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Wind TunneL 2 MarK and 16 MarK With AnsweR PDF
Wind TunneL 2 MarK and 16 MarK With AnsweR PDF
UNIT I
PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING
1. Define Rayleigh method.
A functional power relation is assumed between the parameters and then the values of indices are solved for to
obtain the grouping. For example in the problem in example 1 one can write
f(π1, π 2) = Fa ρb Dc µd Ue
The values of a, b, c, d, and e are obtained by comparing the dimensions on both sides the dimensions on the
L.H.S. being zero as πterms are dimensionless. This is also tedious and considerable expertise is needed to
form these groups as the number of unknowns will be more than the number of available equations. This
method is also called ‘‘indicial” method.
The application of this theorem provides a fairly easy method to identify dimensionless parameters (numbers).
However identification of the influencing parameters is the job of an expert rather than that of a novice.
The principle is basic for the correctness of any equation. It states ‘‘ If an equation truly expresses a proper
relationship between variables in a physical phenomenon, then each of the additive terms will have the same
dimensions or these should be dimensionally homogeneous.’’
4. Define model.
In the engineering point of view model can be defined as the representation of physical system that may be
used to predict the behavior of the system in the desired aspect.
5. Define prototype.
The system whose behavior is to be predicted by the model is called the prototype.
Some of the PI terms involve the ratio of length parameters. All the similar linear dimension of the model and
prototype should have the same ratio. This is called geometric similarity. The ratio is generally denoted by the
scale or scale factor.
UNIT II
WIND TUNNELS
1. What are the two basic types of wind tunnels?
i. Open Circuit wind tunnels
ii. Closed circuit wind tunnels
2. What are the advantages of Open circuit tunnels?
i. Construction cost is less
ii. There is no purging problem
3. What are the disadvantages of open circuit wind tunnels?
i. More energy to run
ii. Tunnel is noisy
iii. It Cause environmental problems and limits on hours of operation.
4. What are the advantages of closed circuit wind tunnels?
i. Less Energy is required.
ii. Less noise when operating
5. What is variable density tunnels?
In this type of tunnels, we can use different density working fluids for tunnel operations.
6. Explain Propulsion Tunnels?
These types of tunnels are used for testing aircraft engines, either reciprocating or jet; requires
simulation of both flight velocity and the variation of atmospheric pressure and temperature.
7. What is smoke tunnels?
Smoke tunnels are used primarily for flow visualization. Smoke tunnels used for research
rather than demonstration purposes tend to have large contraction ratios.
8. Explain automobile tunnels?
These types of tunnels are used for test aerodynamic parameters that affects an automobiles
performance and stability.
9. What is meant by viscosity?
The property which characterises the resistance that a fluid offers to applied shear force is
termed as viscosity
10. Explain specific heat of a medium.
The specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a medium by one degree.
11. Which are the factors affecting the surface tension of a fluid?
i. The nature of the fluid
ii. The nature of the substance with which it is in contact at the surface.
iii. The temperature and pressure.
UNIT III
1. What are the factors concerning selection and mounting of strain gauges in wind tunnels?
i. Adequate strain must be provided in the measuring elements under the design loads
ii. Match gauges for gauge factors and resistance.
2. How the internal strain gauge are balances are calibrated?
Internal sting balances are generally calibrated outside the tunnel.
The Calibrations use a calibration rig upon which the balance is mounted.
3. What are the purposes of Calibration?
i. To proof load the balance
ii. To determine calibration slopes for air component
iii. To determine component sensitivity.
4. What are the importance observations made from pressure distributions?
i. The reaction of the minimum pressure point and its strength.
ii. The load that the skin is to withstand and its distribution.
5. What are the factors considering in the flutter testing?
i. Critical flutter speed
ii. Flutter frequency
iii. Wing Empennage interaction.
6 MARKS
UNIT-I
Model- definition
Types of models- distorted, undistorted
Distorted- definition, example, types of distortion
Undistorted- definition, example.
UNIT II
Wind Tunnels
2. Explain the role of honey combs and guide vanes in wind tunnel design.
UNIT III
Turbulence- definition
Explanation
Turbulence factor
Turbulence equation
Measuring methods- turbulence sphere, pressure sphere, hot wire anemometer
5. Explain the working principle of hotwire anemometer.
Function of hot wire anemometer
Turbulence equation
Equation of rate of heat dissipation
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
UNIT IV
i. The basic measuring principle of the liquid manometer is that the pressure applied is
balanced by the weight of the liquid column.
ii. The sensitivity of the instrument depends on the density of the manometric fluid used.
iii. Some of the commonly used manometric liquids are water, alcohol and mercury.
iv. Pressure measurements in compressible flows with high subsonic and supersonic Mach
Numbers mercury is the suitable liquid.
v. The reason is that fluids like water and alcohol are unmanageable in column heights for the
pressure associated with such speeds.
UNIT V
i. Wind Tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow through or suction type.
ii. In the flow through tunnel the arrangement is such as the one similar to the supersonic wind
tunnels.
iii. Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
iv. It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
v. Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does not
have to be especially highly powered.
vi. The running time is generally short, because of the limited amount of air in the reservoir.
In this type of tunnel, instead of air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is sucked into a previously
evacuated chamber.
Through out the run the stagnation condition remain constant at atmospheric value.
The flow through tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel
High pressure ratios are easily achieved and this implies that high Mach Numbers can be obtained without
the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurisation.
The advantage is that the running time likely to be even shorter than that of a flow through tunnel especially
at high Mach Numbers.
10 MARKS
UNIT I
PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING
Similitude is defined as the similarities between the model and its prototype in every
aspect which means that the model and prototype have similar properties.
Three types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype. They are
Geometric Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity
Geometric Similarity
i. The Geometric Similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the
ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model and prototype are equal.
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity
i. Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing inertia force
by the pressure or gravity or viscous or surface tension or elastic force.
ii. As this is a ratio of one force to another force, it will be a dimensionless number.
iv. It has no units
v. These dimensionless numbers are also called non-dimensional parameters.
It is defined as the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the viscous force of the fluid.
Froude’s Number
The Froude’s Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of the
flowing fluid to the gravity force.
Euler’s Number
It is defined as the square root of the inertia force of the flowing fluid to the pressure
force.
Weber’s Number
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of the flowing fluid to the
surface tension force.
Mach Number
Mach Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of the flowing
fluid to the elastic force.
3. Write principle and the rules for selecting repeating variables in Bucking pi theorem.
It states that if there are n variables in a physical phenomena and these variables
contains m fundamental dimensions the variables could be arranged into (n-m)
dimensionless terms.
Bucking pi theorem is more advantageous if there are more number of variables than
the fundamental variables.
The Number of repeating variables are equal to the Number of fundamental dimensions
of the problem (M,L,T).
The choice of repeating variables is governed by the following considerations.
i. As far as possible, the dependent variable, the dependent variable should not be
selected as repeating variable
ii. The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property, other variable contains flow property and the third variable
contains fluid property.
iii. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
iv. The repeating variables together must have the same no. of fundamental
dimensions.
v. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
4. Write a detailed note about the shock tubes.
i. The shock tube is a device to produce high speed flow with high temperatures by
traversing normal shock waves.
ii. They are generated by the rupture of a diaphragm which separates a high pressure
gas from a low pressure gas.
iii. The shock tube is a very useful research tool for investigating not only the shock
phenomena.
iv. But also the behaviour of materials and bodies when subjected to at very high
pressures and temperatures.
v. The diaphragm on the high and low pressure section is ruptured and the high
pressure drives gas rushes into the driven gas section setting up a shock wave
that compresses and heats the driven gas.
vi. The pressure variation through the shock tube at the instant of diaphragm rupture
and at too short intervals.
vii. When the shock wave reaches the end of the driven tube, all of the driven gas will
have been compressed and will have a velocity in the direction of the shock
wave travel.
viii. Upon striking the end of the tube the shock is reflected and starts travelling back
upstream.
ix. As it passes through the driven gas and brings it to rest, additional compression and
heating are accomplished.
x. The heated and compressed gas sample at the end of the shock tube will retains its
state except for heat loses until the shock wave reflected from the end of the tube
passes through the driver gas – driven gas interface and sends a reflected wave
back through the stagnant gas sample.
UNIT II
WIND TUNNELS
1. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Open and Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels.
Disadvantages:
i. If located in room, depending on the size of tunnel to the room size, it may require extensive
streaming at the inlet to get high quality flow.
ii. The same may be true if the inlet or exhaust is open to the atmosphere, when wind and cold
weather affect operation.
iii. For a given size and speed the tunnel will require more energy to run.
iv. In general a tunnel is noisy for large tunnel noise may cause environmental problems.
CLOSED CIRCUIT WIND TUNNELS
Advantages:
i. Through the use of corner turning vanes and possibly screens the quality of the flow can be easily
controlled.
ii. Less Energy is required for a given test section size and velocity.
iii. This can be important for a tunnel used for developmental testing with high utilisation.
iv. Less noise when operating.
Disadvantages:
i. The diffuser serves to slow down the air leaving the fan, so that it flows at low speed through a
region called the settling chamber.
ii. In this region, the slowly moving air settles to fairly uniform and low turbulence conditions, with
the help of a series of “Honey Combs”
iii. A flow is then contracted to give a fast jet in the working section.
iv. All the Kinetic Energy of the fast moving air in the working section is wasted and the consequent
high power requirement makes such an arrangement impracticable, except on a fairly small
scale.
v. The air is sucked through by a fan downstream of the working section.
vi. The entry to the tunnel should be clear off walls and other obstacles in the tunnel room.
vii. There is a large contraction ratio and a small angle diffuser.
viii. Such an arrangement gives reasonably low turbulence and constitute a useful general purpose
tunnel.
ix. There is still considerable power wastage because the Kinetic Energy of the air leaving the tunnel
is not recovered.
x. But it is clearly better since the speed at the exit is less.
i. In a return circuit tunnel the air leaving the diffuser is not simply discarded but collected
ii. It travels around the closed circuit to be passed through the working section again.
iii. The kinetic Energy of the jet is recovered, not wasted and the power required is reduced.
iv. It has all the features of the straight through tunnel with an addition of corners.
v. The diffuser is not immediately downstream of the working section, though it could easily be so.
vi. Here it serves to reduce the speed of the flow in part of the tunnel circuit
vii. Corner vanes are fitted to enable the air to flow smoothly round the corners
viii. It is difficult to obtain uniform, steady flow and the tunnel is best suited to demonstration work and
fairly rough measurement.
ix. There is a breather slot downstream of the working section which serves to main the pressure at or
near the atmospheric values.
4. Write about the Annular Type Return Circuit Subsonic Wind Tunnel.
i. It has a section through the axis of the tunnel, which is a body of revolution.
ii. It is difficult to achieve uniform steady flow without elaborate arrangements of corner vanes etc.
iii. This arrangement is therefor only used for variable density tunnels
iv. It has an advantage when pressurisation is used or when the working fluid is other than air
v. A variable density tunnel generally consists of an annular type tunnel enclosed in a large pressure
vessel.
vi. By increasing the pressure and hence the density, it is possible to achieve relatively high Reynolds
Number.
vii. Pressurisation also results in power economy
viii. Some tunnels are also designed to operate at much reduced pressures
ix. Hence it can work at low density and at high speeds.
5. What are the types of forces acting in a moving fluid.
There are six types of forces acting in a moving fluid. They are,
i. Inertia Force
Inertia force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and act in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
Viscous force is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and the surface area of the flow.
It is present in the fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role.
Gravity force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid.
Pressure force is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the flowing fluid.
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of the surface of the flowing fluid.
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.
UNIT III
CALIBRATION OF WIND TUNNELS
1. Write about the optical methods of flow visualization.
i. Several methods of flow visualization consist in utilizing the changes in the refractive index of air
caused by changes in density.
ii. They may be used to investigate the flow in boundary layers
iii. But their main application is to the visualization of high speed flow.
iv. When light passes through a region of a gas in which the density varies, the changes in the
refractive index of the gas associated with these density changes causes the direction of the
rays to be altered.
v. The amount of the deflection is proportional to the density gradient, and the sense of the deflection
is determined by the sign of this gradient.
vi. In the high speed flow, the density of the fluid changes throughout the field of flow, and the
above principle may be utilised in order to show up these variations.
vii. There are three commonly used methods of doing so,
* the shadowgraph,
* schlieran and
*interferometer systems.
viii. All are based on the same principle, but, whereas, the first two are mainly useful simply for
flow visualization, the third may also be used for quantitative measurement, though it is much
more difficult to interpret than the other two.
ix. The Shadowgraph system is simplest, but the schlieran system is more effective, and is the
most effective and is the most commonly used of all three methods
2. Write about the Shadowgraph system.
i. This technique simply consists in introducing into the working section of a wind tunnel a number
of fine some filaments
ii. It is done usually in the plane of the section of the model wing under test.
iii. As the particles of smoke move downward the filaments define the particle paths.
iv. By this a stream line pattern may be observed.
v. Many different phenomena may be demonstrated such as trailing vortices, or the breakdown of the
streamline flow in a region of separated flow.
vi. The principle requirements of a smoke tunnels for uniform flow with low turbulence.
vii. If this is not achieved, the smoke will quickly become diffused.
viii. The speed must not be too low or gravity will affect the paths of the smoke particles, curving
these paths downwards.
ix. If the speed is too high, the smoke filaments may become attenuated, even when large
quantities of smoke are introduced.
x. Good lightning is needed if te smoke filaments are to be clearly seen, and an open circuits tunnel
is required in order to get rid of smoke.
xi. The main disadvantage is that is usually only isolated span wise positions can be examined,
and not the flow over the whole wing
UNIT IV
Basically a wind tunnel balance is a device to measure the actual forces and moment, acting
on a model placed in the test section.
Based on the construction details, the wind tunnel balances are broadly classified into
i. Wire Type Balance
ii. Strut type Balance
iii. Plat form type balance
iv. Yoke type balance
v. Strain Gauge type balance
Irrespective of its type of construction, a wind tunnel balance should have certain basic
features and characteristics for proper measurements
The Balance should be capable of measuring the various loads acting on the model with the
very high degree of accuracy.
The interaction between the different load components should be kept small.
The balance should have provisions to vary the angle of incidence, pitch, yaw, roll and so
on.
The balance and the supporting structures should be designed for very high rigidity
The deflection of the parts under the influence of maximum load is negligible.
Damping devices should be incorporated in the measuring system.
Use of bearing should as far as possible be avoided in as much they cause large hysteresis
and zero error.
i. In wire type wind tunnel balances only wires are used to support the mode.
ii. All the load components are transmitted to the measuring device by this wires.
iii. Wire type balances are probably the simplest and easiest to build.
iv. But they have several disadvantages due to the use of too many bearings and bello
crank system, friction of the wires and high damping requirements.
v. They are extremely bulky because the support system should be very rigid.
vi. Large tare drag because of the exposed wires.
vii. It is difficult to streamline the wires and hence it is difficult to determine the
magnitude of tare drag accurately.
viii. Bearings and linkages cause zero error.
ix. Wires have the tendency to crystallize and break
i. The strut type balances are proved to be suitable for such tunnels.
ii. Based on the structural construction, strut type balances are broadly classified into
Yolk Type
Platform Type
Pyramid Type
iii. Struts are used to support the model and transmit the loads to the measuring device.
iv. Models are mounted on the balance with 3 mounting mountings
v. The strut being rigid, there deflection can be kept at a very small value
vi. The arrangement enables the strut to be fair so that the tare and inference drag are
minimised.
vii. By using a cross spring pivot instead of knife edge, ball bearings, a the like in the beam the
zero error can be minimised.
viii. By choosing proper linkages, interaction loads can be reduced to a small value.
ix. Weight of the support structure can be kept very low, because efficient members can be
easily adopted
i. Wind tunnels balances with strain gauges as the load sensing element are termed strain
gauge wind tunnel balances.
ii. Based on strain gauge fixing on the mode, the train gauge balances are classified as,
Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance
Semi Internal strain gauge wind tunnel balance
External Strain Gauge Wind Tunnel Balance.
iii. In an internal balances, all the measuring elements are located inside the model.
iv. In an semi internal balance the measuring elements are located partially inside and partially
outside
iv. In an external balance all the measuring elements are located outside the model
v. The gauges consists of a grid of very fine wire or very thin foil embedded in a seat of
Bakelite having a thickness comparable to that of a thick paper
vi. The grid material is usually Nichrome with small addition of iron and aluminium.
vii. The grid length varies about 1mm to several centimetres.
5. Write a note about the Manometer.
vi. The basic measuring principle of the liquid manometer is that the pressure applied is
balanced by the weight of the liquid column.
vii. The sensitivity of the instrument depends on the density of the manometric fluid used.
viii. Some of the commonly used manometric liquids are water, alcohol and mercury.
ix. Pressure measurements in compressible flows with high subsonic and supersonic Mach
Numbers mercury is the suitable liquid.
x. The reason is that fluids like water and alcohol are unmanageable in column heights for the
pressure associated with such speeds.
xi. In addition to these manometers, an accurate barometer is essential for pressure
measurements
xii. The pressures are invariably measured in terms of a difference in pressure from some
known reference.
xiii. Most common reference is the local atmospheric pressure.
xiv. Therefore for pressures measured with reference to atmospheric pressures conversions
to absolute pressure requires the local atmosphere to be known.
UNIT V
i. Wind Tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow through or suction type.
ii. In the flow through tunnel the arrangement is such as the one similar to the supersonic wind
tunnels.
iii. Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
iv. It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
v. Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does not
have to be especially highly powered.
vi. The running time is generally short, because of the limited amount of air in the reservoir.
vii. Once the pressure in the reservoir drops below the certain value the pressure retain across the
tunnel will no longer be sufficient to give supersonic flow in the working section.
viii. It is then necessary to stop the tunnel and recharge the reservoir
ix. The changing time between the runs may be considerable.
x. A further dis advantage is that the total temperature and total pressure, velocity may vary during
run.
2. Write about the Suction type Intermittent Operation.
i. In this type of tunnel, instead of air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is sucked into a
previously evacuated chamber.
ii. Through out the run the stagnation condition remain constant at atmospheric value.
iii. The flow through tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel
iv. High pressure ratios are easily achieved and this implies that high Mach Numbers can be obtained
without the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurisation.
v. The advantage is that the running time likely to be even shorter than that of a flow through tunnel
especially at high Mach Numbers.
vi. Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
vii. It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually discharged into the
atmosphere
viii. Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor which does not
have to be especially highly powered.
i. It is usually impossible to achieve flow at a Mach Number above 0.9 with ordinary parallel sided
liners.
ii. It is also difficult to achieve supersonic flow at a Mach Number below 1.1
iii. A Convergent divergent nozzle with solid walls because of chocking difficulties special liners are
required to cover the transonic range of Mach Number .85 to 1.15.
iv. The design of such liners is loosed on a working section whose walls are not sold but perforated.
v. The area of the perforations increasing with distance along the length of the sections.
vi. The principle is that the excess air associated with boundary layer growth or the presence of the
model can escape through these perforations.
vii. Thus eliminating the efforts of an narrowing channel and preventing chocking.
viii. The detail positioning, size and shape of the holes or slots is often crucial to the successful
operation of the tunnel
ix. It is largely a method of trial and error.
5. What is Chocking in High Speed Wind Tunnels and say about Hypersonic Wind Tunnels
Chocking in High Speed Tunnels
i. The Phenomenon of chocking occurs when the local Mach No. in a high speed tunnel reaches unity.
ii. This may happen at points where the effective area of cross section of the tunnel is reduced as a
result of boundary layer thickening.
iii. Induced separation or simply the presence of a model which is too thick or at too high incidence.
iv. Chocking leads supersonic flow in the working section and finally breaks down.
v. This condition sets a limit to the range of operation of the tunnel.
vi. A limit which may vary according to the model under test and its altitude