Structural and Pavement Design of Highway

CHAPTER 1
COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This internship is a part of curriculum activity in 8th semester B.E. for a period of 4 week as
per the VTU guidelines according to this I got an opportunity to work in LAMA
CONSTRUCTION COMPANY (LCC),KATHMANDU. Our objectives were to get
acquaint with the working nature of pavement design and to get ourselves familiarized with
the various process involve in executing a typical pavement design for the internship work.

HISTORY OF THE COMPANY

Fig.1.1(Office building)

LAMA CONSTRUCTION COMPANY shortly named as

LCC was originally established in 1976 A. D. (2033 B. S.) with a sole objective of providing
quality & timely construction services in the field of Civil Engineering. LCC is up-graded to
category of 'A' Class Contractor in 1989 A. D. (2046 B. S.) and was subsequently converted
into Private Limited in July 1994 A. D. (2051 B. S.).
LCC has been emerged as one of leading and reputed construction company in Nepal. LCC
have been involved in the construction of large scale infrastructure projects, mainly in
Buildings & Roads and also in Bridges, irrigation, water supply & sewerage management
projects etc.

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LCC have managed to achieve a remarkable success in every field of construction. LCC
believes that it has played a vital role in the construction of major projects in Nepal. LCC has
been very sincere about on time delivery, performance, professional standards and quality
since its establishment. LCC clients have appreciated the highly competitive costs, delivery,
quality and efficiency of their construction works. Since the establishment of our company, it
has successfully completed large scale infrastructure projects and emerged as one of the best
construction companies in Nepal.

Fig.1.2 Building construction by LCC

Fig. 1.3 Road construction by LCC

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Fig. 1.4 Bridge construction by LCC

1.2 Vision of the company

To become the leading engineering and construction firm in Nepal and eventually in
southAsia, by consistently delivering projects that meet international standards.

1.3 Mission of company

To undertake the engineering and construction business with a focus on becoming the cost
leadership while excellence in every aspect to meet customers’ stringent requirements
regarding quality, on-time delivery, safety and environmental concerns. To build value for
the organization in order to become a unique and distinct firm. To remain focused on
controlled organizational growth and recognizing those who contribute to this growth.

1.4 Future
With our philosophy, values, and mission firmly in place, we are targeting controlled growth
and sustained profitability in the future. Our responsibility to our clients, employees, and
stakeholders remain the principal focus of our operations and is defined by our corporate
value.

1.5 Project Management

With the depth of our experience along with the proven track record of successful completion
of projects, it can be confirmed about the effectiveness of our management systems and
procedures. The system we've in place provide for plenty of supervision leaving little room
for errors to occur. Emphasis is extreme on communication and information management
system. Each project is managed by Quality Surveying (QS) Team, which provide planning,
variations in costing, contract queries discussion, and payment along with the regular site
visit to ensure that jobs run smoothly and the project is on track. All the offices and staffs
have the access to the fast internet so that almost all the job instruction and job queries are

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 Structural and Pavement Design of Highway

dealt via email to ensure the issues are dealt with as soon as possible. All related instructions
and queries made are available to all the parties (site, office, consultant and client) to assist in
addressing the matters/challenges at hand promptly. Online accounting facilities with
dedicated office staffs provide the necessary information required to run the business,
monitor all purchases, wages, overheads, and accounting work for the effectiveness of the
work. Communication and information management is important in our business.

With construction services and products becoming more technologically advanced, we see it
as being of prime importance to be up to date with all technologies impacting our business.
We have implemented a system which allows for Site Managers working on sites to be linked
to our central server, making the flow of information faster and more efficient. Queries can
be answered much faster, with scanned copies of original documents on hand via this
network as needed.

1.6 Health and safety plan and policy

Lama Construction has a thorough, regularly reviewed Health & Safety policy that is
seen as a live document. We believe safety is paramount. Regular site safety meetings are
conducted on sites which are checked by the safety supervisor. We have assisted Department
of Labour and a group of companies to establish models and benchmarks for the development
of suitable Health and Safety policies.It also provide the insurence of life for the workers.

1.7 Quality Management Systems

Lama Construction operates a Quality Management System (QMS) in order to effectively
control all aspects of the construction process, with checks in place and signed off at all
pivotal stages of construction. We are making a substantial progress in getting an ISO
9001:2008 certification by the end of 2013. We operate our departments under various
management system with a custom-built software that includes:

Project Management System (LC.PMS)

Financial Management System (LC.FMS)

Fleet & Plants Management System (LC.FPMS)

Tender Management System (LC.TMS)

Human Resource Management System (LC.HRMS)

Vendor Management System (LC.VMS)

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1.8 Management

Fig. 1.5(Company management flowchart)

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CHAPTER 2
ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT
 Human resource department
 Financial department
 Project department
 Engineering department

2.1 Human Resource Department

Human resources are the people who make up the workforce of an organization, business
sector, or economy. “Human Capital” is sometimes used synonymously with Human
Resources, although human capital typically refers to a narrower effect. Likewise, other terms
sometimes used include manpower, talent, labour, personnel, or simply people. A
humanresources department of an organization performs human resource management,
overseeing various aspects of employment, such as compliance with labour law and
employment standards, administration of employee benefits, and some aspects of recruitment.

Fig. 2.1(HRD)

2.2 Financial Department

The financial department is responsible for management of the company’s cash flow and
ensuring there are sufficient funds available to meet the day to day payments. The part of an
organization that manages its money. The business functions of a finance department

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typically include planning, organizing, auditing, accounting for and controlling its company’s
finances. The finance department also usually produces the company’s financial statements.

Fig. 2.2(FD)

2.3 Project Department

A purchasing management department can be formed and operated by one or more
employees in order to ensure that all goods, supplies, and inventory needed for the
organization to operate are ordered and kept in stock, as well as control inventory levels and
costs associated with purchasing the items.

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Fig.2.3(Project department)

2.4 Engineering Department

Construction engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing,
planning, construction and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels, bridges,
airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects.

Fig. 2.4(Engineering department)

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2.5 Site works

 Checking site work to ensure compliance with specification and drawings.
 Inspecting construction site to monitor progress and ensure conformance to
engineering plans, specifications, and construction standards.
 Direct supervision of the masons to ensure good performance stay with the
construction schedule and maintain quality of work and standards.
 Managing construction activities at project site.
 Overseeing the work and making sure it runs smoothing and plan.
 Making sure company rule followed by crew.
 Giving over directions to workers as to what needs to be done to avoid repetitive
mistake by the workers

2.6 Administrative works

 Check design and auditing drawing
 Control site work quality
 Manage workers.

Through our internship duration in the company, we would like to thank our supervisors for
their kind help guiding and giving orientation in each activity before we start practicing the
main activities. Without help of our supervisor, we wouldn’t have achieved the knowledge
and experiences we have gained now.

Our supervisor helps us by,

1. Guiding and giving orientation in each activity

2. Brief description of what will be done in each activity
3. Reacting politely to our questions
4. Providing an access of materials as much as possible.
5. Give us new engineering tasks and monitoring our progress

As organization consists workers with different; educational back ground, ethnic back
ground, religion and characters, and long-time our stay with Better International construction
PLC as intern has helped us to develop;

 Communication skill
 Efficiency
 Team work
 Performance quality
 Job satisfaction
 On site work skills
 Accuracy
 Punctuality etc.

We also worked hard so far to create value and apply our competence, motivation and work
skills to make a strong contribution to Lama Construction company.

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 Structural and Pavement Design of Highway

CHAPTER 3
TASKS PERFORMED
For economic and efficient construction of highways, correct design of the thickness of
pavements for different conditions of traffic and sub-grades is essential. The science of
pavement design is relatively new. As there are no proper design criteria, the construction of
roads was more or less uneconomical in almost all cases.

Hence judicious method of designing and calculating the crust thickness on the basis of
estimation of traffic loads and bearing capacity of sub-grade etc.., will lead to economical
construction of roads.

The specific job information we have been working on each department are:

3.1 Site supervision

In our stay in this project, we have gained a lot of the knowledge and skill participating in all
activities with the help of our supervisor from entrance day up to end of internship. The main
activities we have learned in this site vision are:

3.1.1. Major activities in this road construction are;

 Clearing and grubbing of unnecessary materials i.e top soils

 Earth work including sub grade preparation
 Capping layer placing
 Culvert construction
 Site work quality control
 Material selection or road construction

3.1.2. Tests

 Identifying types of test conducting at site

 Identifying procedure of each test
 Carrying out test conducted

3.1.2.1. Laboratory test

a) Compaction test or proctor test

After compaction is done the density should a minimum of 95% of the maximum dry
density that brought in laboratory. These tests performed by using sand-cone equipment. It
depends on station.

 1.65CBR for fill section

 1.32CBR for road bed
 1.59 CBR for cut section

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b) California bearing ratio test

Most of the road pavements designed in CBR method on the CBR value of sub grade soil
determined by conducting CBR test in the laboratory on the sub grade soil disturbed or
remoulded depending on whether an existing sub grade is utilized for the pavement without
improvement or a new sub grade is to be constructed with proper control over its properties,
especially compaction characteristics.

CBR value is defined as the ratio of load required to cause a specified penetration, say
2.5mm or 5mm of a standard plunger into the sample to the load required to produce
the same penetration of same plunger into standard stone aggregate sample, expressed
as a percentage.

CBR value varies from 0 to 100%. More CBR indicates the stronger soil. If density is less,
CBR is less. The CBR is expressed as percentage of penetration resistance of a given
pavement material to that of a standard value of penetration resistance obtained for a crusher
stone aggregate available

The thickness of the pavement is then obtained from the CBR value using the charts
provided

3.1.2.2 Field Test

We have seen how this test operated in the field. Some amount of soil is taken from each
layer to measure its density, using sand cone method test.

3.1.3 The activity performed daily

 Clay material placing

 Compaction
 Excavation of soft material
 Clay and Red ash soil material preparation
 Material mix
 Excavation of hard core
 Waste away

3.2.Pavement construction
Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are generally classified into the following
three categories:

1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement
3. Semi-rigid pavement

When I did internship in a LCC i got to worked in construction of flexible and rigid
pavement.

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3.2.1.Flexible pavement

Flexible pavements are those which are flexible in their structural action under the
loads. Some important features of these pavements are:

 It has no flexural strength,

 It reflects the deformation of lower layers,
 It will transmit the vertical compressive stress to bottom layers by grain to grain
transfer,
 The lower layer have to take up only lesser magnitudes of stress and there is no direct
wearing action due to traffic loads, therefore inferior materials with low cost can be
used in the lower layers.

Flexible pavements consist of the following components:

i) Soil sub grade

ii) Sub base course
iii) Base course
iv) Surface course

Fig.3.1 (typical layers of flexible pavement)

3.2.2.Rigid pavement
Rigid pavements are those which possess note worthy flexural rigidity.

 It possesses flexural strength

 Load transfer is by the way of slab action and it distributes the wheel load to a wider
area below
 Flexural stresses will be developed due to wheel load temperature changes

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 Tensile stresses will be developed due to bending action of the slab under the wheel
load
 It does not deform to the shape of lower layer, but it bridges the minor variations of
the lower layer.

Rigid pavement consists of the following components:

i. Cement Concrete slab

ii. Base course
iii. Base course

Rigid pavements are made of Portland cement concrete either plain, reinforced or prestressed.
The plain cement concrete is expected to take up about 40kg/cm2 flexural stress. These are
designed using elastic theory, assuming the pavement as an elastic plate resting over an
elastic or viscous foundation.

Fig.3.2 (layers of rigid pavement)

3.3.FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT COMPONENTS:

3.3.1. SOIL SUBGRADE:

 The pavement load is ultimately taken by soil sub grade and hence in no case it should
be over stressed and top 50cm layer of soil sub grade should be well compacted at
O.M.C.
 Common strength tests used for evaluation of soil sub grade are :
i. California Bearing Ratio test
ii. California resistance value test
iii. Plate bearing test

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Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure. It should possess sufficient
stability under adverse climate and loading conditions. The desirable properties of soil as a
highway material are:

 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
 Good drainage
 Ease of compaction

3.3.2. SUB BASE AND BASE COURSES:

 These are broken stone aggregates. It is desirable to use smaller size graded
aggregates at sub base course instead of boulder stones.
 Base and sub base courses are used under flexible pavements primarily to improve
load supporting capacity by distribution of load through a finite thickness.
 Base courses are used under rigid pavements for :

 Preventing pumping
 Protecting the sub grade against frost action.

Construction steps:

A. Stockpiling of Granular Material

B. Mixing and Spreading
C. Compaction
D. Tolerances
E. Maintenance of Completed Sub-Base

3.3.3. WEARING COURSE:

 Purpose of this course is to give smooth riding surface. It resists pressure exerted by
tyres and takes up wear and tear due to traffic. It also offers water tightness.
 The stability of wearing course is estimated by Marshalling stability test where in
optimum percent of bituminous material is worked out based on stability density,
voids in mineral aggregate (V M A) and voids filled with bitumen (V F B). Plate
Bearing test are also sometimes made use for elevating the wearing course and the
pavement as a whole.
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface.

3.3.4.Premix

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Something that is mixed or blended from two or more ingredients or elements before being
used. This term is used usually for concrete in civil engineering.Premix usually refers to a
substance or object which is mixed in an early stage in the manufacturing and distribution
process.

Types of Premix:

1).Sheet Asphalt

2).Asphalt Concrete

3).Prime Coat

4).Tack Coat

 It help to bind the finer particle of aggregate together in the surface of road base.
 If the application of surface is delayed for some reason it provides the road base if the
application against the detrimental affect of rain fall and traffic light.

Fig.3.3 (Premix)

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3.4. Factors to be consider in the design of pavement:

Pavement design consists of two parts:

i. Mix design of material to be used in each pavement component layer

ii. Thickness design of the pavement and the component layer

The various factors to be considered for the design of pavement are:

 Design wheel load

 Sub grade soil
 Climatic factors
 Pavement component material
 Environmental factors
 Special factors in the design of different types of pavements.

3.4.1. Design wheel load:

Following are the important wheel load factors:

(A) Maximum wheel load:

Maximum legal axle load as specified by IRC is 8170kg with a maximum equivalent
single wheel load of 4085kg. Total load influences the equality of surface course.
The vertical stress computation under a circular load is based on
Boussinesq’s theory.

σ z = P [ 1 – (z3/(a2 + z2)3/2)]

(B) Contact pressure:

 Tyres pressure of high magnitudes demand high quality of materials in upper layers in
pavements, however the total depth of pavement is not governed by tyre pressure.
 Generally, wheel load is assumed to be distributed in circular area but it is seen that
contact area in many cases is elliptical.
 Commonly used terms with reference of the tyre pressure are:
i) Tyre pressure
ii) Inflation pressure
iii) Contact pressure
 Tyre pressure and inflation pressure mean exactly are the same. The contact pressure
is found more than tyre pressure when tyre pressure is less than 7 kg/cm2 and its vice-
versa when the tyre pressure exceeds 7 kg/cm2.

Rigidity factor = (contact pressure) / (tyre pressure)

R.F. =1, for tyre pressure is 7 kg/cm2

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 Structural and Pavement Design of Highway

R.F. <1, for tyre pressure >7 kg/cm2

R.F. >1, for tyre pressure <7 kg/cm2

The rigidity factor depends on the degree of tension developed in the wall of the tyre.

(C) Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL):

 The effect on the pavement through a dual load assembly is not equal to two times the
load on any one wheel. The pressure at a depth below the pavement surface is
between the single load and two times load carried by any one wheel.

(D) Repetition of loads:

 If the pavement structure fails with N1 number of repetitions and P1 kg load and
similarly if N2 number of repetitions of P2 kg load can also cause failure of the same
pavement structure then P1N1 and P2N2 are equivalent.
 If the thickness required for 106 repetitions is ‘t’, then the pavement thickness
required for failure at one repetition is t/4.
(E) Elastic modulus:
 Elastic modulii of different pavement material can be evaluated. Mainly plate
bearing test is employed for this purpose.
 If Δ is the maximum vertical deflection of the flexible pavement, then

Δ= 1.5pa/ Es

 If rigid circular plate is used instead of flexible plate, then:

Δ = 1.8 pa/ Es

Where,

a= radius of plate

P = pressure at deflection

Es= young’s modulus of pavement material

3.4.2. Soil sub grade:

The properties of soil sub grade are important in deciding the thickness of the pavement to
protect it from traffic loads. The variations in stability and volume of sub grade soil with
moisture changes are to be studied as these properties are dependent on the soil
characteristics. Apart from the design, the pavement performance to great extent depends on
the sub grade soil properties and drainage.

3.4.3. Climatic factors:

The climatic variations cause the following major effects:

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i) Variation in moisture content,

ii) Frost action,
iii) Variation in temperature.

3.4.3.1 Variation in moisture contains:

The stability of most of the sub grade soils are decreased under adverse moisture
conditions. Presence of soil fraction with high plasticity will result in variations in volume
(swelling and shrinkage) with variation in water content. As the moisture content of the sub
grade below the centre is often different from that of the pavement edges, there can be
differential rise or fall of the pavement edges with respect to the centre, due to swelling and
shrinkage of the soil sub grade. These effects are likely to cause considerable damage to the
pavement and also will be progressive and cumulative.

3.4.3.2 Frost action:

Frost action refers to the adverse effect due to frost heave. Due to continuous supply of water
from capillary action at sub freezing temperature leads to the formation of frost heave. The
non uniform heaving and thawing leads to undulations.

Factors on which frost actions depends are:

i) Frost susceptible soil,

ii) Depressed temperature below the soil,
iii) Supply of water,
iv) Cover.

To reduce the damage due to frost action, proper surface and sub surface drainage system
should be provided. Capillary cut offs can also be provided to reduce the adverse frost action
by soil stabilization.

3.4.3.3 Variation in temperatures:

Wide variation in temperature due to climatic changes may cause damaging effects in some
pavements. Temperature stresses of high magnitude can be induced in cement concrete
pavements due to daily variations in temperature and consequent warping of the pavement.
Bituminous pavement becomes soft in hot weather and brittle in very cold weather.

3.4.4 Pavement component materials:

The stress distribution characteristics of the pavement component layers depend on the
characteristics of the materials used. The fatigue behavior of these materials and their
durability under adverse conditions of weather should also be given due consideration.

3.4.5 Environmental factors:

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The environmental factors such as height of embankment and its foundation details, depth of
cutting, depth of subsurface water table, etc.., affect the performance of the pavement.

The choice of bituminous binder and performance of bituminous pavements

depends on the variations in pavement temperature with seasons in the region. The warping
stresses in rigid pavements depend on daily variations in temperature in the region and in
the maximum difference in temperature between the top and bottom of the pavement slab.

3.5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

ADVANTAGES:

 Availability of low-cost types that can be easily built

 Ability to be easily opened and patched
 Easy to repair frost heave and settlement
 Resistance to the formation of ice glaze

DISADVANTAGES:

 Higher maintenance costs

 Shorter life span under heavy use
 Damage by oils and certain chemicals
 Weak edges that may require curbs or edge devices

3.6. Failure of flexible pavements:

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile
strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete
specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation
or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to control rutting:
one to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to
a tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature
cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.

3.7. Failure criteria of rigid pavements:

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends
on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late,
pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry
through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused during the downward
movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in rigid
pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.

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3.8. Technical knowledge and skills benefited from our course

a) Highway I and II

 Determine thickness of each layer

 Selection of centre line of the roads
 Mixing sub grade material in the site
 Construction of culvert which provides an opening under the road way.

b) Soil mechanics I and II

 To determine type and properties of soil

 To determine slope of embankment
 To determine water content and density of soil

c) Construction material

 Determine concrete mix ratio

d) Foundation I

 Construction of retaining wall

 Footing

e) Construction Methods and Equipment

 Management of equipment
 Production of equipment

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CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
Most of the target States use a number of preservation treatments and strategies. This was to
be expected as the target States were pre-screened to yield as much data as possible on life
extension of as many of the treatments as possible.

The following types of data were needed for this study:

 Treatment location information

 Traffic data
 Treatment information (type, date of placement)
 Construction history information (date of last treatment)
 Condition information prior to and after the treatment
 Treatment cost information (pavement costs only)
 Extended service life information.

It seems that is was very difficult for the States to extract the data needed for this study. For
some States all of the data exists, but cannot be linked effectively. In others States the data
simply does not exist, or data has not been collected for a long enough period of time.
Improvements to systems to collect and link traffic, condition, construction, and maintenance
history are needed.

 Pavement condition data (distress, ride, and rutting) are collected and summarized
using different strategies across the States making it difficult to compare data between
States.
 Within a particular State, the process for collecting and analyzing pavement
performance data changes over time. This makes it difficult to perform long term
studies of treatment performance and effectiveness.
 Many of the treatments, especially recycling treatments, are relatively new to many
States (cold in-place recycling, full-depth reclamation, and hot in-place recycling) and
the States (1) do not have much experience with these treatments, or (2) existing
recycled sections have not been down long enough to assess the life extension.
 Because of the above stated limitations, it is very difficult to perform a comparison of
the effectiveness of treatments across State DOTs.

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CHAPTER 5
REFERENCE
1. S K Khanna, C E G Justo, and A Veeraragavan, “Highway Engineering”.
2. Subha Rao, “Principles of Pavement Design”.
3. L R Kadiyali and Dr. N B Lal, “Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering”,
Khanna publishers.
4. R Srinivasa Kumar, “Pavement Design”, University Press.
5. Yang H. Haung, “Pavement Analysis and Design”, University of Kentucky.
6. “ Highway Engineering” by T.D.Ahuja

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