pictured contains the same components as a vertical self-contained unit:
• air filter,
• direct-expansion cooling coil (one or two circuits),
• heating coil (hot water or electric),
• steam humidifier,
• centrifugal fan,
• refrigeration system (one or two compressors),
• water-cooled condenser (packaged version),
• air-cooled condenser (split version),
• electrical protection and automatic operation components,
• control system.
Split systems
(continued)
Split systems
(continued)
Self-contained The diagram below illustrates a vertical self-contained unit (direct expansion and
air handling recirculated water model) with a water-cooled condenser, drycooler and
unit (continued) economiser cycle.
Split systems
(continued)
Field of use Local systems are generally used for small facilities that more or less meet the
following values:
Central systems
Definition Energy production (chilled water, hot water, etc.) is centralised. In a central
system, air is distributed to computer rooms equipped with air handling units or
vertical self-contained chilled water units.
Although central systems are more economical for high-power data centres, it is
a good idea to make a preliminary comparative study.
One after the other, three types of system appeared over the years. Each reflects
the concerns of the period and resulted in a change in technique:
• full handling of all loads (single unit),
• separate handling units for indoor environments and machines,
• separate computer units and fresh-air conditioning units.
Central systems
(continued)
Single unit A single air handling unit takes care of all loads (gains from walls, space loads,
computers, fresh air) and is backed up by an identical unit.
Although free cooling is possible, the supply air temperature fluctuates and the
humidity is hard to control.
This system was replaced with the separate unit system.
coil
coil
fan
fresh air
supply air
Central systems
(continued)
Separate units The space unit is designed to handle gains from walls, occupants and lighting. It
also conditions fresh air and raises and lowers humidity levels in the space. Air is
distributed by induction ceiling registers.
The computer unit handles gains from electronic equipment:
• Air is delivered at a constant rate and temperature underneath a raised floor.
• It does not heat, humidify or dehumidify the air.
The air flow is calculated using the following formula:
Q
R=
(Ts − Trf)Sh
R = rate of flow
Q = heating load generated by the computer
Ts = space temperature (+22°C)
Trf = temperature of supply air delivered under raised floor (15-17°C)
Sh = specific heat of the air
space unit
cooling
filter
coil
fan
Central systems
(continued)
Separate units Advantage: If a space is no longer used, the space unit remains in place and set
(continued) to that space’s thermal properties.
Drawback: The power and air flow rate of the machine unit must be adjusted (or
the unit replaced) if different equipment is installed in the space.
Backup units must be installed for both units in the event of malfunctions.
Computer units Because computers contain more components – and hence generate more heat –
than in the past, higher air flow rates are necessary.
Many computers are equipped with exhaust fans that discharge heat into the
space where they are located.
The solution to this is to install a reversible fresh-air conditioning unit that:
Air inside the space is handled by return air fans located at intervals in the space
(or in a utility corridor):
• They are designed for floor areas of around 80 m2.
• They cool the air without condensing.
An additional return air fan is installed as a backup.
Central systems
(continued)
humidifier
heating
filter
coil
fan
fresh air
Note:
• Return air fans do not dehumidify the air. A water chiller should be installed,
as they can operate with water chilled to +10°C.
• Incoming fresh air should be dehumidified. As the conditioning unit operates
with colder water, a separate water chiller unit (for water chilled to, say, 5°C)
should be installed.
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Contents
Storing energy is Until recently, it was not known how to store reasonable amounts of heat or cold
a necessity for even limited periods. Heating and refrigeration units had to be sized to
maximum power demands.
This method was made possible by advances in power control techniques,
particularly in the field of refrigeration units. Units must be high power and may
be operated only at their nominal rating for a few hours a day and a few days a
year.
Advantage of Storing heat and cold daily makes it possible to downsize units. During off-peak
storing energy periods, the available energy is shifted to a storage unit. The energy stored is
then sent to systems during on-peak periods, or when the power demand exceeds
unit capacity.
Sensible heat
Liquid storage Water is the main liquid storage medium used. It has a specific heat of
media 1.16 kWh/m3/K and stores more heat per cubic metre than materials such as
stone or metal. Water is most commonly used for two reasons: it is abundant and
can be stored easily in sealed containers.
Gaseous Gaseous storage media have low specific heat capacities, making their cost
storage media prohibitive.
Sensible heat
(continued)
Cool storage As for refrigerant storage, the current state of the art is limited to operating
temperature gradients of around 5°C. This gives maximum storage densities of
around 6 kWh/m3.
The cost of storage may become prohibitive if liquid storage media are used at
below-freezing temperatures, as antifreeze will have to added.
Limitations of Sensible heat storage is limited inasmuch as the storage density drops when the
sensible heat water stored is not used over a large temperature difference.
storage
Latent heat of
fusion
Definition Latent heat is heat that is either stored or given up when a material undergoes a
change of state. A material may go from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas.
Change of state The change of state from solid to liquid and vice versa is used the most. These
most changes are called, respectively:
commonly • fusion (or melting),
used
• solidification.
Introduction In this chapter, storage will be discussed for heating and cooling only.
Media used
Media Use
Concept
Charge The energy to be stored is produced by a source. The temperature of the storage
(storage) medium changes as it stores this energy.
cool air
electric element
brick
insulated housing
fan
warm air
circulator
insulated tank pump
check valve
electric
element
drain
Liquid storage
system: hot water
storage tank
(continued)
If the water was not mixed, the temperature would vary by approx. 1 K per metre
along the height of the cylinder.
A cylinder 10 metres high and with the temperature data in the following
example would lose 10% of its stored energy.
circulator
insulated tank pump on
check valve
electric
element
drain
Liquid storage
system: hot-water
storage tank
(continued)
Discharge The circulator pump is off to allow the temperature inside the cylinder to stratify:
• The hot water rises to the top.
• The cold water falls to the bottom.
The control valve varies the flow rate of the water tapped from the cylinder to
meet the heating demand. It mixes a light flow of hot water from the cylinder
with a heavy flow of return water.
Low-temperature return water enters the cylinder at a low flow rate.
The water inside the cylinder is not mixed. The warm water, heavier than the hot
water, stays at the bottom of the cylinder. The temperature of the drawn water is
thus virtually the same during the entire discharge cycle.
bleed control
valve open
95˚C 45˚C
95˚C
40˚C
stratification
circulator
pump off
insulated tank
check valve
electric
40˚C
element
off 40˚C
drain
Calculating a
sensible heat
storage system
Assumptions Take as an example a workshop that needs to be heated 10 hours a day. The base
losses are 500 kW for heating and 300 kW for frost protection.
Low-temperature heating is required in order to use the storage capacities to their
maximum. Water shall be supplied at 45°C and stored at 95°C.
Heat will be stored during nighttime off-peak hours, i.e. eight hours a night.
Selecting the To calculate the storage system, look at the least favourable case:
calculation • constant losses all day long at base conditions, or 500 kW,
period
• building warm-up period of 2 hours,
• frost protection maintained during non-heating periods.
To simplify the calculation, the energy due to the drop in the ambient
temperature is considered to offset the energy due to the warm-up inertia.
The ambient temperature fluctuates during warm-up and the losses vary from
300 to 500 kW.
Calculation The energy due to maintaining the temperature for 10 hours is:
500 × 10 = 5000 kWh
The energy due to warming up for 2 hours is:
300 + 500
× 2 = 800 kWh
2
The energy due to maintaining frost protection for 12 hours (24 - 10 - 2) is:
300 × 12 = 3600 kWh
The total energy for a single day is thus:
5000 + 800 + 3600 = 9400 kWh
The volume of the storage cylinder for a temperature difference of 50 K (95 - 45)
is:
9400 × 0.86
= 161.7 m 3 ≈ 160 m 3
50
The power of the immersion heaters during the eight hours of storage is:
9400
= 1175 kW
8
Calculating a
sensible heat
storage system
(continued)
Expansion The expansion coefficients are 0.0394 and 0.0079 for water at 95° and 40°C,
volume respectively. Taking the mean of these two values, the expansion volume of the
water in the cylinder during storage is therefore:
0.0394 + 0.0079
160 × = 3.78 m
3
2
Do not overlook expansion during water storage.
Melting and
freezing
Molecules Although a crystal's molecules are locked together through magnetic attraction,
vibrate each one has its specific place and keeps its ability to produce vibrations. The
speed at which they vibrate – known as kinetic energy – can be measured by
looking at the heat generated.
Heat is the sum of the vibrations produced by all the molecules in a given body.
It should not be confused with temperature, which is the degree of intensity of
vibrations.
Melting When a body, say ice, is heated, the molecules inside the ice crystals begin to
vibrate more rapidly. The more heat they absorb, the faster they vibrate. When
the vibrations reach their peak, the power of attraction drops to a value that
causes two things to happen:
• the molecules break free from their bonds,
• and begin moving by themselves or in small groups.
When enough heat has been produced, the molecules move freely inside the
body, which has turned from a solid to a liquid.
Melting point When a body melts, its temperature stays the same until the energy provided is
absorbed by the melting process.
Each medium has its own melting point.
Those used to store latent heat energy are called phase-change materials (PCMs).
Melting and
freezing
(continued)
Background
Ice in the The thermal capacities of ice were first put to technical use in the 1800s. Back
19th century then, some country homes had underground ice cellars where ice could be stored
for up to 18 months. The ice would be harvested from nearby ponds and lakes in
the winter.
Sodium acetate In 1892, a number of railway companies distributed bottles filled with sodium
bottles acetate to keep passengers warm during long journeys. These bottles, which were
a means of latent heat, did not have to be changed as frequently as typical hot
water bottles.
1973: necessity Latent heat storage had been long forgotten since the turn of the 20th century.
is the mother of Researchers’ interest in latent heat storage was rekindled as a result of the space
invention programme, and the 1973 oil crisis gave their work further impetus. Many
laboratories around the world developed new compounds that made the
technology more reliable.
Background
(continued)
Ice and eutectic Ice has been in use in recent years as a storage medium for latent heat. However,
mixtures ice melts at 0°C and does not have many usage temperatures.
Eutectic mixtures, on the other hand, have their own individual solid-liquid
phase-change temperatures. The right mixture can be found to provide the
necessary usage temperature.
The best type of A large temperature difference that makes sensible heat storage possible can be
cold achieved during heating.
Eutectic mixtures that melt at high temperatures are expensive to manufacture. In
a nutshell, latent heat storage is not financially viable.
Unlike with heating, there is no large temperature difference during cooling.
Sensible heat storage systems are large in scale. Latent heat storage is becoming
cost-effective.
Latent heat is more affordable than the current cost of electricity, particularly for
air conditioning.
The high cost of refrigeration units makes all the power savings offered by latent
heat storage particularly attractive.
Lastly, regulations that limit the use of ozone-destroying refrigerants (such as
HCFCs) are encouraging the use of latent heat storage.
Remember:
• The latent heat of ice during the solid-liquid phase change is 93 kWh/m3.
• Sensible storage of water has a specific heat of 1.163 kWh/m3K.
Ice on coil
Concept This technique, which seems to be used the most currently, consists of a
serpentine coil that is submerged in a heavily insulated tank of water.
air pump
refrigerant or
chilled water
glycol water
use
insulated tank
water
Ice on coil
(continued)
Drawback Ice is an insulator. Its thermal resistance is directly proportional to its thickness.
As ice is stored in a circle around each tube, its perimeter, and thus its volume,
increases with its diameter.
When ice reaches half its total thickness, approximately one-quarter of its total
volume is ice.
The mean value of the transfer coefficient is low.
In the approach called partial storage, the ice that remains after melting is on the
coil. As soon as the partial storage process begins, the transfer coefficient is low
and falls below the mean value.
storage after
charge discharge
partial discharge
Ice bank (a static A polypropylene tube heat exchanger is submerged in a heavily insulated
ice production cylindrical tank filled with water.
technique) Glycol/water solution is circulated through the tubes at low temperature (-3.5 to
0°C) to freeze the water in the tank.
Discharge is accomplished by circulating warm glycol/water solution to melt the
ice.
The ice around the tubes melts first. During partial storage, the transfer
coefficient is above the mean value.
glycol/water header
water
Ice harvester (a This process has been used in industrial processes for many years.
dynamic ice
Ice is formed on a flat vertical surface. Refrigerant is circulated at a temperature
production of -12 to -15°C inside the plates and evaporates.
technique)
Water flows over the plates and freezes to a certain thickness (8-10 mm) after a
certain time (usually 15-20 minutes).
sheet of ice
freezing plate
water channel
ice tank
water tank
pump
overflow
Eutectic mixtures
plates
glycol water
glycol water
Eutectic mixtures
(continued)
cylinder sphere
RI
C
TO
PI
A
eutectic mixture
Eutectic mixtures
(continued)
charge discharge
liquid
eutectic mixture
glycol water
thin wall
solid
eutectic mixture
Advantages Solid eutectic mixtures are insulators. Their thermal resistance is directly
proportional to their thickness. A solid eutectic mixture:
• forms from the wall inward when in contact with the glycol/water mix,
• continues inward during storage.
In the case of cylinders and spheres, the perimeter – and thus the volume – of the
solid eutectic mixture decreases during storage. Thus, when the solid eutectic
mixture reaches half the total thickness:
• one-quarter of the total volume of cylinders remains to be solidified,
• one-eighth of the total volume of spheres remains to be solidified.
The mean value of the transfer coefficient is higher than with ice-on-coil storage.
Eutectic mixtures
(continued)
Advantages During partial storage, the solid eutectic mixture that remains after melting is at
(continued) the centre while the liquid to be solidified is along the wall of the capsule. The
transfer coefficient is high and above the mean value.
charge discharge
liquid
eutectic mixture
glycol water
thin
wall
solid
eutectic mixture
charge after
partial discharge
solid liquid
eutectic mixture eutectic mixture
solid
eutectic mixture
System design Care must be taken when designing an installation in order to:
• lower operating costs,
• optimise storage capacity,
• enhance overall performance.
A number of factors must be taken into consideration:
• storage technique (open or pressurised tank),
• storage location (outdoors, underground, building basement, etc.),
• compressor type,
• control system,
• circuit design,
• relationship between storage capacity and cooling capacity requirements.
exchanger
chiller
plates exchanger
tank use
T
R
tank use
T temperature
R
System design
(continued)
Open-tank The two solutions mentioned above impair the system's thermodynamic
storage performance:
techniques
(continued)
Type Drawback
T
plates exchanger
tank use
chiller
expansion vessel
water glycol mix end water end
Note: the position of the chiller will be discussed in the section on circuit design.
System design
(continued)
Location Underground tanks or tanks installed in a building basement are wisest in terms
of space management.
Aboveground outdoor tanks must be protected from sunlight and be more
heavily insulated to minimise losses.
Compressor Cooling compressors used in latent-heat storage systems are subjected to various
type loads and pressures.
These variations are caused by the fact that the compressor is used for two
extremely different operations:
• storage (low evaporation temperature),
• discharge or direct cooling (higher evaporation temperature).
Only reciprocating and screw compressors are suited to these types of operation.
Control The control system must set the priorities between direct cooling and discharge.
schemes The selected system must take into account various economic considerations:
• pricing periods:
− demand limiting,
− reduced consumption during on-peak times.
• the storage technique for partial storage and storage with a low transfer
coefficient.
The best solution is found by analysing, in detail, the cooling requirements for
the entire system and for the entire period of use.
This detailed analysis and calculations of the system's cost and consumption may
suggest a less efficient control scheme, but it will be less expensive as well.
Three main strategies should be taken into consideration when designing a
control scheme:
• storage priority,
• chiller priority,
• demand limiting during certain hours (such as on-peak periods).
System design
(continued)
Control
schemes
(continued)
100 % 100 %
storage priority
chiller
chiller
discharge discharge
hours hours
percentage of peak capacity percentage of peak capacity
100 % 100 %
chiller discharge
discharge
priority
chiller chiller
hours hours
100 % 100 %
chiller discharge
demand chiller
discharge
limiting
chiller chiller
hours hours
System design
(continued)
Circuit design If refrigerant is used as the storage medium, the two circuits are separate.
chiller
refrigerant
use
chiller
motorised valve
bypass for charge
System design
(continued)
Circuit design • The chiller is connected in parallel with the storage tank.
(continued)
storage
chiller
use
motorised valve
closed when
chiller off
Cristopia nodules
Overview
Competitive The Cristopia STL latent heat storage system consists of a tank filled with
advantages nodules (balls).
Because of the applications targeted, the system must be installable on air
conditioning or cooling circuits. The operating pressure may exceed 3 bar. The
tank is usually cylindrical in shape and is pressure tested to between 4.5 and
10 bar.
Pipes inside the tank distribute HTF throughout it and increase the exchange
surface.
Phase-change materials (PCMs) are encapsulated in a sphere called a nodule.
This shape was chosen for three reasons:
• Round nodules fall automatically into place inside tanks, resulting in lower
site costs.
• Round nodules can be mass produced, resulting in lower production costs.
• The spherical shape optimises the exchange surface, resulting in tanks of
smaller volume.
Overview
(continued)
sealed cap
air pocket
HDPE shell
eutectic mixture
Overview
(continued)
Tank Tanks are typically cylindrical in shape, closed and made of insulated steel or
rectangular, open and made of concrete.
Cylindrical tanks may be vertical or horizontal and be installed:
• indoors,
• outdoors,
• underground.
They are fitted with a high-performance distribution system.
Energy With a Cristopia STL, cooling energy can be managed to meet system design
management objectives. A number of strategies are possible:
strategies • load-levelling,
• partial storage,
• demand limiting,
• full storage,
• backup.
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Bar chart A bar chart is used to show the electrical power demand of a thermal energy
system:
• over a given period (usually 24 hours),
• under the most stringent conditions.
500
400
300
200
daily energy quantity
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Bar charts for cool thermal storage show two types of information in particular:
• the maximum cooling load required for the system is plotted along the Y-axis,
• the daily energy consumption, i.e. the sum of the capacities needed by the
system over the course of the a day, is plotted along the X-axis.
Without storage, the chiller must be sized to meet peak capacity.
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Priority Operation
chiller priority
capacity in kW
600
500
400
300 discharge
200
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Load-levelling
system
(continued)
Discharge priority
capacity in kW
600
500
400
300
direct cooling
200
100
storage discharge storage
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Partial storage Under chiller-priority control, storage makes up for whatever cooling the chiller
cannot provide.
capacity in kW
600
500
400
300 discharge
200
500
400
300
discharge
200
100 charge
direct cooling
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Partial storage Under storage-priority control, more electricity is consumed because the chiller
(continued) operates rarely during the day.
500
400
300 direct
cooling allows complete discharge if
200 allowed by control system
100
charge discharge storage tank
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
500
400
300
direct cooling
200
100
charge discharge charge
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
If the control system can detect the remaining stored energy, storage is
discharged completely and the chiller runs even less.
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Demand When the price per kWh varies over the course of the day, it may be worth
limiting shutting down the chillers when electricity rates are high (on-peak hours).
Cooling is provided by storage during these periods. In the same vein, storage is
charged by the chiller during off-peak times.
500
400
300
direct cooling
discharge
200
100
storage
storage
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
500
400 discharge
300
direct cooling
discharge
200
storage
storage
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Full storage The chillers are shut off during the day and all the cooling required is taken from
storage.
The storage volume and the chillers are larger.
Full storage may be worth considering in cases where there is a large difference
between on-peak and off-peak rates. This, however, is not currently the case in
France.
capacity in kW
600
500
400
300
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Energy
management
strategies
(continued)
Backup The cooling capacity required in certain spaces (telecom equipment rooms,
computer rooms) or for a process may have to be backed up in case of:
• chiller breakdowns,
• electrical power supply failures.
An STL storage system can meet these constant cooling requirements.
In this case:
• The term daily cycle is no longer used,
• The probable frequency of breakdowns, and thus the uses of storage, must be
defined.
• The necessary capacity and the times at which it will be provided must be
defined.
As stored energy is not systematically used, supplementary cooling must be
provided at set periods to compensate for losses.
capacity in kW
600
500
400
300
200
discharge
100
storage
0
System design For the sake of clearness, only the components needed for understanding the
various operating cycles are shown on the diagrams on the following pages.
STL: an An STL system functions like a heat exchanger throughout the entire storage and
exchanger discharge cycle. It transfers heat energy with the HTF. The temperature of the
nodules remains constant during storage and discharge.
Charge It crystallises The HTF gives up its Lower than the phase-
cooling energy to the change temperature
nodules
Discharge It melts The HTF absorbs the Higher than the phase-
cooling energy contained change temperature
in the nodules
How it works Over the course of a storage/discharge cycle, the temperature of the HTF
circulating through the STL changes from a minimum value, corresponding to
the temperature at the end of storage, to a maximum value, corresponding to the
temperature at the end of discharge.
The temperature of the HTF should generally stay constant as it flows to the
system.
The chiller and the STL may be:
• parallel connected,
• or series connected.
System design
(continued)
Parallel Parallel connection is most commonly used for daily and backup cooling. The
connection block diagram below shows two parallel loops.
The primary loop consists of:
• a chiller,
• an STL,
• a chiller pump.
The secondary loop consists of:
• a system pump,
• a plate exchanger (optional),
• the system,
• a three-way control valve.
pump
3-way
valve
chiller
to
STL system
pump
The flow rate of the primary loop is constant in the chiller. The temperature
varies between storage and discharge. The secondary loop is at a constant supply
temperature. The flow rate may be:
• variable, in which case the three-way valve is not necessary in some instances,
• constant, in which case the three-way valve is necessary.
In most systems, a constant flow is maintained and a three-way control valve is
used.
The plate exchanger lowers the volume of the HTF when the system operates at
above-freezing temperature (this end may be filled with water).
System design
(continued)
Series The STL is series connected either upstream or downstream of the chiller.
connection
STL upstream
on/off valve
on/off valve
chiller
to
STL system
pump
3-way
valve
STL downstream
on/off on/off
valve valve
to
system
STL
on/off valve
3-way pump
valve chiller
The flow rate is constant in the chiller. The temperature varies between storage
and discharge. The flow rate and supply temperature are constant in the direction
of the system.
The plate exchanger lowers the volume of the HTF when the system operates at
above-freezing temperature (this end may be filled with water).
System design
(continued)
Series or The decision whether to opt for a series- or parallel-connected system depends
parallel mainly on the temperature regime of the chilled water supply. In the case of a
connection? temperature difference of 5°C or 6°C (i.e. 5°C/10°C or 6°C/12°C), it is advisable
to use the STL in parallel and to run the evaporator and the STL along the same
temperature differential.
If the STL is series connected, a larger temperature difference (8°C to 12°C)
during operation is recommended. The STL and the evaporator both cool the
return temperature in this case. This allows the evaporator to operate with a
conventional temperature difference. For example, in the case of a temperature
difference of 8°C with a temperature regime of 4°C/12°C, the STL and the
evaporator will each provide half of the peak capacity. The STL will thus lower
the return temperature from 12°C to 8°C and the evaporator will lower it from
8°C to 4°C.
Operation of each When the STL is connected in parallel with the chiller, four phases are possible:
phase – parallel • storage alone,
connection • storage and direct cooling,
• discharge and direct cooling,
• discharge alone.
Storage alone Storage alone takes place when no cooling is required by the system, such as in
an office building at night.
The system pump is off and the three-way valve closes port 1 to isolate the
chiller from the system.
2 system
pump
chiller
to
system
STL
chiller
pumpe
The chiller cools the primary loop with sensible heat until the nodules drop to their
crystallisation temperature. At this point, they begin to change state (i.e. they
crystallise) by absorbing the cooling energy provided by the chiller.
The latent heat load levels off throughout this period. The temperature remains
constant, and a thermodynamic equilibrium is established. At the end of storage,
the temperature of the HTF falls rapidly to the setpoint temperature of the chiller,
shutting it off.
The chiller cools the primary loop with sensible heat. This drop in temperature
signals the end of the storage phase.
The chiller must be:
• stopped in one stage,
• locked out to prevent it restarting.
It will not be able to restart until the system requires further cooling.
Operation of each
phase – parallel
connection
(continued)
2 system
pump
chiller
to
system
STL
chiller
pumpe
Operation of each
phase – parallel
connection
(continued)
Discharge and Discharge with direct cooling occurs when the cooling capacity required by the
direct cooling system is higher than the cooling capacity of the chiller (e.g. an office building
that has reached its maximum heat load). The system and chiller pumps are on
and the three-way valve is controlled as described above.
If the cooling capacity exceed the chiller capacity, the flow rate through port 1 of
the three-way valve is higher than that of the chiller pump. The system return
flow rate splits into three types:
• A variable volume (depending on need) flows along port 2 of the three-way
valve.
• A constant volume (provided by the chiller pump) is cooled by the chiller.
• A variable volume (depending on need) circulates through the STL from top
to bottom and is cooled there.
The chiller runs continuously at full capacity.
2 system
chiller pump
to
system
STL
chiller
pump
chiller thermostat
Operation of each
phase — parallel
connection
(continued)
Discharge Discharge alone takes place when cooling is taken from the STL while the chiller
alone is off (e.g. demand limiting in the winter, equipment servicing, etc.).
The chiller is controlled by a contact (utility, switch, etc.) that turns the
compressor and its pump on and off. A motorised two-way valve placed
downstream or upstream of the evaporator closes when the chiller pump stops,
forcing all the HTF to circulate through the STL.
The three-way valve is controlled as described above.
3-way
valve
supply
sensor
1 3
on/off 2
valve closed system
chiller off pump
to
system
STL
chiller
pump off
Operation of each When the STL is connected in series with the chiller, four phases are possible:
phase — series • storage alone,
connection • direct cooling only,
• discharge and direct cooling,
• discharge alone.
Only block diagrams with the STL upstream will be shown.
Storage alone Storage alone takes place when no cooling is required by the system, such as in an
office building at night. This is the only phase during which storage is possible.
The two-way supply valve is closed and the STL valve is open. Port 2 of the
three-way valve is closed. The entire flow is routed through the STL.
supply sensor
3 1
chiller thermostat
3-way valve
The chiller cools the loop with sensible heat until the nodules drop to their
crystallisation temperature. At this point, they begin to change state (i.e. they
crystallise) by absorbing the cooling energy provided by the chiller.
The latent heat load levels off throughout this period. The temperature remains
constant, and a thermodynamic equilibrium is established. At the end of storage,
the temperature of the HTF falls rapidly to the setpoint temperature of the chiller,
shutting it off.
The chiller cools the loop with sensible heat. This drop in temperature signals the
end of the storage phase. The chiller must be:
• stopped in one stage,
• locked out to prevent it restarting.
It will not be able to restart until the system requires further cooling.
Operation of each
phase — series
connection
(continued)
Direct cooling Direct cooling occurs when the cooling capacity required by the system is lower
than the cooling capacity of the chiller (e.g. at the start of day in an office
building).
The two-way supply valve is open and the STL valve is closed. Port 2 of the
three-way valve remains closed. Nothing flows through the STL.
supply
sensor
supply valve
STL valve closed open
chiller
to
system
STL
system
pump
2
3 1
The supply sensor controls the chiller stages to adjust the supply temperature.
The thermostat functions as a low limit.
Operation of each
phase — series
connection
(continued)
Discharge and Discharge with direct cooling occurs when the cooling capacity required by the
direct cooling system is higher than the cooling capacity of the chiller (e.g. an office building
that has reached its maximum heat load). The two-way supply valve is open and
the STL valve is closed. The control system actuates the three-way valve to
maintain the supply temperature near the setpoint temperature. The flow rate in
the STL varies.
supply
sensor
supply valve
STL valve open
chiller closed
to
system
STL
system
pump
2
3 1
When the system requires peak cooling capacity, all the HTF flows through the
STL.
supply
sensor
supply valve
STL valve open
chiller closed
to
system
STL
system
pump
2
3 1
Operation of each
phase — series
connection
(continued)
Discharge Discharge alone takes place when cooling is taken from the STL while the chiller
alone is off (e.g. demand limiting in the winter, equipment servicing, etc.).
The chiller is controlled by a contact (utility, switch, etc.) that turns the
compressor on and off.
All the other components are in the same position as previously.
supply
sensor
supply valve
STL valve open
chiller closed
off
to
system
STL
system
pump
2
3 1
chiller 3-way
thermostat valve
capacity in kW
600
600
500 550
520
480
400
400
360
300 345
330
300
200 270 energy produced
250 daily
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 hours
Sizing an STL
(continued)
Selecting the Selecting nodules consists of choosing a phase-change temperature that is in line
nodules with the operating conditions. This temperature must be at least 4 K lower than
the supply temperature. The inlet temperature of the primary circuit in the
exchanger must be taken into consideration.
This condition is used to select the first type of nodule. Another type may be
selected by selecting a lower phase-change temperature in order to increase the
transfer capacities.
In some instances, this 4 K difference between the phase-change temperature and
the HTF supply temperature may be lowered depending on specific operating
conditions.
When the phase-change temperature is 0°C, C-type nodules should be selected as
they are less expensive than S.00-type nodules. However, S.00 nodules may be
more advantageous if the required capacity is especially high (e.g. backup).
In our example, the chilling temperature of the glycol/water mix in the exchanger
primary circuit is 5/10°C (storage operating temperature). We therefore will use
C nodules (difference of 5 K).
Calculation of The bar chart is used to calculate the maximum daily energy required by the
the daily system. It is expressed in kWh.
energy needed
In our example, the amount of energy is the sum of the capacities required every
hour, or:
24
Qd = Σ C(i) = 4405 kWh
i=1
Calculation of When sizing the chiller, bear in mind that its capacity is a function of the
the minimum evaporation temperature. The capacity during charging will therefore be lower
chiller capacity than the direct cooling capacity.
If consumption is spread evenly over 24 hours, the minimum compressor
capacity needed to ensure the level of cooling requested would be:
Qd/24 = Cmin in kW
Or, for our example:
4405
C min = = 183.5 kW
24
Sizing an STL
(continued)
Reduction In our example, the glycol/water mix has the following temperatures upon
coefficient leaving the chiller:
• 5°C during direct cooling,
• -6°C during storage.
This corresponds to a drop in temperature at the evaporator of 11 K.
We apply a coefficient for the drop in capacity between storage and direct
cooling. We consider that there is a 3% drop per degree of variation in the
evaporation temperature for units with reciprocating chillers. This gives the
following formula:
f = 1 - 0.03 × Difference
In our example: f = 1 - 0.03 × 11 = 0.67
Calculation of The chiller provides direct cooling for a total of 11 hours (7 am-6 pm) at normal
the actual capacity since the minimum capacity calculated for it is always less than the
chiller capacity required capacity.
Energy is stored for 13 hours (6 pm-7 am) at reduced capacity.
The amount of energy provided over a 24-hour period must be the same as the
daily energy requested.
Or:
Q = storage time × Cr + discharge time × Cn
and Cr = f × Cn
Hence Q = (f × storage time + discharge time) × Cn
Q = daily energy provided by the unit
Cr = reduced capacity
Cn = normal capacity
In our example:
Q = (0.67 × 13 + 11) × Cn
Since Q = Qd
The unit capacity can be determined.
Qj
Cn =
(f × storage time + discharge time)
Sizing an STL
(continued)
Storable energy Energy that the STL can store is the same as the sum of:
• the cooling energy of the liquid eutectic prior to crystallisation,
• the crystallisation energy,
• the cooling energy of the solid eutectic after crystallisation.
Es = Qsl + Ql + Qss
Where:
Es = storable energy
Qsl = cooling energy of liquid eutectic
Ql = latent heat of solidification
Qss = cooling energy of solid eutectic.
Sizing an STL
(continued)
Calculation of At the end of discharge, the nodules are at the operating temperature of the HTF.
the storable At the start of storage, they cool down to the phase-change temperature. At the
energy end of storage, they cool down to the temperature of the heat-transfer fluid.
We consider this temperature to be the mean value of the storage temperature
regime.
In our example:
• The temperature regime is 5/10°C and the temperature of the nodules is 5°C
during direct cooling.
• Because the flow rate is constant during storage, the temperature difference is
proportional to the capacity, thus equal to 0.67 × 5 = 3.4°C. The temperature
regime is therefore -6/-2.6°C.
− 6 − 2.6
• The mean value is = − 4.3°C ,
2
• The temperature of the nodules at the end of storage is considered to be
-4.3°C.
The cooling energy of the liquid eutectic is therefore:
Qsl = Hsl (5 - 0)
Where Hsl is the sensible heat in the liquid phase (here, 1.1 kWh/m3/K)
The cooling energy of the solid eutectic is therefore:
Qss = Hss × (0 - (- 4.3))
Where Hss is the sensible heat in the solid phase (here, 0.7 kWh/m3/K)
The latent heat for our example is 48.4 kWh/m3.
The storable energy per m3 in the STL is:
Es = 1.1 × 5 + 48.4 + 0.7 × 4.3 = 56.9 kWh/m3
Calculation of The minimum storage volume is the ratio between the energy to be stored and
the storage the storable energy per unit of volume.
volume
stored energy
V=
Es
In our example:
1950
V= = 34.3m 3
56.9
Optimisation and
compatibility of
transfers
Calculation of We have seen that the STL functions like a heat exchanger. It obeys the same
transfer laws which govern conventional heat exchangers. The transfer capacity is
capacities calculated using the following formula:
C = K × S × LMTD
where:
K = transfer coefficient in kW/m²/K
S = exchange surface in m²
LMTD = logarithmic mean temperature difference.
It can be converted to:
P = Kv × V × LMTD
where:
Kv = transfer coefficient brought to the unit of volume in kW/m3/K
V = storage volume
LMTD = logarithmic mean temperature difference.
The logarithmic mean difference is calculated using the following formula:
Tin − Tstorage − Tout − Tstorage
LMTD =
Tin − Tstorage
Ln
Tout − Tstorage
where:
Tin: temperature of HTF entering tank
Tout: temperature of HTF exiting tank
Tstorage: phase-change temperature.
Optimisation and
compatibility of
transfers
(continued)
Optimisation The above selection is based on efforts to find the minimum chiller capacity and
the corresponding maximum STL volume to meet our requirements. This process
makes it possible, as a first step, to define the minimum cooling capacity that
may be installed. It does not necessarily correspond, however, to the most
cost-effective solution. There are in fact a multitude of capacities and volumes
that meet requirements.
This is why it is necessary to also take an in-depth look at all the parameters that
can come into play when looking for cost-effective capacity and volume.
For example, one should look at technical aspects, financial aspects, noise,
safety, electrical power connections and the reduction of refrigerants.
Start of filling The tank must be filled one-third full with water so that:
• the nodules are cushioned when they are poured in the tank,
• the nodules naturally distribute themselves inside the tank.
The tank is filled by pouring bags of nodules through the manhole on top.
End of filling It is absolutely essential that the tank is filled evenly. There are two reasons for
this:
• the volume of the nodules is lower than the design volume,
• the HTF will be bypassed, lowering the flow along the nodules.
Because it is essential that the nodules are evenly distributed in the tank, the
filling procedure below must be followed to the letter (especially for horizontal
tanks).
When the tank is half full, one or more people must enter the tank to make sure
the nodules are evenly distributed.
End of filling Continue checking the distribution of the nodules until the tank is full. The
(continued) nodules must always be grouped near the ends of the tank.
Note:
While filling the tank, make sure no foreign bodies are left inside:
• bags,
• ties,
• etc.
Storage curve In order to make sure the STL is operating correctly, the storage curve must be
checked. An example of a typical curve is given below:
T (˚C)
phase-change A B C
temperature
t (hours)
Zone A: Liquid sensible heat is used to cool the nodules from the operating
temperature to the phase-change temperature.
Zone B: The eutectic inside the nodules changes state at a constant temperature.
The temperature of the HTF remains virtually the same throughout this phase.
Zone C: This zone corresponds to cooling of the nodules using solid sensible
heat. The chiller will have to be shut off during this rapid drop in temperature.
The chiller should not be shut off before the STL is charged, otherwise the STL
will be only partically charged. The chiller setpoint must be approx. 2 K lower
than the storage temperature.
Discharge In order to make sure the STL is operating correctly, the discharge curve must be
curve checked. An example of a typical curve is given below:
T (˚C)
phase-change D E F
temperature
t (hours)
Example
schematic
diagram
supply
3
limitation sensor
filter
sensor
2 3-way
1
valve exchanger
pump
chiller to
plates system
exchanger
STL
chiller
pump
system
4
pump
expansion
vessel
shut-off valve
control valve
Component Role
Motorised On/Off STL valve: No. 1 Used to inhibit daytime storage (open during storage, closed during
discharge).
Motorised On/Off STL valve with Used to inhibit daytime storage and obtain a constant flow through
bypass: No. 2 the chiller (open during discharge, closed during storage).
Motorised On/Off valve at chiller Used to direct the flow to the control valve to compensate for
outlet: No. 3 pressure drops in the STL (open during storage, closed during
discharge).
Motorised On/Off valve at chiller Used to cut off the chiller during discharge alone.
inlet: No. 4
Check valve Forces the HTM to circulate in the desired direction.
Limitation sensor Controls the three-way valve to protect the heat exchanger from
freezing by a too-low inlet temperature.
Expansion vessel Absorbs variations in volume. Its expansion capacity during air
conditioning and at typical pressures must be at least 3% of the
volume of the STL.