ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

Name Wajid Saghir

Reg. No. Sp15-RO7-007

Assignment no. One

Submitted to Dr. Irshad

Date 16-09-2015

COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY, ABBOTTABAD
Table of Contents

1. Ecological Engineering...................................................................1-3
1.1 Constructed wetland.................................................................................1-4
1.2 Types.......................................................................................................... 1-4
1.3 Subsurface flow wetland...........................................................................1-5
1.3.1 Applications.......................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 Design considerations.......................................................................1-5
1.3.3 Operation and maintenance..............................................................1-6
1.4 Surface flow wetland.................................................................................1-6
1.4.1 Design characteristics.......................................................................1-6
1.4.2 Contaminants removal.......................................................................1-7
1.4.3 Nitrogen removal...............................................................................1-7
1.4.4 Nitrification.........................................................................................1-7
1.4.5 Denitrification.....................................................................................1-8
1.4.6 References........................................................................................1-8
1. Ecological Engineering

Ecological engineering is an emerging study of integrating ecology and engineering,

concerned with the design, monitoring, and construction of ecosystems. According to
Mitsch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate human society
with its natural environment for the benefit of both"1

Ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has
taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its
broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. Ecological engineering was
introduced by Howard Odum and others 2 as utilizing natural energy sources as the
predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems.

Mitsch and Jorgensen wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services
such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted 3, 4 the design should be systems
based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum 5 emphasized
that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering.

Mitsch and Jørgensen were the first to define ecological engineering and provide
ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the
number of principles6. They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989
book and clarified it further in their 2004 book. They suggested the goal of ecological
engineering as:

 The restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human

activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and
 The development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and
ecological values.
They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as:

 It is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems.

 It can be a field test of ecological theory.
 It relies on integrated system approaches.
 It conserves non-renewable energy.
 It supports biological conservation.

Ecological engineering design will follow a cycle similar to engineering design - problem
formulation (goal), problem analysis (constraints), alternative solutions search, decision
among alternatives, and specification of a complete solution. Elements that distinguish
ecological engineering design are elaborated by many authors, however a singular
approach is still absent. Typically, the design goal involves protecting an at-risk
ecosystem, restoring a degraded ecosystem, or creating a new sustainable ecosystem to
satisfy needs of nature and society.

A temporal framework is provided by Matlock et al., 7 stating the design solutions are
considered in ecological time. In selecting between alternatives, the design should
incorporate ecological economics in design evaluation and acknowledge a guiding value
system which promotes biological conservation8.

 Applying to all types of ecosystems,

 Adapting engineering design methods,
 Design steps should be based on utilizing ecological science and theory,
 The self-designing capacity of ecosystems;
 Accept the adaptive management theory of learning from mistakes as the design
will field test ecological theory;
 Utilize integrated system approaches;
 Conserve non-renewable energy

The common techniques of Ecological Engineering are Bioremediation and constructed

wetland.

1.1 Constructed wetland

A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland created for the purpose of treating
anthropogenic discharge such as municipal or industrial wastewater, storm water runoff.
It may also be created for land reclamation after mining, refineries, or other ecological
disturbances such as required mitigation for natural areas lost to a development.
Constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use natural functions of vegetation,
soil, and organisms to treat different water streams. Depending on the type of wastewater
that has to be treated the system has to be adjusted accordingly, meaning that pre- or
post-treatments are done.
Constructed wetlands can be designed to emulate the features of natural wetlands, such as
acting as a bio-filter or removing sediments and pollutants such as heavy metals from the
water. Some constructed wetlands may also serve as a habitat for native and migratory
wildlife, although that is usually not their main purpose.
The two main types of constructed wetlands are subsurface flow and surface flow
wetlands. The planted vegetation plays a role in contaminant removal but the filter bed,
consisting usually of a combination of sand and gravel, has an equally important role to
play9 .

1.2 Types
The main two constructed wetlands types are:
Subsurface flow constructed wetland
Surface flow constructed wetland
1.3 Subsurface flow wetland
Subsurface flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and vertical flow
constructed wetlands. In the vertical flow constructed wetland, the effluent moves
vertically from the planted layer down through the substrate and out. In the horizontal
flow constructed wetland the effluent moves horizontally, parallel to the surface. Vertical
flow constructed wetlands are considered to be more efficient with less area required
compared to horizontal flow constructed wetlands. However, they need to be interval-
loaded and their design requires more know-how while horizontal flow constructed
wetlands can receive wastewater continuously and are easier to build.
The French System combines primary and secondary treatment of raw wastewater. The
effluent passes various filter beds whose grain size is getting smaller (from gravel to
sand).

1.3.1 Applications
Subsurface flow wetlands can treat a variety of different wastewaters, such as household
wastewater, agricultural, paper mill wastewater, mining runoff, tannery or meat
processing wastes and storm water.
The quality of the effluent is determined by the design and should be customized for the
intended reuse application (like irrigation or toilet flushing) or the disposal method.

1.3.2 Design considerations

The wastewater passes through a sand medium on which plants are rooted. A gravel
medium can be used as well and is mainly deployed in horizontal flow systems though it
does not work as efficiently as sand.
Constructed subsurface flow wetlands are meant as secondary treatment systems which
means that the effluent needs to first pass a primary treatment which effectively removes
solids. Such a primary treatment can consist of sand and grit removal, grease trap,
compost filter, septic tank, Imhoff tank, anaerobic baffled reactor or up flow anaerobic
sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. The following treatment is based on different biological
and physical processes like filtration, adsorption or nitrification. Most important is the
biological filtration through a biofilm of aerobic or facultative bacteria. Coarse sand in
the filter bed provides a surfaces for microbial growth and supports the adsorption and
filtration processes. For those microorganisms the oxygen supply needs to be sufficient.
Especially in warm and dry climates the effects of evapotranspiration and precipitation
are significant. In cases of water loss, a vertical flow constructed wetland is preferable to
a horizontal because of an unsaturated upper layer and a shorter retention time.

The effluent can have a yellowish or brownish color if domestic wastewater or

Blackwater is treated. Treated greywater usually does not tend to have a color.
Concerning pathogen levels, treated greywater meets the standards of pathogen levels for
safe discharge to surface water. Treated domestic wastewater might need a tertiary
treatment, depending on the intended reuse application.
Plantings of reed beds are popular in European constructed subsurface flow wetlands.
Other plants are cattails (Typha spp.) and sedges.

1.3.3 Operation and maintenance

Overloading peaks should not cause performance problems while continuous overloading
lead to a loss of treatment capacity through too much suspended solids, sludge or fats.
Subsurface flow wetlands require the following maintenance tasks: regular checking of
the pretreatment process, of pumps, of influent loads and distribution on the filter bed.

1.4 Surface flow wetland

Surface flow wetlands, also known as free water surface constructed wetlands, can be
used for tertiary treatment or polishing of effluent from wastewater treatment plants.
They are also suitable to treat storm water drainage.
Pathogens are destroyed by natural decay, predation from higher organisms,
sedimentation and UV irradiation since the water is exposed to direct sunlight. The soil
layer below the water is anaerobic but the roots of the plants release oxygen around them,
this allows complex biological and chemical reactions.
Surface flow wetlands can be supported by a wide variety of soil types including bay
mud and other silty clays.
Plants such as Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Pontederia spp. are used
worldwide (although Typha and Phragmites are highly invasive).
However, surface flow constructed wetlands may encourage mosquito breeding. They
may also have high algae production that lowers the effluent quality and due to open
water surface mosquitos and odors, it is more difficult to integrate them in an urban
neighborhood.

1.4.1 Design characteristics

Surface flow constructed wetlands are characterized by the horizontal flow of wastewater
across the roots of the plants. They require a relatively large area to purify water
compared to subsurface flow constructed wetlands and may have increased smell and
lower performance in winter.
Subsurface flow constructed wetlands: the flow of wastewater occurs between the roots
of the plants and there is no water surfacing (kept below gravel). As a result the system is
more efficient, doesn't attract mosquitoes is less odorous and less sensitive to winter
conditions. Also, less area is needed to purify water—5–10 square meters (54–108 sq.
ft.). A downside to the system are the intakes, which can clog easily, although some
larger sized gravel will often bypass this problem. For large applications, they are often
used in combination with vertical flow constructed wetlands. In warm climate, for
organic loaded sewage, they require about 3.5 m2 / 150 L for black and grey water
combined, with an average water level of 0.50 m. In cold climate they will require the
double size (7 m2/150 L). For Blackwater treatment only, they will require 2 m2 /50 L in
warm weather.
Vertical flow constructed wetlands: these are similar to subsurface flow constructed
wetlands but the flow of water is vertical instead of horizontal and the water goes through
a mix of media, it requires less space than SF but is dependent on an external energy
source. Intake of oxygen into the water is better (thus bacteria activity increased), and
pumping is pulsed to reduce obstructions within the intakes. The increased efficiency
requires only 3 square meters (32 sq. ft.) of space per person, down to 1.5 square meters
in hot climates.

1.4.2 Contaminants removal

Physical, chemical, and biological processes combine in wetlands to remove
contaminants from wastewater. An understanding of these processes is fundamental not
only to designing wetland systems but to understanding the fate of chemicals once they
enter the wetland. Theoretically, wastewater treatment within a constructed wetland
occurs as it passes through the wetland medium and the plant rhizosphere. A thin film
around each root hair is aerobic due to the leakage of oxygen from the rhizomes, roots,
and rootlets10. Aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms facilitate decomposition of
organic matter. Microbial nitrification and subsequent denitrification releases nitrogen as
gas to the atmosphere. Phosphorus is co-precipitated with iron, aluminum, and calcium
compounds located in the root-bed medium11. Suspended solids filter out as they settle in
the water column in surface flow wetlands or are physically filtered out by the medium
within subsurface flow wetlands. Harmful bacteria and viruses are reduced by filtration
and adsorption by biofilms on the gravel or sand media in subsurface flow and vertical
flow systems.

1.4.3 Nitrogen removal

The dominant forms of nitrogen in wetlands that are of importance to wastewater
treatment include organic nitrogen, ammonia, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen
gases. Total nitrogen refers to all nitrogen species. Wastewater nitrogen removal is
important because of ammonia’s toxicity to fish if discharged into watercourses.
Excessive nitrates in drinking water is thought to cause methemoglobinemia in infants,
which decreases the blood's oxygen transport ability.
Ammonia removal occurs in constructed wetlands - if they are designed to achieve
biological nutrient removal - in a similar ways as in sewage treatment plants, except that
no external, energy-intensive addition of air (oxygen) is needed. It is a two-step process,
consisting of nitrification followed by denitrification. The nitrogen cycle is completed as
follows: ammonia in the wastewater is converted to ammonium ions; the aerobic
bacterium Nitrosomonas sp. oxidizes ammonium to nitrite; the bacterium Nitrobacter sp.
then converts nitrite to nitrate. Under anaerobic conditions, nitrate is reduced to relatively
harmless nitrogen gas that enters the atmosphere.

1.4.4 Nitrification
Nitrification is the biological conversion of organic and inorganic nitrogenous
compounds from a reduced state to a more oxidized state, based on the action of two
different bacteria types. Nitrification is strictly an aerobic process in which the end
product is nitrate (NO3). The process of nitrification oxidizes ammonium (from the
wastewater) to nitrite (NO2), and then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate (NO3).

1.4.5 Denitrification
Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of oxidized nitrogen anions, nitrate and
nitrite to produce the gaseous products nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
nitrogen gas (N2), with concomitant oxidation of organic matter. The end products, N2O
and N2 are gases that re-enter the atmosphere.

1.4.6 References
1. W.J. Mitsch & S.E. Jorgensen (1989), "Introduction to Ecological Engineering",
In: W.J. Mitsch and S.E. Jorgensen (Editors), Ecological Engineering: An
Introduction to Ecotechnology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 3-12
2. H.T. Odum et al. (1963), Experiments with Engineering of Marine Ecosystems,
in: Publication of the Institute of Marine Science of the University of Texas, 9:
374-403.
3. W.J. Mitsch (1993), "Ecological Engineering - A Cooperative Role with the
Planetary Life Support Systems" in: Environmental Science & Technology, 27:
438-45.
4. W.J. Mitsch (1996), "Ecological Engineering: a new paradigm for engineers and
ecologists", In: P.C. Schulze (Editor), Engineering Within Ecological Constraints.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 114-132
5. H.T. Odum (1989), "Ecological Engineering and Self-Organization" In: W.J.
Mitsch and S.E. Jørgensen (Editors), Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to
Ecotechnology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 79-101.
6. W.J. Mitsch & S.E. Jørgensen (2003), "Ecological engineering: A field whose
time has come", in: Ecological Engineering, 20(5): 363-377.
7. M.D. Matlock and others (2001), "Ecological Engineering: A Rationale for
Standardized Curriculum and Professional Certification in the United States", in:
Ecological Engineering, 17: 403-409.
8. S.D. Bergen et al. (2001), "Design Principles for Ecological Engineering", in:
Ecological Engineering, 18: 201-210.
9. Hoffmann, H., Platzer, C., von Münch, E., Winker, M. (2011): Technology
review of constructed wetlands - Subsurface flow constructed wetlands for
greywater and domestic wastewater treatment. Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany.
10. Brix, H., Schierup, H. (1989): Danish experience with sewage treatment in
constructed wetlands. In: Hammer, D.A., ed. (1989): Constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment. Lewis publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, pp. 565–573.
11. Davies, T.H., Hart, B.T. (1990): Use of aeration to promote nitrification in reed
beds treating wastewater. Advanced Water Pollution Control 11: 77–84.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-040784-5.50012-7. ISBN 9780080407845.