Geofluids (2011) 11, 343–348 doi: 10.1111/j.1468-8123.2011.00354.

Geologically-driven pore fluid pressure models and their

implications for petroleum exploration. Introduction to
thematic set
S. O’CONNOR1, R. SWARBRICK1 AND R. LAHANN2
1
GeoPressure Technology Ltd, Mountjoy Research Centre, Durham, UK; 2Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

ABSTRACT
Abnormal pressure, either low or high, is commonly found in many basins around the world. A clear understand-
ing of these pressure regimes is needed if wells are to be drilled safely. One of the prerequisites for this planning
is prediction of pore fluid pressure, in both reservoirs and also in shales and other low-permeability lithologies. To
this end, recent advances, captured in this thematic set, have seen the development of geologically derived pres-
sure models, underpinned by an understanding of the multiple mechanisms that cause abnormal pressures. These
understandings lead to more accurate pore fluid pressure interpretation in more complex lithological regimes such
as carbonate ⁄ clastic systems and salt-dominated systems that often contain highly overpressured intra-salt reser-
voirs. Further, these models are now being used to drive new exploration plays by improving velocity predictions
to improve sub-salt pore pressure predictions and identifying hydrodynamic aquifers that provide lateral migration
paths for fluids.

Key words: lateral drainage, load transfer, overpressure, pressure models

Received 30 September 2011; accepted 7 October 2011

Corresponding author: Stephen O’Connor, GeoPressure Technology Ltd, Mountjoy Research Centre, Durham, DH1
3UZ, UK.
Email: s.a.oconnor@geopressure.co.uk. Tel ⁄ Fax: +3 0191 3342191.

Geofluids (2011) 11, 343–348

well control problem, costing time and compromising

INTRODUCTION
Accurate pore fluid pressure interpretation is a key compo-
nent for successful and safe planning and drilling of oil and
gas wells worldwide. Pore fluid pressure interpretations are
often based on analysing well data from neighbouring wells
to the drilling location, and factoring in a degree of uncer-
tainty, usually based on the quality of data. The resulting
pore fluid pressure profile is integrated with an estimate of
fracture pressure and the overburden (or Sv, vertical stress,
the weight of the rock and fluids within) to produce a well
plan. The well plan enables equipment to be designed and
ordered for the safe drilling of the well. This well plan also
determines how drillable the well may be, that is, how
close the pore fluid pressure is to fracturing the rock. The
well plan is the basis for a drilling mud density programme
designed, so that the circulating mud weight is greater
than the expected pore fluid pressure. For instance, if the
mud weight is too low, an influx or a ‘kick’ may occur. By
contrast, if the mud density is too high, the mud weight
can fracture the formation. Either occurrence results in a
safety. Ideally, the well plan should be the joint responsi-
bility of the geoscientists who have built up knowledge of
the prospect and the expected fluid and rock properties,
and the drilling engineers who are charged with the execu-
tion of well plan. All parties should have explored the rele-
vant offset well data within their respective domains to
offer calibration and support for the details of the well
plan.
The generation of pore fluid pressures in the sub-surface
is inherently a geological process, caused by a variety of
factors, such as rapid sediment loading or inability to
dewater and shale-related changes during burial. Many of
these processes are influenced by temperature; therefore,
knowledge of the basin history, stratigraphy, clay mineral-
ogy, hydrocarbon maturation and geothermal gradients
can reduce the uncertainty in predicting pore pressures.
Rather than relying upon the drilling data from neighbour-
ing wells to predict the pore pressures at the new well loca-
tion, pore pressure estimates can be constrained by use of
a coupled pressure-geological model, that is, one driven by

 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

344 S. O’CONNOR et al.
understanding the mechanisms that create ‘additional’ or
overpressure. The combined pressure-geological approach
is currently being applied to predict pore fluid pressures in
conventional regimes, carbonate ⁄ clastic systems and salt-
dominated systems that often contain highly overpressured
intra-salt reservoirs.
The importance of pressure and pressure data on the
analysis of a petroleum system is the main purpose of the
thematic set. The four papers in the thematic set provide
further insights into the understanding of overpressure
mechanisms that will help form the basis for the next gen-
eration of pore pressure models. Furthermore, the papers
demonstrate the use of pressure data in providing a new
exploration model for the Central North Sea via natural
drainage of pore pressures and hydrodynamic aquifers.
However, to appreciate the significance of the papers and
their context, a short summary of prediction methodology
is here presented, coupled with a discussion of their limita-
tions.
LOW-TEMPERATURE PORE PRESSURE
PREDICTION METHODS
Commonly used methods to estimate the magnitude of
pore pressures in shales include the equivalent depth or
‘vertical’ method and the Eaton ratio or ‘horizontal’
(Eaton 1975) method. These techniques are based on the
identification of anomalously high porosities for the depth
(a)
C2 C1
Fig. 1. (a) Sonic data is anomalously compared with that predicted by normal compaction behaviour as overpressure builds (b) as porosity is retained effec-
tive stress remains constant and overpressure as caused disequilibrium increases (path A-B). Path B-C defines the increases in pore fluid pressure (and
decrease in effective stress) during fluid expansion and and load transfer. On (a), the respective changes in porosity are shown i.e. C1 for fluid expansion, C2
for load transfer.
of burial. The main reason for the presence of high porosi-
ties is because of the ineffective dewatering of shales during
burial, whereby part of the increasing vertical load of the
overburden (combined weight of the rock column and flu-
ids) is transferred to the fluid phase, increasing pore pres-
sure above hydrostatic. Both relationships are derived from
the soil mechanics work of Terzaghi (1943) (Eq. 1) and
relate the values from log data, such as sonic (or seismic
velocity data) and resistivity, to values associated with nor-
mal porosity loss by the use of a normal compaction curve
(Fig. 1a).
Sv ¼ v þ Pf ð1Þ
where, rv, vertical effective stress; Pf, pore fluid pressure;
Sv, vertical stress, derived from density data or sonic-
derived density data.
In geological settings where sedimentation rates are
high, such as the shallow section of the Malay Basin (Yus-
sof and Swarbrick 1994; Madon 2007) and the Nile Delta
(Mann & MacKenzie 1990), the sediments are relatively
young and geothermal gradients are low; the main mecha-
nism of overpressure generation is under-compaction often
referred to as disequilibrium compaction (Hubbert &
Ruby 1959). The pore pressure profile in this environment
is overburden parallel when dominated by low-permeability
shales (Swarbrick et al. 2002), that is, increasing overpres-
sure with increasing depth at a near-constant porosity imply-
ing a near-constant vertical effective stress (overburden
Pore fluid pressure
(b)
 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Geofluids, 11, 343–348

minus pore pressure) (Path A–B; Fig. 1b). The predicted
shale-based pore pressure can then be compared to those
direct pressure measurements from wireline formation test
tools in porous reservoir lithologies. If the reservoirs are
confined and limited in extent, then they provide valuable
calibration to the shale-based prediction.
PRESSURE PREDICTION WITHIN COMPLEX
REGIONS
The industry is now searching for hydrocarbons in environ-
ments where temperatures typically exceed 100C. At these
temperatures, additional mechanisms other than disequilib-
rium compaction commence to generate overpressure.
Thermally driven processes include aquathermal expansion,
mineral transformation and hydrocarbon generation
(Osborne & Swarbrick 1997; Swarbrick & Osborne 1998).
Pore fluid pressures may increase because of fluid volume
expansion or by framework weakening and load transfer.
The depth at which 100C is reached depends on regio-
nal heat flow. The 100C isotherm can be located at rela-
tively shallow depths, for example, <2 km in the Malay
Basin where the geothermal gradient is 51.8C km)1 (Ha-
lim 1994). By contrast in the Caspian Sea, the 100C iso-
therm can be at depths in excess of 6 km (Bredehoeft
et al., 1988). In the Central North Sea, temperatures in
excess of 100C occur for most exploration targets of Cre-
taceous and older reservoirs, with the added complexity of
the presence of carbonates as well as the fact that the
Jurassic target rocks are ‘old’ and likely cemented and fault
compartmentalized. In these environments, algorithms
such as (Eaton 1975) that relies on the tool response to
function as a proxy for porosity, provide very unreliable
results. In summary, additional (often secondary) mecha-
nisms, plus modification of porosity in shales by diagenetic
change at elevated pressures, mean that there is not a sim-
ple and predictable relationship porosity between effective
stress.
The key to reducing risk and constraining pore pressures
in these environments is to understand the mechanisms
that generate (and then distribute throughout a basin) the
pore pressures. By understanding these pore fluid pres-
sures, an assessment of the locations of vertical and lateral
seals (flow barriers) can be made. Recognizing the ability
for different lithologies to maintain or dissipate fluid pres-
sures over geological time is essential for constructing geo-
logically driven pore fluid pressure models.
SECONDARY MECHANISMS OF
OVERPRESSURE GENERATION
The secondary overpressure (not compaction disequilib-
rium), as described earlier, can be transmitted to any asso-
ciated sands, particularly sands of restricted extent, such as
 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Geofluids, 11, 343–348
Geologically-driven pressure models 345
turbidities. More laterally extensive sands have the ability
to drain this pressure away. Fluid expansion ⁄ fluid volume
processes (termed ‘unloading’ by Bowers 1994) include
dehydration reactions, such as gypsum to anhydrite and
smectite to illite, producing water and silica. Maturation of
hydrocarbons, particularly in the case of gas generation,
produces rapid volume expansion, reducing sonic and seis-
mic velocities (and decreasing resistivity) and increasing
pore pressure substantially. These processes are not associ-
ated with anomalously high porosity for depth of burial
(disequilibrium compaction), as porosity loss is irreversible.
If no porosity anomaly is detectable, under-compaction-
based relationships will under-predict pressure. Relation-
ships described by Bowers (1994) provide a solution where
fluid expansion is present or assumed. The method relies
on changes in velocity as a result of flexing of the connect-
ing pore network, rather than changing the inter-granular
or ‘storage’ porosity. The flexing as a result of increasing
pore pressure reduces the grain-to-grain contact areas and
therefore impacts on sonic (and seismic velocities) and
resistivity responses but has little effect on density or neu-
tron values (as the bulk rock porosity remains essentially
unchanged). After unloading, an increase in effective stress
(caused by a reduction in pore pressure) should result in a
return to the primary compaction curve via a hysteresis
pathway.
Lahann et al. (2001), Lahann (2002) argued that the
primary influence of the smectite to illite chemical reaction
was actually to affect rock compressibility, rather than to
create additional overpressure by the released water (Harri-
son & Summa 1991; Audet 1995). Shale diagenesis
changes the mineralogy, volume and orientation of the
load-bearing grains in the shale, such as potassium feldspar
and kerogen as well as reducing the volume of bound
water. The process creates a weaker (more compactable)
grain framework (Lahann et al. 2001, Lahann 2002). The
resulting overpressure is referred to as load transfer in
Swarbrick et al. (2002) as load is transferred from load-
bearing mineral grains onto the pore fluid. These reactions
occur where the temperature exceeds approximately 80C,
although the temperature of recognizable reaction is more
typically in the range of 100–120C during the onset in
young Tertiary sediments. If the fluids generated by min-
eral transformation cannot escape, velocity is reduced and
density may increase, and overpressure builds.
Where processes occur that affect compressibility, defor-
mation will be inelastic, and the compaction state of the
rock permanently altered and therefore a separate, deep
compaction model may be required in addition to a shal-
low model (Kathara 2006). In a relatively impermeable sys-
tem, there will be an extra load superimposed onto the
fluid phase as a result of the applied stress. Unloading
as described by Bowers (1994) assumes that sediment
behaviour is between elastic and plastic, and therefore, this
346 S. O’CONNOR et al.
Fig. 2. Typical Velocity vs. Density signatures and their associated, causal
mechanisms of overpressure generation (from Hoesni 2004).
relationship may only provide a partial solution for pore
pressure prediction where rock compressibility has been
affected. Load transfer can be differentiated from unload-
ing by an increase in density. Velocity versus density
cross-plotting (Fig. 2) allows these mechanisms to be
differentiated quickly. Both unloading and load transfer
can result in a decrease in effective stress as a result of
increased pore pressure with no further burial and with
no ⁄ minimal associated porosity anomaly, although a veloc-
ity anomaly will likely occur as described earlier. This
behaviour is illustrated in Fig. 1 where overpressure
increases from B to C.
THIS VOLUME
The four papers in this thematic set cover a diverse range
of topics related to the theme of pore pressure prediction,
based on observations from three contrasting high-pressure
regions, namely Gulf of Mexico, North Sea and Middle
East. The first paper reviews the poorly understood phe-
nomenon of load transfer, both in terms of the actual pro-
cess and the quantification of the magnitude of possible
overpressure that this mechanism can generate. Lahann
and Swarbrick (2011) here provide a comprehensive review
of previous work regarding the effects of smectite to illite
conversion and its effect as a fluid source to increase ⁄ create
additional overpressure. In their paper, the authors discuss
the pressure influences of feldspar reactivity and the devel-
opment of preferred orientation as smectite transforms to
illite. Their results suggest that an organic-rich, smectitic
shale would be expected to provide a greater pore pressure
increase (1500–3000 psi) than an organic-poor, smectite-
poor shale (750–1500 psi). Observed relationships
between shale density and calculated effective stress in
three Gulf of Mexico shelf wells confirm changes in shale
properties with depth. Furthermore, the density–effective
stress changes cannot be explained by fluid expansion alone
(i.e. volume change of water or gas expansion or by predia-
genesis compaction), but are consistent with a dynamic
diagenetic modification (mineralogy, texture and compac-
tion properties) of the shale during burial resulting in load
transfer. These findings support the incorporation of diage-
netic modification of compaction properties as part of the
pore fluid pressure interpretation process.
O’Connor et al. (2008) describe a laterally draining sys-
tem on the Norwegian Flank of the Central North Sea, in
the vicinity of the Jurassic Ula oilfield. In this area, multi-
ple overpressure generation mechanisms (likely compaction
disequilibrium, gas generation and load transfer) contrib-
ute to the high pressures at depths in excess of 3.0 km
(Swarbrick et al. 2005). A schematic illustration of the
concepts at work here is shown in Fig. 3. Lateral drainage
(reservoirs have lost pressure via connected reservoirs or
faults to shallower levels ⁄ seabed) provides a mechanism for
overpressured fluids to move laterally in a basin. Changes
in overpressure across a reservoir can be used to infer
hydrodynamic, as opposed to static, reservoirs. Examples
of these types of reservoirs have recently been reported
(Palaeocene, North Sea; Dennis et al. 2000, 2005; Ormen
Lange Field, Mid-Norway; O’Connor et al. 2008; Mio-
cene Sub-Salt, Gulf of Mexico; Dias et al. 2010 and Cas-
pian; Tozer & Borthwick 2010). These types of reservoirs
cause hydrocarbon–water contacts at the base of oil and
gas fields to become tilted, increasing or decreasing
reserves.
In their paper, the authors note that analysis of regional
data show that the magnitude of overpressure in the Ula
Field area is substantially lower than expected by compari-
son with data at the same depth elsewhere in the Central
Graben. Moreover, pressures in the Cretaceous Chalk are
higher than those in the Jurassic reservoirs, which suggests
that the Ula reservoir has lost pressure on a semi-regional
scale. The authors speculate that the pressure loss relates
to de-pressuring of the Ula reservoir as a result of the frac-
ture pressure of the rock being exceeded in Block 8 ⁄ 10.
The timing of pressure loss in the Jurassic reservoir relates
to local salt movement. The pressure release is active at the
present time and is causing tilt of the oil ⁄ water contact in
the Ula Field, resulting in the western section of the Field
being flushed of oil. The direction of hydrodynamic flow,
coupled with buoyancy of the hydrocarbons, could allow
fill of salt-margin traps on the flanks of diapirs in the area.
Similarly, a lateral drainage or leakage event effect is
described in detail by Kukla et al. (2011). In a data set of
over 30 wells in the South Oman Salt Basin, the authors
investigate the distribution and generation of overpressures
in intra-salt Late Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian Ara
carbonate reservoirs, noting that a set of reservoirs are nor-
mally pressured, and another set of reservoirs have pressures
close to overburden values. The integration of structural,
petrophysical and seismic data with modelling of the matu-
ration history of hydrocarbons suggests that the overpres-
sure is generated by (i) rapid burial; (ii) thermal fluid
 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Geofluids, 11, 343–348

(a)
Un-drained pressure
Building up during burial
Water
gradient
Clastic
mini-basin
Kukla et al. (2011)
Pressure dissipation
Gas
gradient
Water
gradient
Impermeable
rock
(salt or shale)
Fig. 3. Schematic illustrating the relationship between reservoirs that (a) have the ability to laterally lose pressure as a result of areal extent and ⁄ or juxtaposi-
tion with high permeability sediments e.g. mini-basin clastic (Kukla et al., 2011) and (b) reservoirs that are stratigraphically isolated, and therefore maintain
pressure generated during burial.
effects; and (iii) kerogen conversion to fluid hydrocarbons.
The authors argue that if the normally pressured reservoirs
were originally at the same overpressure as all other reser-
voirs during salt kinetics and early Cambrian to early Ordo-
vician tectonics, these reservoirs came into contact with
clastic mini-basins, then the overpressures could be lost via
highly permeably layers that would act as ‘pressure valves’
(Fig. 3). Black, hydrocarbon-stained cores of Ara salt sur-
rounding the normally and highly overpressured reservoirs
suggest that loss of seal capacity and hydrocarbon flow has
occurred, because pore pressures caused dilation of the salt.
A cross-discipline pore pressure prediction approach is
taken by Taylor et al. (2011). The authors integrate multi-
ple geological and geophysical data types from the deep-
water Lower Tertiary trend of Walker Ridge and Keathley
Canyon, Gulf of Mexico. Their approach constrains the
sub-salt seismic velocity data (subsequently used to inter-
pret pore pressure) with the use of a model that integrates
velocity, density and pressure data with geomechanical rock
properties to aid well planning and risking. Often, detailed
seismic velocities closely match well velocities above salt,
but are inadequate to resolve the complex sub-salt velocity
structure. Their approach, therefore, is to constrain sub-
salt velocities by analysing numerous wells in the vicinity to
build a regional understanding of how lithology and age
affect sub-salt overpressures. The authors use well velocities
 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Geofluids, 11, 343–348
Geologically-driven pressure models 347
(b)
Laterally-drained Ula sand
(O’Connor et al. 2011)
Stratigraphically-isolated Ara
carbonates
Pressures retained
(Kukla et al. 2011)
to create ‘velocity layers’ sub-salt, merging with the supra-
salt seismic-based velocity model.
The authors propose that with their modelling approach,
the velocities in shales are age-constrained and stable over
significant distances. Their conclusions are strengthened by
the building of a robust sequence stratigraphic framework
into which well information such as pressure ⁄ kick data and
real-time LWD and drilling data have been integrated.
Once accurate velocities have been derived, sub-salt, pore
pressures are predicted using a combination of Eaton
(1975) and Bowers (1994) methods. The authors describe
how this improved understanding of sub-salt pore pres-
sures allows more accurate estimate of trap risking, hydro-
carbon column length and reserve estimation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the organizers of the Over-
pressure 2008 conference and to thank the presenters for
their contributions to a successful and stimulating confer-
ence. We would like to thank Janie Walsh for all her efforts
in coordinating this thematic set. Our thanks to Alexander
Edwards for reviewing a previous edition and his construc-
tive comments. Thanks also to Professor Richard Worden,
editor of Geofluids, for the opportunity to present these
papers and his hard work in bringing them to publication.
348 S. O’CONNOR et al.
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Geofluids
Volume 11, Numbers 4, November 2011
ISSN 1468-8115

CONTENTS

343 Geologically driven pore fluid pressure models and their implications for petroleum
exploration. Introduction to thematic set
S. O’Connor, R. Swarbrick and R. Lahann
349 Distribution and mechanisms of overpressure generation and deflation in the late
Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian South Oman Salt Basin
P.A. Kukla, L. Reuning, S. Becker, J.L. Urai and J. Schoenherr
362 Overpressure generation by load transfer following shale framework weakening due
to smectite diagenesis
R.W. Lahann and R.E. Swarbrick
376 Velocity modeling workflows for sub-salt geopressure prediction: a case study from
the Lower Tertiary trend, Gulf of Mexico
J. Taylor, T. Fishburn, O. Djordjevic and R. Sullivan
388 Integrating a hydrodynamically-titled OWC and a salt-withdrawal depositional model
to explore the Ula Trend
S. O’Connor, H. Rasmussen, R. Swarbrick and J. Wood

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