AIJAZ ALI HALEPOTO 2K10/GLG/07 GEOMORPHOLOGY

SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

CONCEPT: 1
The same physical processes and laws that operate today operated throughout geologic time,
although not necessarily always with the same intensity as now.
This is the great principle of modern geology. It also called the principle of
uniformitarianism. This principal was first proposed by Hutton in 1785, restated by Playfair and
popularized by Lyell. Hutton stated that the present is the key of the past. Geologic processes that
are operating today, operated through the geologic time, although not with same intensity.

CONCEPT: 2
Geologic structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of land forms and is reflected
in them.

The term structure refers here all those geologic structures in which earth material out of land
forms are carved differ from one another in their physical and chemical attributes.
In general the structural features of rocks are much older than the geomorphic forms
developed upon them. Such major structural features as folds and faults may go back to far distant
periods of diastrophism. Most rock structures were established long before the land forms which
exist upon them.

CONCEPT: 3
To a large degree the earth surface possesses relief because the geomorphic processes operate
at differential rates.

Varying lithology and structures are major factors that contribute in the differential wasting of the
earth surface. The local intensity of particular processes may change notably in response to
differences in temperature, moisture, altitude, exposure, topographic configuration. The
microclimatic factor may also change from valley floor to the hill top, between northern and
southern exposure. It can be stated that the rates of all weathering, mass wasting, erosion and
depositions varies appreciably within rather narrow limits in relation to the influence of local
conditioning factors.

CONCEPT: 4
Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprint upon land forms and each geomorphic
process develops its own characteristics assemblage of land forms.

Some geomorphic processes are endogenetic and others are exogenetic. Endogenetic processes
built up the areas, that destroyed by exogenetic processes.
The simple fact that individual geomorphic processes do produce distinctive land
features makes possible a genetic classification of land forms. The recognition of this fact and his
insistence upon its superiority to other types of landscape description was one of Davis important
contribution to geomorphology; for it changed the subject from one in which land forms were
classified upon a pure geomorphologic basis without regard to interpretations which could be made
from them as to their geomorphic history.

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CONCEPT: 5
As the different erosional agents act upon the earth surface there is produced an orderly
sequence of land forms.

The idea that land forms possess distinctive characteristics depending upon the stages of
their development was given by W.M Davis. He grew his concept of the geomorphic cycle and its
related stages of youth, maturity and old age reaching to the highest point in a topographic surface
of low relief to which Davis assigned the name peneplain. There are distinctive and expectable
characteristics at each stage of development are appointed about which there has been increasing
skepticism.
Under varying conditions of geology, structure, and climate land forms characteristics may
vary greatly even though geomorphic processes may have been acting for comparable periods of
time.

CONCEPT: 6
Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity.

Horberg interpret the landscapes and group them in five groups depending upon the complexity
and simplicity of the processes by which they are developed.
1- SIMPLE
2- COMPOUND
3- MONOCYCLIC
4- MULTICYCLIC
5- EXHUMED OR RESURRECTED LANDSCAPES

1- SIMPLE LANDSCAPES:
They are the product of a single dominant geomorphic process. Rare landscapes are found that
are developed by single geomorphic process.

2- COMPOUND LANDSCAPES:
The landscapes which are developed by major role of two or more geomorphic processes.
Nearly all landscapes are compound in nature.

3- MONOCYCLIC LANDSCAPES:
The landscapes that bear the imprint of only one geomorphologic cycle of erosion. They
are not much common.

4- MULTICYCLIC LANDSCAPES:
They are produced during more than one cycles of erosion. They are restricted to newly
developed land surfaces as a recently uplifted portion of the oceanic floor.

5- EXHUMED OR RESURRECTED:
Those landscapes which were formed during some past periods of geologic time, and then
buried beneath the covermass of igneous and sedimentary origin, then still later exposed
through removal of the cover.

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CONCEPT: 7
Little of the earth topography is older than tertiary and most of it no older than
Pleistocene.
Features of ancient times are rare, if they exist, are more likely exhumed.
Ashley made a strong case that most of the world scenery are post Miocene. He estimated that at
least 90% of our present land surface has been developed in post tertiary time and perhaps as much
as 99% is post middle Miocene in age.

CONCEPT: 8
Proper understanding of present day landscapes is impossible without a full approval of the
various influences of the geologic and climatic changes during the Pleistocene.

Geologic and climatic changes during the Pleistocene have had for reaching effects upon the
present day topography. Glaciations directly affected many million square miles. Wind blowing
across glacial outwash or fresh glacial deposits in many areas built up dunal accumulations of
sand. Glaciation are responsible for the formation of most lakes.

CONCEPT: 9
An appreciation of world climate is necessary to a proper understanding of the varying
importance of the different geomorphic processes.

The climatic factors, particularly those of temperature and precipitation, should influence the
operation of the geomorphic processes.
Climatic variations may affect the operation of geomorphic processes either directly or
indirectly. The direct controls are such obvious ones as the amount and kind of precipitation, its
intensity, relation between precipitation and evaporation, daily range of temperature and wind
velocities and directions.

CONCEPT: 10
Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes, attains its
maximum usefulness by historical extension.

The historical nature of geomorphology was recognized by Bryan.

Geomorphology concerns itself primarily with the origin of the present landscapes but in
most landscapes there are present forms that date back to previous geologic epochs and periods.
Recognition of ancient erosion surface and the study of ancient topographies studied as
paleogeomorphology.

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GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
The geomorphic processes are all those physical and chemical changes which effect the
modification of the earth surficial form.

GEOMORPHIC AGENCY:
Geomorphic agents or agencies are those natural media which are capable of securing and
transporting earth material. Running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and movements within the
bodies of standing water such as waves, currents, tides and tsunami are the common examples of
geomorphic processes.

EXOGENETIC AND ENDOGENETIC PROCESSES:

The agencies and processes which originate outside the earth’s crust are called exogenetic
processes. This term was first used by Penck. Common examples of exogenetic processes are
weathering, erosion, mass wasting etc
The processes which originate within the earth crust are called endogenetic processes.
Volcanism and diastrophism belong to this category.

The topographic effects of the impact of meteorites do not fall within these categories. As yet no
class has been proposed for this process.

OUTLINE OF GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

EPIGENE OR EXOGENETIC PROCESSES:

GRADATION:
DEGRADATION
Weathering
Mass wasting or gravitative transfer
Erosion (including transportation) by:
Running water
Waves, currents, tides and tsunamis
Wind
Glaciers

AGRADATION:
Running water
Ground water
Waves, currents, tides and tsunamis

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Wind
Glaciers
Work of organism including man

HYPOGENE OR ENDOGENETIC PROCESSES:

Diastrophism
Volcanism

EXTATERRESTERIAL PROCESSSES:
In fall of meteorites

GRADATION;
The term gradation was used for all those processes which tend to bring the surface of the
lithosphere to a common level.

Gradational processes belong to two categories, those which level down called
degradation, and those which level up called agradation.

SOILS
Soils are next to water, man’s most vital natural resource. Soils are the most significant result of
rock weathering.

Soils can be defined as follows:

“soil is the natural part of the earth’s surface, being characterized by layers parallel to the
surface resulting from modification of parent material by physical, chemical and biological
processes operating under varying condition during varying periods of time”.

Nikifprpff in 1955 stated that “Soil is the manifestation of pedogenic process”. Thus soil is viewed
as a dynamic system which, if detached from its environment would become an inert mass of
weathered material.

THE SOIL PROFILE:

When a vertical section is made through a soil it is found commonly that a series of more or less
distinct layers or horizons may be recognized which although differing in their chemical and
physical characteristics, are genetically related. These successive vertical layers constitute the soil
profile. A simple profile will usually display three distinct horizons, which are designated as the A,
B and C horizons. A and B may be subdivided into several layers.

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Aoo Undecomposed organic debris

Ao Partly decomposed organic debris

Ao Partly decomposed organic debris

A1 Mixture of organic and mineral matter. Partial eluviations of clay and sesquioxides.

A2 Light colored horizon of maximum eluviations of clay and sesquioxides.

A3 Transitional to B, but more like A than B.
B1 Transitional to A but more like B than A.
B2 Horizon of maximum accumulation of clay and sesquioxides.
B3 Transitional to C.
Bca Carbonate or sulphate accumulation in B horizon.
Cca Carbonate or sulphate accumulation in C horizon.
C Parent material

FORMATION OF SOILS:
There are five major factors which condition the development of soils. These are;

1-PARENT MATERIAL:
Including the texture and structure of the material as well as its mineralogical and chemical
composition.

2 – CLIMATE:
Particularly temperature and the amount and kind of precipitation.

3 – TOPOGRAPHY:
Especially as its effects both external and internal drainage.

4 – SOIL BIOTA:
Including both vegetative cover as well as organisms within the soil.

5 – TIME:
The length of time that the pedologic processes have been operating.

DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR SOIL GROUPS:

The following soil group of the world follows that of Lyon and Buckman in 1943 and indicates the
climatic and vegetative conditions under which they formed as well as certain significant

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characteristics of the soil profiles in each group.

TUNDRA SOIL:
These soils develop under the tundra type of vegetation at high altitudes and latitudes. Drainage
conditions are poor and usually boggy. A permanently frozen substratum underlies them. The
profile is shallow, and much undecomposed organic material is found at the surface.

PODZOL SOILS:
They possesses well developed A, B and C horizons. The surface material is organic matter under
which it is a whitish and grayish layer which gives them their name, which comes from two
Russian words meaning under and ash. Bellow the gray layer there is a zone in which iron and
aluminum minerals accumulate. A and B horizons are strongly acid. They develop under
coniferous and mixed hardwood forests.

LATERITES:
These form under hot and humid climatic conditions and under forest vegetation. Hydrolysis and
oxidation have been intense. They are rather granular soils. They are confined mainly to tropical
and subtropical regions, but some soils in the middle latitudes also described as lateritic.

CHERNOZEMS:
They originate under all grass plains vegetation. The name is from Russian word means black
earth, means high organic continents in horizon A. the B layer exhibit an accumulation of CaCO3
rather than leaching. They are most fertile soils.

CHESTNUT SOILS:
These soils are brown or grayish brown that developed under short grass vegetation in areas
slightly drier then those that produced chernozems. Secondary lime is found near the surface. The
soil profile is poorly developed.

BROWN ARIDIC SOILS:

These soils are found around the margins of deserts and semi arid regions. They have a low
organic continent and are highly calcareous.

GRAY DESERT AND REDDISH DESERT SOILS:

They develop under desert or short grass vegetation. CaCO3 accumulates near the surface. The
gray desert soils are found in the continental deserts, and the reddish desert soils are found in sub
tropical deserts.
NON CALCIC BROWN SOILS:
Soils that form in areas which originally had forest or brush vegetation. Weak podzolization make
the surface layer slightly acid.

DRAINAGE PATTERNS:
Drainage pattern refers to the particular plan which the individual stream courses collectively

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form.

TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS:

Following are the most common types of drainage pattern:

1- DENDRITIC PATTERN;
They are characterized by irregular branches or tributary stream in many directions and at
almost any angle. They develop upon the rock of uniform resistance and imply a notable lack
of structural control.

2- TRELLIS PATTERNS:
A system of sub parallel streams usually aligned along the strike of the rock formations or
between parallel topographic features recently deposited by wind or ice. The major streams
frequently make nearly right angled bends to cross or pass between aligned ridges, and the
primary tributary streams are usually at right angles to the main streams.

3- BARBED DRAINAGE PATTERN:

They usually have only local extent and will be found at or near the headwater portions of
drainage system. The tributaries join the main stream in boathook bends which point up
stream.

4- RECTANGULAR PATTERN:
The pattern in which main stream as well as tributaries displays right angled bends.

5- CENTRIPETAL PATTERN:
The pattern in which tributaries converge towards a dispersed centre, called centripetal
drainage pattern.

6- RADAIL PATTERN:
The drainage pattern in which tributaries diverge away from an elevated centre, called radial
drainage pattern.

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PETROLOGY
2ND SEMESTER OF 2010
Petrology is the branch of geology which deals with the study of rocks, their texture, origin and
composition.

ROCK CYCLE:
There are three types of rocks, at different temperature, pressure and climates these rock
types’ changes from one form to another form.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma. Magma is molten rock. Igneous rocks form
magma solidifies. If the magma is brought to the surface by a volcanic eruption, it may solidify
into in extrusive igneous rock. Magma may also solidify very slowly beneath the earth surface.
The resulting intrusive igneous rock may be exposed later after uplift and erosion remove the
overlying rock. The igneous rock being out of equilibrium may then undergo weathering and
erosion and the debris produced is transported and ultimately deposited as sediments. If the
unconcealed sediments become lithified, it becomes a sedimentary rock. As the rock is buried by
the additional layers of sediments and sedimentary rock, temperature and pressure increases.
Tectonic forces also play role in increase of heat and pressure. If the temperature and pressure
become much enough, usually at the depth of several kilometers from the earth surface, the
original sedimentary rock become no longer in equilibrium and recrystallizes. The new rock that
formed is called a metamorphic rock. If the temperature gets very high, the rock partially melts
producing magma, complete the cycle.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are those rocks which are formed from cooling and crystallization of magma.
Magma is molten rock usually rich in silica and containing dissolved gases.

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THEIR ORIGIN AND

TEXTURE:
PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magma cools at different regions when it moves towards earth surface. If it cools and
crystallized at the greater depth from earth surface, the rocks formed here are called PLUTONIC
igneous rocks. They are usually course grained, because magma cools under high temperature,
hence crystals have much enough time to grow to their maximum size.

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VOLCANIC IGNEOUS ROCKS

When magma erupts on the earth surface through volcanoes it called lava. When lava
cools and crystallized at surface the rocks formed here are called VOLCANIC or extrusive
igneous rocks. Volcanic rocks are usually fine grained even with glassy texture because lava
cools at low temperature hence crystals have no enough time to grow.

HYPOBASSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS

Some times magma could not reach at the surface and cools at very near the earth
surface rocks formed here are called intermediate or HYPOBASSAL igneous rocks.

SOME COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS:

1- GRANITE:
It is a plutonic igneous rock. Course grained in texture, and has different colors like
white, pink and gray. It composed of minerals like orthoclase feldspar 60%, quartz 30% and
other ferromagnesian minerals like biotite and microclune etc.

2- GRANODIORITE:
It is plutonic, course grained rock. Having colors light gray and pink. It have equal
amount of feldspar and quartz, with some other minor minerals.

3- PAGMATITE:
Also plutonic course grained rock with feldspar and quartz and muscovite as major
mineral constituents.

4 GABBRO:
Plutonic, course grained, with calcic plagioclase (labrawdorite), augite and magnetite
as major mineral constituents. Its color is usually dark green or black.

5- PERIDOTITE:
It is either plutonic or hypobassal, course grained igneous rock. Its chemical
composition contains ferromagnesian minerals, olivine and augite. Its colors are light gray or
light brown.

6- RHYOLITE:
Volcanic, fine grained, have pink or light pink color, containing minerals like feldspar,
quartz and ferromagnesian minerals.

7- OBSIDIAN:
Volcanic, fine grained often glassy texture, acidic, usually called volcanic glass with
a brilliant luster. It is dark in color.

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8- BASALT:
It is major volcanic rock; oceanic crust is made up of basalt. its color is dark, with
fine grained or glassy in texture. Its chemical composition consists of augite, plagioclase,
feldspar and iron oxide.

9- DIORITE:
Hypobassal, course grained, containing plagioclase feldspar and horn bland.

10- SYNITE:
Hypobassal, course grained with light color consists of orthoclase, plagioclase and
biotite or hornblende.

ACIDIC AND BASIC ROCKS:

Acidity or basisty of igneous rock is determined on the bases of silica (SiO2)
constituents. If the silica in a rock is more than 65% it is called acidic rock. If the silica is 55%
to65% it is called intermediate rock. In any igneous rock if silica is 45% to 55% it is called basic
rock. If silica is less than 45% in a rock, it rock is termed as ultra basic rock.

CLASSIFICATION

ACIDIC INTERMEDIATE ULTRABASIC

BASIC
PLUTONIC Granite Synite & diorite : Gabbro Peridotite

HYPOBASSAL Granite Synite porphyry Dolerite Dunite

& diorite
VOLCANIC Rhyolite, Trachite, Andisite : Basalt Obsidian,
pitchstone

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MODE OF OCCURENCE:
Igneous rocks occur in three regions, depending upon the region at they found in
earth.

PLUTONIC ROCKS:
The igneous rocks which are found at greater depth from earth surface. Some igneous
bodies are found in plutonic region; which are:-
Batholiths, Stock, and Boss

Batholiths are large, discordant pluton, intrusive, granitic origin igneous bodies spreaded in
several hundreds of kilometers or more than 100 kilometers. Batholiths are often containing
mafic and intermediate rocks.

Stock is a small discordant pluton with an outcrop area of less than 100 kilometers. It also
contains granitic rock dominantly.

Boss is intrusive plutons with an area of outcrop less than 100 kilometers. It has circular
peak.

VOLCANIC ROCKS:
The rocks which are formed at earth surface from lava. Lava flow is main igneous body
found at earth surface. When magma erupt at earth surface in the form of lava, then lava flow
downward from fissures.

HYPOBASSAL IGNEOUS BODIES:

Here two types of igneous bodies are found, transverse and parallel. Transverse igneous
bodies are Dike and volcanic neck. Parallel igneous bodies are Sill, Lacolith, Lopolith and
phacolith.

A dike is a tabular, discordant, hypobassal structure. Or dike is a cutting across layers of

country rock. They also can form at greater depth at earth surface, where they become course
grained.

A volcanic neck is an intrusive structure apparently formed from magma that solidified
within the throat of a volcano.

A sill is tabular intrusive structures found parallel to the country rock. As magma squeezes
into cracks between layers it solidified into sill. If the country rock is not layered, a tabular
intrusion is regarded as dike.

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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The rocks which are formed from the sediments of preexisting rocks are called
sedimentary rocks.
The parent rocks undergo some physical and chemical reactions. Different
environmental agents like rain, snow, wind and animals are active over rocks. Hence rocks are
weathered and eroded by rivers and streams. The sedimentary particles of these rocks deposited
at suitable places, after passing of time these sediments become compacted and lithified due to
overburden of other sediments.

MINERAL COMPOSITION
Minerals in sedimentary rocks belong to two distinct types of materials.
Detrital OR Allogenic minerals
These are resistant minerals released from the weathering of the parent rocks and
mechanically transported and deposited.
Chemical OR Authigenic minerals
These are precipitated from solution and are generally hydrated compounds, as is to be
expected in substances formed in a water rich environment.

CLASTIC AND NON CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are produced in two different ways. Some are mechanical accumulations
of rock particles known as clastic. These deposited sediments consists of land derived detritus
representing the material of surface weathering and erosion.
Non clastic or chemically deposited sediments consist mainly of such substances as
carbonates, silica and halides, in which individual crystals are held together by chemical bonds.
Almost all non clastic rocks originate by chemical precipitation from bodies of surface water.

TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Texture refers to the size, arrangement and shape of sediments in a rock.

CLASTIC TEXTURE:
All clastic rocks have clastic texture. The particle may have any form, size, shape or
composition. Most clastic rocks have some intergranular pores. The term clastic may be applied
to the texture of any aggregate whose original fragmental characters are clearly visible.

NON CLASTIC TEXTURE

In non clastic texture crystals may be arranged in a lamellar or fibrous fashion. A typical non
clastic texture consists of interlocking crystals as shown by rock salt so that there are no visible
intergranular pore spaces.

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CHEMICAL ROCKS:
The sedimentary rocks which are formed as a result of precipitation from solutions, or
evaporation of water, or from the oxygenation of ancient remains of organisms, are called
chemical sedimentary rocks. Examples of chemical rocks are limestone, dolostone, rock salt and
coal.

NON CHEMICAL ROCKS:

The sedimentary rocks which are formed as a result of physical weathering and transportation of
sediments of parent rocks are called non chemical sedimentary rocks. Examples are
conglomerate, breccias, sandstone, mudstone, clay stone, shale etc.

PRIMERY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES:

STRAITIFICATION:
Layering in the country rock is called stratification. This stratification is due to the deposition of
sediments in different periods of time. Two types of stratification are found;
BEDDING: if the thickness of stratification is more than 2 cm, it is called bedding.
LAMINATION: if the thickness of stratification is less than 2 cm, it is called lamination.

GRADED BEDDING;
It is the sedimentary structure in which grade is found in deposited sediments of a bed, from
course bellow to fine above. This occurs due to sorting of sediments.

RIPPLE MARKS:
Wavy undulations found on rocks are called ripple marks. They are produced due to the currents,
waves and action of wind.

CROSS BEDDING:
Bedding of rocks in which beds are tangent to the other beds. This is due to the different forces
and deposition rates.

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GRAIN SIZE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

FROM TO NAME
Greater than 256 mm boulder
256 mm 64 mm cobble
64 mm 4 mm Pebble
4 mm 2 mm gravel
2 mm 1/16 mm sand
1/16 mm 1/256 mm slit
Less than 1/256 mm clay

METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
The rocks which are formed as a result of changing in shape and mineral arrangement of pre
existing rocks are called metamorphic rocks. Rocks change their shape and mineral arrangement
due to increase in temperature and pressure, and also its chemical environment. Different
chemical agents react with rock minerals and produce new minerals.

METAMORPHIC AGENTS;
Temperature, uniform pressure, directed pressure and chemical active fluids such as magmatic
solution, water, boric acid and different gases are metamorphic agents. They play major roll to
change the texture of parent rock and recrystallization of minerals.

TEXTURE OFROCKS:
Metamorphic rocks identified on the bases of foliated rocks or non foliated rocks.

FOLIATED ROCKS:
The metamorphic rocks in which new arrangement of minerals took place after metamorphism
are called foliated metamorphic rocks. Minerals are arranged in bandation, lining and wave like
fashion. This takes place due to directed pressure.

NON FOLIATED ROCKS:

The metamorphic rocks in which no bandation or lining of minerals is found are called non
foliated rocks.

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ZONES OF METAMORPHISM:
There are three regions of metamorphism, which are;

EPIZONE;
The metamorphic zone in which temperature ranges from 40 degree to 300 degree centigrade is
called epizone. Here directed pressure is dominant and uniform pressure is absent. Here
cataclastic metamorphism takes place, and the rocks formed here are considered as low grade
metamorphic rocks. Phyllite is example of epizone metamorphic rocks.

MEZOZONE:
Here temperature ranges from 300 to 500 degree centigrade. Here directed pressure is also high.
Regional metamorphism takes place. Schist is example of these.

KATAZONE;
This region temperature ranges from 500 to 800 degree. Here uniform pressure is dominant
while directed pressure is not found. Plutonic metamorphism takes place here.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM;
There are various metamorphic agents, who are recognized on the bases of regions where
metamorphism takes place, and metamorphic agents.

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM:
This metamorphism takes place in the regions where temperature and directed pressure are high.
Mezozone is most ideal region for this metamorphism.

CONTACT METAMORPHISM;
This type of metamorphism takes place at contacts. Temperature is high and most dominant
metamorphic agents in this type of metamorphism.

CATACLASTIC METAMORPHISM:
The metamorphism which takes place in the regions where directed pressure is sufficiently high
is called cataclastic metamorphism. Epizone is most favourite place for this type of
metamorphism.

METAMORPHIC STRUCTERS:
Main structures found in metamorphic rocks are as follows:

SCHISTOSE:
The structure in which parallel arrangement of minerals takes place is called schistose.

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GNEISSOSE:
The structure in which banded appearance of minerals showed is called gneissose. In gneissose
dark and light minerals alternate.

GRANULOSE:
The structure is formed due to equidimensional minerals.

SLATY:
The rocks having slaty structure possess the property of splitting into smooth sheets.

WISH YOU ALL, BEST OF LUCK

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