Module 15-21 Gas Turbine Engine: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation

Level  1  2  3
Module 15-21
Gas Turbine Engine
Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
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Table of contents
I. PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUN-UP .................................................................................................................................................. 5

1. PURPOSE: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
2. GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES: ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
3. PREPARATION OF SURROUNDING AREA FOR GROUND RUN-UP: ............................................................................................................................. 6
3.1. Engine danger areas: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2. Sound proofing areas: ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.3. Wake graphs: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.4. Exhaust gas temperature: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
4. SAFETY AND INSPECTIONS: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1. External inspection of the aircraft (walk around): ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
4.2. Statement of weather conditions: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
4.3. Engine monitoring and ventilation systems: ................................................................................................................................................................ 40
4.4. Run-up (ground operation): ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
4.4.1. Control of the elements and trouble shouting after ground operation (run-up): ....................................................................................................... 42
4.4.2. Description of the personnel’s roles during ground operation:................................................................................................................................. 42
4.4.3. Personnel on board: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
4.4.4. Ground personnel: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.5. Calibration of the control instruments:...................................................................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.6. Control safety check list: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
II. INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS ........................................................................................................................ 44
III. TREND (INCLUDING OIL ANALYSIS, VIBRATION AND BOROSCOPE) MONITORING................................................................................................. 50
1. BOROSCOPE: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
1.1. Acccess ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
1.2. Orientation: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 56
1.3. Non rotating assemblies: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 56
1.4. Components of rotating assemblies: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.5. Number of blades: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.6. Inspection: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
2. VIBRATIONS: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
2.1. Noise: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
2.2. Transmissibility and effectiveness: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 63
2.3. Passive vibration isolation: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
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2.4. Structural controls: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
2.5. Active vibration control (AIC): ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
2.6. Active noise control (ANC): ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
2.7. Application perspective to isolation systems: .............................................................................................................................................................. 68
3. OIL ANALYSIS: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
3.1. What ends up in the oil? .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
3.2. Why it's important? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
3.3. The process of oil analysis: ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
3.4. The importance of checking oil filters and suction screens:........................................................................................................................................ 71
3.5. Powerful preventative and diagnostic tool:.................................................................................................................................................................. 72
IV. INSPECTION OF ENGINE AND COMPONENTS TO CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA SPECIFIED BY ENGINE MANUFACTURER ................ 73
1. COMPRESSORS: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 73
1.1. Inspections after damage: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
1.2. Inspections as the maintenance manual: .................................................................................................................................................................... 73
2. COMBUSTION SECTION: .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
2.1. Burners: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.2. Swirlers: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.3. Flame tubes/Liners: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.4. Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGVs):...................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
3. TURBINE SECTION: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
4. RECORD OF DAMAGE: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
V. COMPRESSOR WASHING / CLEANING ............................................................................................................................................................................ 80
1. GENERAL: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
2. DETAILED STUDY: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
2.1. Introduction: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
2.2. Off-line and online cleaning methods: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 81
2.3. Questions to ask about the injection system when selecting an on-line cleaning system: ......................................................................................... 82
2.4. Questions to ask about the chemicals when selecting an on-line cleaning system:................................................................................................... 82
2.5. Advantages & disadvantages of off-line compressor washing: ................................................................................................................................... 83
2.5.1. Advantages: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 83
2.5.2. Disadvantages: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
2.6. Costs: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
2.6.1. On day to day operating costs: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
2.6.2. On longer term operating and maintenance costs: .................................................................................................................................................. 84
2.6.3. On safety: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84
2.6.4. On capital expenditure: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
2.7. Compressor fouling and washing of compressors: ..................................................................................................................................................... 84
2.8. Other Online compressor cleaning methods: .............................................................................................................................................................. 86
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VI. FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 87
1. GENERAL: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
2. DETAILED STUDY: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
2.1. Background: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 90
2.2. Operator, Maintenance and best practices: ................................................................................................................................................................ 91
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I. PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUN-UP

1. PURPOSE:
Ground operation (engine run-up) is a qualitative operation which makes it possible to control, under a clearly defined period (just before and after the
routine maintenance inspection) or upon request (trouble shooting, repairs), the serviceability and performances of the engine and associated systems
(oil, fuel, hydraulic system, air system, electrical circuits).
This operation must be carried out with rigour by a qualified personnel.
The ground operation described in the manual of maintenance is specific to each aircraft and each type of engine. However several rules are common
to all aircrafts:
 general safety measures,
 preparation of the ground operation (run-up) area,
 preparation of the aircraft before ground operation,
 external inspection of the aircraft,
 inspection of the cockpit,
 recording of weather conditions,
 descriptions of the personnel’s roles during the ground operation,
 calibration of the control instrumentation,
 control of the elements before startup (check list),
 engine blow out,
 run-up with recording of parameters on control sheet,
 control of the elements and trouble shooting,
 approval for bringing the aircraft into commission (release).
2. GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES:

Important points to remember regarding safety:
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 Those are to be observed each time engines are tested on ground. The monitoring of this operation is ensured by a designated responsible
person.
 An appropriate fire extinguishing device is to be at disposal near the ground operation area and must be handled by a qualified personnel
being informed of the danger zones as well as the areas planned for fire extinction (frangible panels).
 The ground personnel must remain apart from the danger zones.
 They must carry an ear-protection headset as well as an anti-vibration belt. Neither clothing nor hat liable to be sucked in by the engine
should be worn.
 If possible, a thorough walk around inspection of the proposed site should be conducted prior to the conduct of an engine run-up. All trash,
loose gravel, and any other object should be removed from the area before starting engine run-up procedures.
Other important points:
 A ground support person, with the ability to communicate with the person conducting the run-up is helpful. This ground person can alert the
conducting the run-up of approaching aircraft, ground vehicles, and debris that is being blown into the area by wind or other aircraft.
 Tie downs may be necessary for full power checks. This would include wheel chocks.
 Safety cones positioned at the wing tips, and the tail and nose of the aircraft would help prevent foot traffic from entering the area.
3. PREPARATION OF SURROUNDING AREA FOR GROUND RUN-UP:

Examples given in the following concern an Airbus A320 at sea level altitude and at standard atmospheric conditions.
Many airports provide areas where aircraft may be run-up. Personnel should check with the local airport authority to determine the location of run-up
areas. It should be remembered that such areas may have restrictions regarding time of day/day of week, direction of aircraft, wind conditions, other
aircraft traffic density, and numbers of aircraft allowed in the run-up area. The local Air Traffic Control Facility, if one is present, may be a good source
for this type of information.
This area must be delimited to prevent any unauthorized access:
 the aircraft must face the wind and be sufficiently far away from any other aircraft as well as any infrastructure building,
 the ground operation area must be free from any foreign matter likely to be sucked in by the engine (F.O.D) and ejected by exhaust fumes
(JET WAKE),
 the field support equipment (electric ground power unit, air start unit) must be placed so that it might be evacuated by the personnel without
their intervening in danger zones,
 these danger zones should be materialized on the ground by markings or safety fences. They are defined by the aircraft manufacturer in the
manual of maintenance (A.M.M) ATA 09: towing and taxiing.
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3.1. Engine danger areas:

 Engine danger areas at idle speeds (IDLE):
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 Engine danger areas at takeoff speeds (TAKE OFF).
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3.2. Sound proofing areas:
 Sound proofing areas at idle speed.
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 Sound proofing areas at take-off.
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3.3. Wake graphs:
 At IDLE speeds:
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 At take-off speeds:
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3.4. Exhaust gas temperature:
 At IDLE speeds:
 At take-off speeds:
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4. SAFETY AND INSPECTIONS:
4.1. External inspection of the aircraft (walk around):
Commercial aircrafts are frequently inspected visually.

There is a primary inspection called "walk around check" both in the line and the base, transit checks, daily check, weekly check, A check, B check
etc…
Line is the more about the quick checks while aircraft is in the park or in between flights.
Base is mostly the hanger, where hard checks, repairs take place.
A qualified engineer walks around the aircraft and inspects structural items visually.
Engine is also checked during the walk around checks.
There engineer watches for oil leaks, structural damages in the engine, inlet of the engine for composite parts fixtures to the structure, fan/first stages
of the compressor, last stages of the turbine for deterioration or damages or any unusual changes of the engine.
In this example shows how, engineer/Pilot carry on a walk around inspection of a Airbus A30 aircraft.
This aircraft walk around makes it possible to control the external crucial points of the aircraft and to detect possible faults. It is in general described in
the flight crew operating manual (FCOM: Flight Crew Operating Manual).
Please, consult these videos.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5g3KW4iWCk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jh95dSVJrQM
Thanks.
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a - static air bleed ports: in state

b - external lightings: in state
c - probe for angle of attack: in state
d - access door to toilet services: closed
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a - covers and Pitot probes: removed and controlled

b - total temperature sensors: in state
c - radome (dome radar) and radome fasteners: control
d - cover for air system overpressure present
e - access door to GLIDE/SLOPE antenna: closed
f - access door to avionics compartment: closed
g - access door to shoring device: closed
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Wheels and tires: in state

Structure of auxiliary landing gear: in state
a - taxi lights in state
b - access door to aircraft power supply: closed if an electric group is not used
c - auxiliary steering metering valve: position flight pins removed
d - proximity detectors: clean
 hydraulic pipes and control cables: in state
 auxiliary landing gear well: control
e - gear locks: in state
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Passenger forward door: closed

a - probe for angle of attack: in state
b - access door to hydraulic system selector / cargo door: closed
c - access door to cargo loading selector: closed / locked
 locking handle: access door / cargo door: controlled / locked
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 cargo door: closed
d - external lights : in state
e - static ports: in state
f - access doors to lower fuselage: closed
a - air bleed valve / air blowing valve: open / operating

b – antennas: control
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c - trap door for air conditioning on ground: closed
d - trap door for water tank filling up: closed / locked
e - air blow-in door: closed
f – trap door for engine start-up: closed
g - access door to landing gear door opening system on ground: closed / locked
h - access door to fuel system control panel: closed
g - air conditioning system door / air outlet: in state
a - wing ventilation air intake: in state

b - water drain valves (internal right-hand tank): control
c - fuel dipsticks (tank gauges): control / securized
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d - landing headlights: in state
e - access doors to service panel of "yellow” hydraulic system: closed / locked
f - trap door for air scoop: closed / locked
 leading edge slat #1 and “KRUGER” flap: in state
 emergency escape passenger door (on wing): closed / locked
Engine cowlings: closed / locked

opened if engine runs up after being ventilated
a - access door to oil tank: closed
b - access door for starter: oil servicing,
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 for integrated drive generator (I.D.G): oil servicing / resetting
 access door to manually operated starting: closed / locked
c - main drain: control
d - de-icing air outlet: in state
e - engine air intake and fan blades: control
a - access door to water filters: closed

b - engine-pylon overpressure shutoff valves: closed / securized
c - access door to engine fire extinguishers: closed
d - pylon drains: control
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Leading edge slat #2 and #3: control

a - refuelling connector: control
b - fuel tank dipsticks (manually operated gauges): closed / securized
c - water drain valve (right-hand external tank): control
d - air intake for ventilation air holder: in state
e - air ventilation holder discs of zero pressure:
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 wing tip: control
 navigation lights: control
a - static dischargers: control

b - roll control surface: control
c - lift augmenting flap tracks: control
d - spoilers: in state
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Static dischargers
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Spoilers fully deployed
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Wheel chocks: control /in position

Wheels and tires: control
a - brakes and wear indicators: control
b - proximity detectors: clean
Hydraulic piping: control

c - pressure drop warning indicators: control
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 landing gear structure: control
 landing gear well: control
d - gear up latching device: control
e - gear down locking springs: control
f - landing gear safety lockpin: in place
 landing gear door: closed
g - A.P.U fuel pipe ventilation intake: control
 antennas and beacon marker: control
Aft cabin door: control / closed

Aft cargo door: closed / locked
Access door to cargo door locking handle: closed
a - access door aft door hydraulic system: closed
b - access door to cargo loading control panel: control / closed
bulk cargo loading compartment door: control / closed
c - pressure control valve: control
tail skid (tail bumper): control
d - access door to toilet service: control
e - tail cone access door: control
f - right-hand main landing gear locking indicator: extended
g - main drain control
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After cargo door
Tail plane and elevator (horizontal rudder): control

Tail plane and rudder: control
Static discharger: control / in state
A.P.U.
a - A.P.U. air intake: opened
b - access door to A.P.U. compartment: closed /securized
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c - drains and A.P.U. ventilation: control
d - ventilation valve outlet: control
A.P.U. outlet: in state
e - A.P.U extinguisher discharge indicator: control / in place
Tail plane, elevator, rudder and APU compartment.
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Left-hand landing gear locking indicator: extended

Tail plane and elevator: control
Cabin aft door: closed / locked
Water drain: control
Access door to "green” hydraulic system service panel: closed / locked
Cabin aft door and water drain
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Landing gear well: control

Landing gear door: closed
Landing gear blocks: control / in place
Wheels and tires: control / in state
Brakes and wear indicators: control
Pitch damper pressure drop indicator: control
Proximity detectors: clean
Hydraulic piping: control
Landing gear structure: control
Landing gear up latching device: control
Landing gear down locking spring: control
Landing gear safety pin: in place
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High-lift wings: in state

High-lift wing tracks: control
Roll control surface: control
Roll control surfaces

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Static dischargers: control

Wing tip: in place
Wing tip and static dischargers
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Navigation lights (nav-lights): control

Ventilation holder air intake: in state
Ventilation holder disc of zero pressure: intact
Left-hand fuel tank drain valves: control
Fuel servicing valves: control
Fuel tank dipsticks: control / securized
Leading edge slats #2 and #3: control
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Pylon drains: control

Access door to engine fire extinguishers: closed
Access door to starter oil servicing,
and to integrated driving generator (IDG) and to IDG resetting: closed / locked
Access to IDG systems
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Engine pylon pressure relief valve: closed / securized
Engine cowlings: closed / locked
opened if engine runs up after being ventilated
Access door to oil tank: closed
Access door to manually operated starting: closed / locked
Main engine drain: control
Fan blade air intake: control
De-icing air outlet: in state

Access door to hydraulic (water) filters: closed
Engine exhaust duct: in state
Access door to engine fire extinguishers: closed
Leading edge slat #1 and "KRUGER" flap: in state
Access door to "blue" hydraulic system service panel: closed
Landing light: in state
Tank dipsticks: control / securized
Left-hand internal tank water drain valves: control
Wing ventilation air intake: in state
Emergency escape passenger door (on wing): closed / locked
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Emergency escape passenger door
4.2. Statement of weather conditions:
These parameters are interpreted by using the charts in order to evaluate the aircraft and engine performances.
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 Outside air temperature (O.A.T.): Expressed in Celsius degrees or Fahrenheit. It must be recorded in the shade using a calibrated
sensitive thermometer. The thermometer(s) equipping the aircraft should never be trusted, as it (they) is (are) under the influence of
variations due to the solar radiations on the airframe.
 QFE. (Q= dynamic pressure, FE= Field Elevation): It is the atmospheric pressure prevailing on the ground operation area. It makes it
possible to know the altitude of the ground operation area compared to the sea level. It is expressed in hectoPascal (hPa) or mercury inches
(Hg inches).
 Strength and direction of the wind. Expressed in Knots (Knots), the strength of the wind has an influence on the parameters.
4.3. Engine monitoring and ventilation systems:
There are two types of ventilation systems.

 Wet ventilation (Eng wet motoring): It makes it possible to inject fuel in the engine in order to eject the storage oil contained in the fuel
system. It is carried out without ignition.
 Dry ventilation (Eng dry motoring): It follows wet ventilation in order to evacuate the trapped fuel which remains in the air passage
(slipstream) downstream from the fuel nozzles (injectors). It also makes it possible to prime the engine circuits and to detect the possible
leakages before any starting.
Caution:
The starters are subjected to operation time and cooling period after rotation. The documentation provided by the manufacturer must be
consulted.
Example: 1 mn ON - 3 mn OFF;
1 mn ON - 30 mn OFF.
After the ventilations, a visual inspection of the engine is to be carried out in order to detect possible faults.
The engine, accessory gear box and hydraulic tank oil levels are to be refilled if necessary.
In the cockpit, the personnel must check the instrumental values corresponding to the various visual levels noted on ground.
After having checked every parameter, the engine cowlings may be closed again.
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4.4. Run-up (ground operation):
It can begin after approval from the air controller on ground and the person in charge on ground.
The radio transmission will be permanent between the cockpit and the ground.
Any problem occurring during the execution of the run-up must be heralded on both sides between the cockpit and the ground.
A potential fire, detected from the cockpit, is to be announced:
 to the person in charge on ground, who will ask the fire fighters for operating after engines have been shut down,
 to the air controller on ground, who will inform the fire fighters of the platform. These fire fighters, equipped with heavy means, will try and do
their best to avoid any fire expansion towards the aircraft and its environment.
Some stages are essential and should therefore be considered during engine run-up:
a - aircraft system powering:
 energizing from an external source,
 energizing from an auxiliary power unit (APU).
b - engine start,
c - after start,
d - pneumatic check,
e - hydraulic check,
f - integrated drive generator (IDG) check,
g - nacelle anti-icing check,
h - ground idle rating,
i - flight idle rating,
j - power assurance check,
k - acceleration check,
l - normal engine shutdown.
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4.4.1. Control of the elements and trouble shouting after ground operation (run-up):
After the run-up, the engine and auxiliary power unit cowlings are open in order to detect the potential leakages on the associated circuits (fuel,
lubrication, hydraulics, pneumatic circuits).
The engine equipments are also inspected thoroughly.
Any noted fault is mentioned in the ground operation (run-up) report as well as in the Aircraft Technical Log Book (ATLB) in order to keep in mind
the chain of events.
These faults being rectified, another run-up is often necessary to confirm the absence of fault.
4.4.2. Description of the personnel’s roles during ground operation:

Only a conversant personnel is capable of implementing the ground operations. This staff must know perfectly the procedures, the limitations and
the instructions.
 Serviceability:
An aircraft (or an aircraft element) belonging to an airline company being member of the JAA can be put again into commission by only
a qualified engineer (JAR-66 certifying staff):
 Either on line by a qualified engineer
 B1 for the mechanical systems
 B2 for the avionic systems
 Or in base by a C qualified engineer.
4.4.3. Personnel on board:

They share the tasks during the operation. One of the members ensures the radio transmission with the control tower (ground frequency). The
awareness of the phraseology is essential.
 Captain: this engineer controls the starting and the engine energizing. He decides on everything dealing with ground operation (engine run-
up).
 First officer: he assists the captain.
 An assistant: he writes down on the ground operation sheet, the parameters and the noted faults which are dictated to him.
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4.4.4. Ground personnel:

They are managed by a person in charge who is responsible on board for the radio link between the cockpit and ground personnel working on the
aircraft.
The person in charge reports to the cockpit any fault which might occur.
4.4.5. Calibration of the control instruments:

This operation makes it possible to optimize the instrumentation which is used for the reading of the parameters.
However some operations are carried out using specific test benches which replace the on-board instrumentation.
4.4.6. Control safety check list:

The checklist makes it possible to select the required elements and instrumentation for the ground operation (engine run-up). It is an important
operation because any failure gives rise to uncontrollable and prejudicial situations.
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II. INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS
The considered turbojet is in engine run-up, bench tested at maximum rating in standard conditions.
The turbojet air intake is equipped with a suction piece. The mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static pressure and an increase in speed.
During its travel through the suction piece the total air temperature remains constant.
 Throughout the compressor the mass of the fluid underwent an increase:

 in static pressure,
 in total pressure,
 in total temperature and
 in decrease in speed.
 Throughout the combustion chamber, the mass of the fluid underwent an increase in total temperature and speed with a light decrease
in static and total pressures.
 Throughout the turbine, the mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static and total pressures and an increase in speed.
 Throughout the exhaust duct, the mass of the fluid underwent a decrease in static temperature and pressure and a strong increase in
speed.
 The total air temperature remains constant.
In flight, the evolution of the characteristic magnitudes of the state of the fluid crossing the turbojet is similar to that of the run-up. Only the
corresponding numerical values are more or less different, with the exception of the air intake duct parameters.
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 Reading of the parameters:

The board below show the diagrams of a spool turbojet with afterburning (ATAR 9K50 equipping the Mirage F1).
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To show the evolution of speeds, pressures and temperatures inside a turbojet engine, it is normal procedure to represent their
variations on patterns.
These variations are often drawn just below the longitudinal section of a propeller, so that one may quickly understand what happens
inside the engine.
It is the product of the mass air flow by its speed increase inside the machine:
Fa = Q(V5 - V0 )
With Q: air flow rate, V5 gas exhaust velocity, V0 aircraft speed
The fuel injected into the combustion chamber also has a mass which is ejected with the air travelling through the turbojet engine. This
fuel flow is thus accelerated from a zero speed to the gas exhaust velocity.
That is to say:
FC = qc .V5
With q c fuel flow, V5 gases exhaust velocity.
 Particular study of ATAR 9K50:
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Static pressure
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Temperature
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Velocity (speed)
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III. TREND (INCLUDING OIL ANALYSIS, VIBRATION AND BOROSCOPE) MONITORING
1. BOROSCOPE:
Boroscope equipment permits the inspection of gas turbine engine parts which would otherwise be inaccessible with the engine installed and in
service. Early gas turbine engines had poor provision of ports for this type of inspection, apart from the igniter plug and burner holes, but engine
manufacturers now tend to provide improved facilities for boroscope inspection of the rotating and combustion sections
of the engine. Other large engine components may also have limited facilities, as do some airframe air-conditioning turbine units, etc.
Engineers should be conversant with the techniques of boroscope inspection to enable them to use the equipment as an effective inspection and
diagnostic tool and as part of normal inspection procedures.
This form of use will result in a more effective assessment being made of damage caused by an in-service incident such as a bird strike or foreign
object ingestion Manufacturers of boroscopes tend to market the complete range of units required and it is unusual to be able to interchange parts of
one system with those of another.
The following general description of the equipment is not related to any particular manufacturer and should be read in conjunction with the appropriate
manufacturer’s technical instructions or service manual.
Consideration must be given to the potential hazards involved in the inspection of gas turbine engines while under ramp or first-line maintenance
conditions and special precautions should be taken because of the engineer’s preoccupation at the engine.
A dangerous situation could occur in the event of the inadvertent operation of a starting system, ignition system, thrust reverser system or any
mechanical or electrical controls; these systems should therefore be inhibited.
Other factors to be considered when inspecting engines under these conditions include:
 Dissipation of residual heat;
 Effect of wind milling;
 Boroscope equipment contamination;
 Electrical potential difference between the probe/light source and the aircraft structure;
 Fuel and oil leakage.
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 Rigid and flexible boroscopes:
These instruments are long, tubular, precision optical instruments with built-in illumination, designed to allow remote visual inspection of
internal surfaces or otherwise inaccessible areas.
The tube, which can be rigid or flexible with a wide variety of lengths and diameters, provides the necessary optical connection between the
viewing end and an objective lens at the distant or distal tip of the boroscope.
Rigid and flexible boroscopes are available in different designs for a variety of standard applications and manufacturers also provide custom
designs for specialized applications.
Figure shows typical designs of boroscopes.
Rigid boroscope
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Flexible boroscope details

 Boroscopes uses.
Boroscopes are used in aircraft and engine maintenance programs to reduce or eliminate the need for costly teardowns.
Boroscopes, typically, are used to inspect interiors of hydraulic cylinders and valves for pitting, scoring, porosity, and tool marks; inspect for
cracked cylinders in aircraft reciprocating engines;
Boroscopes may also be used to locate and retrieve foreign objects in engines and airframes.
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 b. Optical designs. Typical designs for the optical connection between the borescope viewing end and the distal tip are:
(1) A rigid tube with a series of relay lenses;
(2) A flexible or rigid tube with a bundle of optical fibers; and
(3) A flexible or rigid tube with wiring that carries the image signal from a Charge Couple Device (CCD) imaging sensor at the distal tip.
These designs can have either fixed or adjustable focusing of the objective lens at the distal tip. The distal tip may also have prisms and
mirrors that define the direction and field of view. A fiber optic light guide with white light is generally used in the illumination system, but
ultraviolet light can also be used to inspect surfaces treated with liquid fluorescent penetrant// or to inspect for contaminants that fluoresce.
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1.1. Acccess
Flexible boroscope access

Engines designed for boroscope inspections have access ports fitted with blanking plugs at various points in the casings and the areas visible through
these parts are detailed in the relevant Maintenance Manual.
However, if specific access is not provided, a general knowledge of the layout of the engine together with the access provided by the removal of igniter
plugs, temperature probes, pressure sensing lines, flexible boroscope inspection equipment compressor bleed valves and other air off-takes enables
useful condition assessments to be made.
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Forward view boroscopes can also be used to view through the air intake of an axial flow compressor or, to a more limited degree, through the turbine,
the latter being restricted because of the greater curvature of nozzle guide vanes.
Access-port blanking plugs are subject to high temperatures and high rates of temperature change. This has the effect over a period of time of
'pinching' the blanking plugs to a higher torque than was applied at assembly.
During removal, therefore, care must be taken to select a spanner which is a good fit on the plug and which will provide adequate leverage.
Plugs which are fitted into blind holes in engine casings invariably have thread inserts and these, under high torque removal stresses, can become
extracted with the plug and will require replacement.
The 'pinching' effect can be overcome to a certain extent by applying an anti-seize compound when fitting the blanking plugs. Manufacturers usually
recommend the application of a graphite-based release agent which forms a dry film on the threads.
Alternatively, a paste with metal or metal oxide content is applied. Neither paste nor dry film should be applied unless it can be established which of
the compounds had been used previously, as any mixing will result in the formation of a hard-setting compound.
Note:
In consideration of this 'pinching' effect, the initial torque settings for the blanking plugs must be those recommended in the relevant
Maintenance Manual.
1.2. Orientation:
Familiarity with the layout of an engine and experience in the use of boroscope equipment enables an engineer to recognise the area being viewed
and the extent of inspection possible through a given access port.
Parts frequently appear larger when viewed through a boroscope and damage can seem more extensive than it really is.
Familiarisation with the size (height and width) of the item being viewed is therefore essential and ideally a spare part should be available to be held in
the hand and viewed with and without a boroscope probe to ensure the item is correctly assessed.
1.3. Non rotating assemblies:
Non-rotating assemblies cause few problems because major components such as burners and stators provide points of reference.
Damage reporting on non-rotating components requires that burners, flame tubes, etc., be numbered to a standard form and that areas and
components are named.
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An inspection report can then identify areas of damage by stating:
 Access port used;
 Direction of view;
 Area or component inspected (by name and/or number);
 Dimensions of and type of damage.
1.4. Components of rotating assemblies:
Components of rotating assemblies need to be identified for the same reasons. At overhaul, marks may be applied to the convex surface of turbine
blades, together with the balance details normally applied, to number the blades consecutively around the disc. This procedure will enable positions to
be fixed for the parts of the whole spool connected to that turbine.
For instance, if HP turbine blades are numbered, HP compressor blades can be identified by stating:
 Compressor access port used;
 Direction of view;
 Details of damage;
 Turbine access port used;
 The turbine blade number visible at the centre of the field of view.
1.5. Number of blades:
The number of blades in a particular compressor or turbine stage should be known and the blades counted while viewing to ensure that all blades in
the stage are checked. When viewing large blades, such as early compressor stages, it will be necessary to make two or three passes to cover the
complete blade length, i.e. view the outer third of the aerofoil, mid span section and inner third adjacent to the inner platform.
1.6. Inspection:
If damage is found on a rotating assembly which has no consecutive numbering of blades, point reference must be established by using an externally
or internally recognisable point on the rotating assembly.
Again, access ports must be stated and consecutive blades must be counted to locate the point of damage.
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For ease of inspection, the HP shaft can be rotated (at a suitable speed to permit a satisfactory inspection) by an air-driven motor through the high-
speed gearbox on engines with a drive facility; otherwise, hand-turning may be accomplished by using either a redundant component drive coupling or
a standard socket fitting in the gearbox.
Air-driven motor systems in general use have hand or foot controls to vary direction and speed; this is an advantage over using the hand-turning
method which requires one person to turn the shaft while another performs the inspection.
LP shafts must be turned by hand and to rotate an Intermediate Pressure shaft in a three-spool engine, without a gearbox, a locally-made tool may be
required to turn the shaft through the IP intake.
 Scheduled inspections:
Scheduled inspections are the regular ones which are carried out as part of an approved Maintenance Schedule.
The frequency of such inspections is dependent upon either engine cycles or flight time and need not be concurrent with the aircraft’s
scheduled checks.
The combustion section and the turbine blades are the primary concern during these inspections, due to the high stresses and
temperatures encountered during service.
All defects should be recorded, normally on a chart specific to the engine type, which after completion constitutes a record of any
deterioration taking place within that particular engine.
An assessment can then be made as to whether the engine may be allowed to continue in service until the next scheduled inspection,
or that it may only continue in service subject to more frequent checks.
 Special inspections:
Occasionally, experience gained by frequent boroscope inspections, in-service failures or inspection during overhaul highlights the
development of particular defects which can be monitored using boroscopes while the engine continues in service.
Normally only one or two access ports need be disturbed because it is only the area detailed by the special inspection which needs
assessing.
This again enables the engine either to continue in service or to be monitored even more frequently.
 Non-scheduled inspections:
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Boroscopes can be used to great effect when it is necessary to assess the damage caused by foreign object ingestion or engine
surge, diagnose the cause of developed defects and provide a means of establishing engine serviceability following excursions
beyond the normal turbine temperatures or maximum power limits.
Together with other basic visual techniques of inspection, the use of boroscopes may, under certain circumstances, provide the
necessary evidence to permit an aircraft to fly back to base for repair when it would otherwise require an immediate engine change.
 Final Inspection:
On completion of a boroscope inspection, it is essential that all access plugs are refitted correctly and securely.
Failure to do so could cause a gas leak and result in a fire warning, shut-down and turn-back or in some cases cause a failure due to
blade flutter or loss of cooling air. Access panels must also be correctly refitted.
Note:
Engines are often removed after scheduled or special inspections to prevent a primarily minor defect causing secondary damage, possibly
leading to engine failure.
2. VIBRATIONS:
All mounting systems need to accomplish two basic functions: 1) constrain motion, and 2) provide vibration isolation and noise reduction. “Constraining
Motion” refers to limiting the relative motion between two structures created by thrust, ‘g’ loads, weight, and torque.
“Providing isolation” and “reducing noise” involves minimizing the transmission of vibration from one structure to another so as to reduce the
transmitted noise into the cabin area.
To provide the first basic function, the mounting system must be stiff to minimize relative motions. In order to minimize transmitted vibration (or noise),
the mounting system must be dynamically soft.
This inherent problem sets up competing objectives that require compromise and flexibility in the engine attachment design. This basic issue, along
with the need for longer service lives and reduced costs, is the reason for new technology development.
In an aircraft engine installation, an imbalance in the rotating machinery creates oscillating forces applied to the structure, thus generating structural
vibration, as depicted in the Figure below.
The consequence of the rotating imbalances of the engines manifests itself through the structural vibration of the fuselage, which induces noise in the
cabin as shown.
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Generation of noise from rotating unbalance in wing mounted engines
At the engine and airframe interface, there are several paths that vibration can take to enter into the cabin. The primary path is at the mounting
structure point and is the focal area or choke point, at which to treat the vibration.
Vibration and noise levels can be controlled in a variety of ways, from passive elastomeric mounts to active vibration control systems, each with
varying levels of complexity, performance, and cost.
The primary benefit of an engine attachment and isolation system (beside the obvious primary purpose attaching the engine to the airframe) is the
reduction in vibration and noise in the aircraft cabin by reducing the dynamic forces in the structure.
As in any equipment design, compromise and communication are key activities. The optimal solution is the one that best meets the total system
requirements for static/structure needs, dynamic needs, and installation/maintainability needs without too much compromise in any one area.
The best approach to the system design is one that provides flexibility in the choice of technology without compromising the certification or
development schedule of the aircraft program.
A common yoke or attachment structure design that can incorporate any vibration isolation treatment is optimal.
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2.1. Noise:
The noise at frequencies related to engine vibrations is usually produced at levels much higher than noise produced by sources such as external
airflow, air conditioning, or accessories.
These sources generally create the broadband noise levels, whereas the engine rotating imbalance creates specific tones of their fundamental
frequencies and harmonics.
The figure shows a typical noise spectrum of the measured data of the internal cabin noise spectrum. Clearly shown are the tonal penetrations of the
engine vibrations.
This higher noise, produced by the engine vibration through the structure, presents the most likely need for isolators in an attachment system.
The noise generated in an aircraft cabin will have an uneven distribution of energy over the audible frequency range (20 Hz to 20 kHz).
By aggregating the energy over the audible frequency range a sound pressure level (SPL) is attained. If each frequency is given the same relative
importance, the result is an overall SPL in dB (Lin).
When the frequency values are given weighting based on their importance, the result is an overall SPL in dBX (where X represents the weighting
curve used).
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A Weighted (dBA) apply to low noise levels as for an audibility test and C-Weighted (dBC) are adapted to noisy environments, such as most aircraft
cabins.
Note:
For more details concerning level of sound, refer to lesson 02-05 – Wave motion and Sound.
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2.2. Transmissibility and effectiveness:
Transmissibility is a common term used when discussing vibrating systems, but is more correctly used with rigid masses and foundations that do not
exist on aircraft.
Effectiveness is a comparison of an attachment system’s performance with an ‘isolator’ to that of a hard mounts, and is a more appropriate term to
describe the vibration isolation (or noise reduction) realized.
Noise and vibration treatments can be separated into two categories, passive and active.
 Passive treatments include resilient materials (rubber or wire mesh), Fluidlastic mounts, Tuned Vibration Absorbers (TVA), and many
different cabin wall and interior treatments.
 Active systems, which require controller electronics, consist of three main types;
o Active Isolation Control (AIC),
o Active Noise Control (ANC),
o Active Structural Control (ASC).
The vibration and noise treatment systems can also be separated into three categories based on how they are applied in the application. The available
technologies are presented in the three categories defined below.
1. Vibration isolation systems are those that are placed directly in the primary load/vibration transmission path.
2. Structural Control systems are those that treat the structure (and are attached to it), attacking the vibration along its primary path, but is not directly
in the primary structure/load/vibration transmission path itself.
3. Noise Control is a special active system, which does not treat vibration, but rather actively cancels noise in the cabin space, locally near the
passengers.
Additionally, these various technologies can be combined in several ways to create a very effective hybrid system.
Passive systems generally provide up to 10 dB reductions and active systems are effective enough to produce 25 dB reductions.
2.3. Passive vibration isolation:
A structure used to attach an engine to an airframe has a certain level of flexibility. A ‘hard mounted’ system is not infinitely rigid and therefore can be
somewhat effective in reducing vibration as it travels through the structure.
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Mechanical analogy of passive isolation control
The attachment structure stiffness characteristics, whether hard mounted or using an isolator, are key to the system’s ability to isolate vibration.
A direct, hard -mounted attachment structure offers the aircraft manufacturer a significant advantage in that they carry the static loads in a very well
defined and understood way and can last the life of the aircraft.
However, in the design of a hard mounted structure, it is difficult to include the necessary flexibility (and damping) required to provide adequate
vibration isolation. A hard mount can be designed to be ‘soft’, but it is very difficult to change the spring rate if necessary for final tuning.
Because an entirely metal, hard attachment structure has little or no damping, it is best represented as a simple spring in a mechanical model.
Stiffness and damping (as depicted as K and C respectively in Figure below) are the basic properties of a resilient material, which provide its
effectiveness in a mount.
The stiffness of a resilient material like rubber is measured in terms of modulus.
Resilient material mounts offer a trade-off between static deflection and vibration isolation, in the sense that improved vibration isolation results at the
expense of greater static deflection.
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The biggest advantages to elastomeric mounts are that they:
 provide the spring and damping for good vibration isolation, and are much more efficient than metal springs
 have a proven application history, and are the lowest cost solution compared to other technologies
 carry load in multiple directions (the rubber geometry is designed so that it can carry load in compression and shear)
 provide easily variable spring rates
 provide impedance mismatch for high frequency noise attenuation
 have a low dynamic to static spring rate ratio compared to a metal spring (rigid structure)
In some relatively rare cases, Rubber-To-Metal (RTM) or elastomeric mounts cannot be used. These cases include extreme high and low temperature
environments. The majority of elastomeric engine mountings utilize organic elastomers for maximum service life, minimum size and best overall
performance characteristics.
These elastomers are generally intended for use in a temperature environment. Elastomeric isolators are designed for a maximum life equal to a
multiple of the engine overhaul interval. This approach has provided up to 20,000 hours of flight time in some applications.
Wire -mesh mounting systems, much like RTM, are a passive approach to vibration isolation using curled, formed, and compressed stainless steel
wire. The advantage to using wire-mesh mounts is that they provide the spring and damper for good isolation, can handle very broad range of
temperatures, and are not affected by any type of engine fluid.
The disadvantage to wire mesh mounts is that they produce a relatively high dynamic to static spring rate ratio, are susceptible to relatively high
permanent set (drift) deflections, and are usually unidirectional.
Wire mesh isolators typically provide several engine overhaul intervals of use, and have been successful in applications with service lives of over
8,000 flight hours.
These parts can be designed for a maximum life of well over 15,000 flight hours.
2.4. Structural controls:
Tuned Vibration Absorbers (TVAs) are passive vibration absorbers that attach to the vibrating structure.
This is a simple mass on a spring system typically using elastomer as the spring. Various geometries and material properties can provide a wide range
of capabilities treating vibration problems up to about 600 Hz.
A TVA is tuned to a discrete frequency. This disturbance frequency will cause the TVA to enter resonance. The resonating TVA will generate a force
back into the structure that cancels out the unwanted vibration or force. When correctly placed on the engine attachment structure, the TVA effectively
increases the impedance of the structure at that tuned frequency.
Passive TVAs are capable of 4 to 6 dBA reductions in noise in the aircraft cabin.
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Active Structural Control (ASC) uses electro-mechanical actuators that are attached to the structure, as close as possible to the vibration source,
which cancels the vibration before it reaches the fuselage.
This system processes both cabin noise information and engine signals in a central computer that drives the actuators in order to ensure optimal noise
reduction throughout the flight cycle.
The adaptive control algorithm, allows the system to react almost instantaneously to engine throttle changes.
The technological principle to ASC is the same as ANC or AIC. The difference is that the actuators in ASC are not directly in the vibration path, but are
instead, attached to the primary structure/vibration path inputting a force to the system that inherently cancels the unwanted vibration.
All components of an active system are designed to be replaced on condition, and can last for the majority of the aircraft lifetime.
2.5. Active vibration control (AIC):
Active Isolation Control systems (depicted in the mechanical analogy in Figure below) introduce electromechanical actuators (represented as “F” in the
figure below) into the mounts.
The AIC system commands these actuators to minimize the vibration and noise signals from accelerometers or microphones. These actuators create
forces that directly oppose imbalance forces, thereby reducing vibration.
Therefore, engine vibration (and subsequent noise) is literally cancelled
These systems are very effective in minimizing the trade-off between constraining motion and providing vibration isolation. Active isolation mounts can
have virtually zero dynamic stiffness at the vibration frequencies, and yet the static stiffness can be quite high.
Active isolation control is a full feedback system that can be used either with an isolator or with a hard mount. In using actual cabin noise information,
the actuator forces can compensate for flanking paths, such as bleed-air lines, linkages, fuel lines, and hydraulic lines.
Additionally, because AIC has constant monitoring and adjustment, the system adapts to changes in engine speeds, power settings, and flight levels.
When coupled with a passive RTM system, the failure mode is benign.
If there is a complete power failure, the system will behave similar to a passive mount. The same result will occur if there is a complete software
failure.
The drawback to these systems is their cost and weight relative to a passive system. The major advantages to AIC are that it can be added to the
aircraft after flight-testing (if the passive mount has been designed so that it can be converted later) and it is highly adjustable.
The passive part will be somewhat heavier (larger) than if it was designed as a purely passive device.
When coupled with a rubber mount, AIC has the same life limiting characteristics as a RTM mount. When incorporated without a rubber element, the
isolation system can be designed to last for nearly the life of the aircraft.
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Mechanical analogy of active isolation control
2.6. Active noise control (ANC):
Active Noise Control systems utilize loudspeakers inside the cabin to create a secondary noise field, which cancels the primary field due to the
engines or propellers. For an ANC system to create global reductions, one of two criteria must be met.
First, the acoustic response must be lightly damped and possess low modal density in the frequency range where the noise must be reduced. When
this occurs, a few actuators can be used to reduce noise at all points throughout he cabin. Secondly, speakers should be placed within a quarter
wavelengths of discrete sources.
Unfortunately, neither of these criteria can generally be met in aircraft. Depending on the size of the cabin, the transition from sparse to dense modal
response typically occurs at a frequency less than 50Hz.
Since most aircraft sources such as turbofan engines or propellers produce noise at frequencies above 50 Hz, global noise reductions are not possible
using the first criteria. Further, since the sources are distributed rather than discrete, the second criteria can rarely be used.
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If global noise control cannot be achieved, then local control can be utilized. Local control involves creating zones of quiet around the control
microphones. The size of the zone of quiet is related to the frequency being controlled. In general, the radius of the sphere of quiet, will be roughly
one-tenth the wavelength of the sound. At 200 Hz, the radius of the sphere of quiet is 6 inches. It is possible to enlarge the zone of quiet by a number
of techniques including using multiple microphones. However, if the frequency were 2,000 Hz, the zone of quiet would be too small to be practical.
Although ANC has its limitations, it can be very effective for controlling low -frequency noise typical of turboprop aircraft. An ANC system for the Beech
King Air provides up to 12 dB spatially averaged reduction in the propeller-induced noise, producing dramatic subjective improvements in passenger
and crew comfort
2.7. Application perspective to isolation systems:
a) Propeller driven aircraft:

 Piston engines:
Propeller driven aircraft produce a high level of vibration due to propeller unbalance. Piston engine aircraft also have firing pulses
creating unique vibration environments coincident with the number of firing pistons. Typical piston engine speeds are on the order of
40 Hz with one half order at 20 Hz, and system natural frequencies of about 10 to 14 Hz.
Typically, piston aircraft are lower cost aircraft, and therefore do not incorporate higher performing (and higher cost) isolation/mount
system. Therefore, the design goal for a piston aircraft using rubber-to-metal (RTM) mounts is to isolate the first order vibration. The
one-half order vibration is normally not isolated, because the necessary static deflections in a passive RTM mount would be too high in
order to attain the dynamic stiffness necessary to affect the half order disturbance.
 Turbo props:
By far, the largest source of noise in turboprop aircraft is the extremely large acoustic pressures that originate from the propeller
blades and strike the fuselage. Engine attachment solutions will not be able to control this noise that occurs at the blade pass
frequency and its harmonics. However, TVAs and active structural control (ASC) attached to the cabin wall and active noise control
(ANC) can reduce this noise. A less dominant, but still significant source of vibration is mass and aerodynamic imbalance forces that
occur at the once-per-revolution frequency. Engine mounting technology can effectively reduce this source of vibration.
The relative light weight and slow speed of the engine/propeller system results in relatively large deflections that need to be
incorporated into the isolator design. Typical turboprop applications have propeller speeds from 10 to 30 Hz and system natural
frequencies of about 6 – 30 Hz which make mount designs difficult for traditional RTM technology.
 Turbo fans:
Most turbofan engines have two rotating spools (N1 and N2). Together, they create a composite vibration at the frequencies related to
the spools’ rotating frequencies, N1 and N2.
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Business jet applications typically have fan speeds of 175 Hz and a high-pressure compressor speed of 433 Hz. At these speeds, any
eccentricity or tolerance differential in the shafts or bearings, as well as mass imbalance, will result in unbalance forces in the engine
and engine casing vibrations. Larger aircraft applications have slower fan speeds (i.e.: Boeing 737~ 85Hz, 757~ 60Hz, and 767~
50Hz).
Through controls in the manufacture of the engine this unbalance can be minimized, but not eliminated.
Balancing of the engine low -speed-shaft (N1) after engine assembly is possible to correct and minimize vibration due to unbalance of
the shaft, however, this is not possible for the high-speed shaft (N2).
b) Fuselage mounted turbofan engines:

Mounting of turbofan engines to the aft fuselage of aircraft is typically done on smaller aircraft, including business and some regional/commercial
aircraft. This position is particularly challenging from a cabin noise standpoint due to the close proximity of the engine to the passenger cabin. A
very efficient isolation system is needed to reduce the transmission of engine induced vibratory forces into the aircraft structure.
Since the forward structure of the engine attachment scheme is very close to the pressure bulkhead at the rear of the aircraft, any vibratory forces
due to engine unbalance are readily converted to cabin tonal noise.
In the case of the aft engine attachment point, the increased distance from the cabin generally results in a less efficient transfer of vibratory forces
to cabin noise.
Also to be considered, are the load directions that need to be reacted at each mounting plane. Since the forward mount plane typically reacts the
engine torque, axial, lateral, and vertical loads, the loads driven into the structure at the front attachment point are often larger. Generally, higher
performing mounts are successful at the forward attachment point and RTM mounts are employed at the aft point.
c) Wing mounted turbofan engines:

On wing mounted engine installations, the aft mounting point becomes a more prominent noise source, since it is closest to the main structure
elements that transmit the noise to the cabin.
The aft mount typically attaches to the structure that is very stiff and is very close to the wing beam. This stiff primary structure of the wing then acts
as a very efficient transmission path for vibration and noise into the cabin.
The front mounting structure, however, is farther away from the main transmission path and is usually less efficient in transmission of vibration and
noise to the aircraft.
Couple this with the softer structure stiffness due to the cantilevered pylon and it becomes clear that the aft isolator design needs to be very
efficient.
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3. OIL ANALYSIS:
With a single glance, even the most inexperienced eye can distinguish between fresh and used engine oil. But examine a sample of used oil carefully
in the laboratory, and it will reveal a detailed snapshot of the engine's overall health.
 Is a bearing wearing down and shedding alloy fragments?
 Has corrosion penetrated the engine; creating ferrous oxide particles?
 Has somebody dropped a wire into the crankcase; an intruder which has since been shredded into surface-destroying shards?
With the right analysis used lubricating oil will bear witness to these and other signs of engine problems.
Given that it costs about $40 to test an engine oil sample, oil analysis is a very inexpensive way to find problems before they become serious and
costly.
Beyond providing immediate engine health snapshots, periodic oil analysis can help mechanics track a given engine's wear and tear over time.
Such information can be especially helpful in spotting friction-caused wear soon after it begins, and in identifying potentially catastrophic failures long
before they occur.
It can also be useful in deciding whether an engine can be maintained based on its TBO schedule, or sent in for an early overhaul to keep it healthy.
One caution: To round out the picture, aircraft mechanics also need to periodically open and inspect used oil filters; and inspect the suction screen for
debris as well.
By doing so, they'll get a detailed look at what's happening inside the engine and early warnings that could result in equipment-saving preventative
maintenance.
3.1. What ends up in the oil?
When we speak of dirty engine oil, what we are really saying is that there are suspended particles in this fluid. These particles have accumulated since
the last oil change; swept up by the constant flow of oil past the engine's moving parts.
These particles come from the normal wear-and-tear that an engine undergoes while in use, and from abnormal events that result in fragments being
generated inside the engine. Included in these particles are everything from alloys being shed by bearings in normal use, to shavings coming off parts
that shouldn't be grinding against each other, but are.
Then there’s a silicon particle, a.k.a. dirt. These are elements that come from outside the engine through improperly sealed air intakes, since silicon is
never used in the manufacture of engine parts. Since it is abrasive and accelerates wear, dirt is never a good thing to find.
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3.2. Why it's important?
In general, piston engines are the ones that benefit most from oil analysis. This is because piston engines create significant amounts of extremely fine
wear particles in the 0-20 micron size range that are detectable by oil analysis, because of the constant rubbing of cylinders, sleeves, bearings, and
other mechanical parts against each other.
This extremely fine wear circulates in the oil and is not trapped by filtration. The larger piston engine wear particles trapped in the oil filter must be
monitored by oil filter analysis.
Turbine engines, on the other hand, have 10 micron oil filters or smaller, and generate predominantly larger wear particles greater than 10 microns,
which are trapped by the oil filter.
In regard to turbine engines, it is critical to perform both oil analysis and oil filter analysis, because most of the diagnostic evidence of abnormal turbine
engine wear modes can be contained in the oil filter.
Larger wear particles are analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy, SEM EDS.
3.3. The process of oil analysis:
Engine oil analysis begins with the collection of a sample by a mechanic; typically during a regular oil change. (In fact, some mechanics make oil
analysis sampling a regular part of their oil change routine.)
It is recommended taking a sample every time the oil is changed, and doing so within 30 minutes of engine shutdown so that an ongoing history of the
engine's wear can be compiled. The oil filter should also be cut open and inspected in the field and or sent to the laboratory for detailed analysis of the
larger wear debris particles.
Once a sample has been collected, it is sent to a facility. Here, the sample is analyzed using a process called Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission
Spectrography, ICP for short.
In the ICP process, a plasma heat source vaporizes the particles within a sample of engine oil, breaking these particles down to their elemental atomic
states. The atoms and ions contained in the plasma vapor are excited into a state of radiated light (photon) emission. As this plasma-driven breakdown
occurs, changes take place within the electron orbital patterns of the atoms.
These electron changes cause the emission of element specific light signatures which are measure by the ICP. By analyzing the emitted light, and
interpreting the elemental analysis, the analysts can determine precisely what the particles are made of; be it specific alloys, or contaminants such as
silicon. In simplistic terms, dissolved microscopic elements of metals suspended in the oil are identified. The data can be used to decide whether the
engine is performing properly, or if something is in there that needs follow up.
3.4. The importance of checking oil filters and suction screens:
Oil analysis is a wonderful tool, but it doesn't replace a direct visual inspection of the oil filter and the suction screen.
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To get a complete picture of what's flowing through an engine, you need to take samples from the oil filter and suction screen. In the first instance,
specially designed cutters are available to open metal filters without adding extra debris. In the second, it's a matter of going physically to the suction
screen, and taking samples of what's on it.
In both cases, any significant amount of metal particles is look after and any other materials that should not be there.
Unless you have the knowledge and equipment to do the analysis yourself, the best option is to gather samples using laboratory-defined techniques,
and send them off to be analyzed with your oil samples.
It is indeed virtually impossible to separate the different articles found in filter media by composition. This is why we have to examine each one
microscopically, so that we can determine the exact alloy by its appearance and distinctive shape.
3.5. Powerful preventative and diagnostic tool:
Benefits of oil analysis are there, but are difficult to quantify. Oil testing might trigger a maintenance action that may cost $50,000 if the problem is
caught in time, versus $1 million if it's not.
In fact, oil analysis is a very valuable aid in the never-ending process of monitoring engines during their operational life spans. Coupled with oil filter
and suction screen inspections, oil analysis gives mechanics an opportunity to identify and remedy problems before they become serious.
Timely preventative maintenance doesn't just ease the drain on a client's wallet. In these tight economic times, preventing costly engine failures and
AOG incidents could help thinly budgeted operators stay in business; thus keeping their mechanics employed as well.
This is why oil analysis is such an important part of engine maintenance.
When used as part of a consistent, conscientious oil replacement program - in league with oil filter and suction screen inspections - oil analysis can
truly help engines last longer, run better, and make a positive contribution to their owners' bottom lines.
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IV. INSPECTION OF ENGINE AND COMPONENTS TO CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA SPECIFIED BY ENGINE
MANUFACTURER
The components of the engine such as compressors, combustion sections and turbines, have special characteristics and the specific forms of defects can
only be found in the relevant Maintenance Manual.
1. COMPRESSORS:
Inspections must be systematic, not confined to single stages and always preceded by a comprehensive external visual examination.
The most common form of damage to compressors is FOD. Typically, FOD is an aviation term used to describe both the damage done to aircraft by
foreign objects, and the foreign objects themselves
If any damage is found on compressor blades, its position on the blade will determine its seriousness. It is usual for the inner one-third of the blade to
be classified as a 'no damage allowable' area, as are the areas on each side of mid-span shrouds.
1.1. Inspections after damage:
Inspections after such occurrences as foreign object damage (FOD), bird strikes or surge, must be systematic, not confined to single stages and
always preceded by a comprehensive external visual examination. In addition to the boroscope ports provided, it may be possible to use bleed valve
apertures and air sensing probe points to inspect the compressor.
The most common form of damage to compressors is FOD. Centrifugal compressors have proved to be fairly damage-resistant but axial compressors
are not so resistant to FOD and are also subject to surge damage.
Inspection of axial compressors and their blades should, therefore, always include a search for evidence of FOD in all its manifestations - nicks, dents,
scratches and the cracks which these defects may produce.
Surge damage may be in the form of trailing edge cracks at the blade root, rubbing marks on the blade platform or blade shroud, with perhaps damage
to the spacer plates between the blades.
Interference between tips or shrouds and the casing can occur during surge and may bend blade tips, cause cracks, etc. Interference between rotors
and stators (clanging) is a more serious defect because of the likelihood of substantial deformation.
1.2. Inspections as the maintenance manual:
Engine manufacturers normally know the type of damage which may be caused to their engines during surge and the Maintenance Manual may,
therefore, indicate which particular stage or stages need to be inspected and which defects are particularly indicative of surge damage.
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Grime and oil deposits may form on the compressor blades over a period of time.
Excessive oil deposits are usually an indication of front bearing oil leakage or general wear in the engine. Where engines are operated in sandy
conditions, dust tends to stick on the rear of the compressor if there are oil deposits present and such engines could benefit from compressor washing
procedures.
Compressor blades which have mid-span shrouds (or clappered blades) are sometimes subject to wear at the point where the end of each shroud
abuts its neighbour.
On 1st stage LP or fan blades this wear is recognised and can be measured by taking up the total free play of the whole stage, by moving half the
blades clockwise about their mounting pins and the other half anti-clockwise; this leaves a gap between one pair of blades which represents total
shroud wear.
Of course, this procedure will not be suitable for other than fans or 1st and maybe 2nd, stage LP blades. Inspection of mid-span shroud wear is
confined to a close and clear view of abutting shrouds. Shrouds which are wearing may be recognised by:
 Metallic streaking from the join;
 A wavy, uneven join line;
 Hammering (which is where the abutting faces deform, like chisel shafts under the effects of frequent hammer blows).
Whatever damage is found on compressor blades, its position on the blade will determine its seriousness. It is usual for the inner one-third of the blade
to be classified as a 'no damage allowable' area, as are the areas on each side of mid-span shrouds.
2. COMBUSTION SECTION:
High temperature is the reason for most combustion section defects. The flame tubes or liners, burner flares and swirlers, tube interconnectors and the
Nozzle Guide Vanes leading edges are normally inspectable with a boroscope.
High temperature is the reason for most combustion section defects. Burning, cracking, distortion and erosion of nozzle guide vanes (NGVs) are
typical. The combustion section may be inspected with an boroscope either through the designated access ports or through the igniter plug holes or
burner apertures. The components visible depend, of course, upon engine design and the position of the access ports, but the flame tubes or liners,
burner flares and swirlers, tube interconnectors and the NGV leading edges are normally inspectable.
NOTE:
In the combustion section, all defects must be assessed on the basis of the likelihood of the defect causing a breakaway of material. This could
lead to greater damage occurring in the turbine.
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2.1. Burners:
The burners may develop carbon deposits.

The burners protrude into the forward face of the flame tube/liner through an aperture which is usually flared; this is sometimes called the burner flare.
The burner must be concentric with this flare otherwise a loose flare or burner should be suspected. In an annular combustion chamber, the burners
and flares are separated by blank segments and these must be secure.
The burners may develop carbon deposits, which can be in the form of an irregularlyshaped protuberance from the burner face. In some engines this
has a detrimental effect on starting, but when it breaks off it rarely causes any damage because it is usually soft. Hard carbon, however, can block the
burner spray nozzle but does not grow large enough to cause break-off damage.
2.2. Swirlers:
All elements belonging to Swirlers (or swirl vanes) should be inspected for cracks.
Swirlers (or swirl vanes) should be inspected for security and missing elements. All components should be inspected for cracks.
2.3. Flame tubes/Liners:
Flame tubes (or, in annular combustion chambers, the liners) contain the flame by directing air through holes or slots to the centre of the tube. The
whole surface of the tube is peppered with cooling holes of varying sizes arranged in a regular pattern and these are usually the starting points for
cracks and sometimes determine the limits of cracks.
For instance, the Maintenance Manual may state that axial cracks which extend rearward beyond the third row of cooling holes are unacceptable. The
allowable limits for cracks can depend on both their position and length.
To assess their length must at times be a matter of estimation.
The engineer should, however, be aware of the general dimensions of the component being inspected (these are sometimes stated in the
Maintenance Manual, otherwise familiarity with the components is required); from this a near estimate can be made of crack length.
The flame tubes should be inspected for cracks and other damage as follows:
a) Cracks.
These start at holes or edges and may stop when they reach another hole or edge.
Circumferential cracks can be more serious than axial cracks as they can result in pieces breaking off under the effect of airflow and flame
impingement.
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Cracks around dilution chutes (scoops or nozzles into the airstream) are usually considered to be serious, since any distortion of the chute may
create hot-spots which will accelerate deterioration and may cause torching of the flame onto the air casing.
b) Distortion.
Usually, defined limits give the allowable amount of distortion into the airstream and the length of cracks associated with it.
The manufacture of a flame tube normally includes sections which overlap each other; these overlaps allow cooling air to flow near the surface of
the tube. The sections are joined by a 'wigglestrip' (corrugated spacer) which allows air to flow through the overlap.
The wigglestrips should be inspected for security because the welds can fail, causing distortion of the strips into the airstream of the tube. Limits for
this damage are measured in numbers of adjacent or total wigglestrip pitches affected.
c) Burning and hot streaking.

The high temperature materials used for the flame tubes/liners sometimes change colour quite dramatically with heat, so coloured areas alone may
not indicate serious burning.
Burning is caused by the flame approaching the tube/liner and is recognised by the texture of the surface; this becomes rough and pitted and a
reduction of wall thickness is noticeable.
Streaks of metallic particles sparkle under the high intensity light of a boroscope and are recognised this way. Edges of lips and overlaps are
susceptible to burning and erosion.
Burn limits depend upon position and area.
d) Holes.
These can be caused in three ways:
 pieces breaking off,
 cracks allowing a section of metal to be lifted off and
 burning through.
Holes in a flame tube/liner need not be a reason to reject an engine. However, the turbine should be inspected if the hole was caused other than by
burning through.
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Carbon deposits produced at the burner can sometimes be mistaken for holes as the carbon is an intense black; the angle of view of the suspected
hole should be changed if any doubt exists. If the suspected hole is a carbon deposit no detail of the edge of the 'hole' will be visible, neither will
any detail through the 'hole'.
e) Nicks and dents.

Inspection should be extended to the nozzle guide vanes if this damage is found because these are evidence of broken-off particles or FOD.
2.4. Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGVs):
The NGVs are subject to very high thermal and mechanical stresses and only the newest of engines do not show physical signs of this when
inspected.
If viewed from the igniter plug holes, the leading edges and some concave surfaces only will be visible. Access ports are required elsewhere to view
the whole surface of NGVs as they are highly cambered.
Rows of cooling-air holes are visible on most NGVs and these may be used to identify areas of the vane. Damage can be as follows:
a) Discoloration.
Slight discoloration is nearly always present and is not necessarily a defect. Heavy discoloration, however, is associated with burning.
b) Cracks.
These are allowable to a limited extent but if associated with lifting of the surface from the original contour they are not acceptable.
Cracks are either axial (from leading edge to trailing edge) or radial (vertical) and their allowable length will depend on their direction; those which
converge or are in convex surfaces may well necessitate engine rejection.
c) Burning and/or erosion.

Erosion, although caused separately from burning, is usually found in the same areas as burning and is subject to the same limits.
Erosion is the product of abrasion and looks like burning without the discoloration; that is, roughness and pitting with a noticeable reduction in skin
thickness.
Burning and erosion are most common on NGV leading edges and concave surfaces. They may penetrate the outer skin and are sometimes
allowable, but again subject to position and size of area affected.
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d) Dents and Nicks.

These are caused by FOD and further inspections should be carried out if they are found.
e) Tearing.
Tearing can occur in trailing edges and is allowable only within defined limits.
3. TURBINE SECTION:
Turbine blades are subject to the same types of damage and defects as Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGVs). Trailing edge cracks can propagate quite
quickly due to tearing forces imposed by centrifugal force and the twist of the blade and these cracks are not normally allowable.
Dents on aerofoil surfaces of hollow turbine blades can initiate cracks on the cooling-air passage wall inside the aerofoil section which can propagate
to form quite large internal cracks before breaking through and becoming visible.
Access for the boroscope inspection of turbine blades is either through the ports provided or sometimes through the igniter plugs holes using a flexible
boroscope (flexiscope).
For this, a holding tool can be made which is fed through the igniter plug hole and fixed.
The flexiscope is then inserted and the holding tool guides the tip through the NGVs to view the blades.
Note:
When viewing the aerofoil surface of a turbine blade, the end of the probe is located between the blades and must be withdrawn prior to engine
rotation to avoid damaging the probe and blades.
Turbine blades are subject to the same types of damage and defects as NGVs.
The limits for such damage are, however, more stringent. Blades can have some leading edge damage and cracking but still remain in service; trailing
edge cracks, however, can propagate quite quickly due to tearing forces imposed by centrifugal force and the twist of the blade and these cracks are
not normally allowable.
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Dents on aerofoil surfaces of hollow turbine blades can initiate cracks on the cooling-air passage wall inside the aerofoil section which can propagate
to form quite large internal cracks before breaking through and becoming visible.
Deposits can form on most internal parts of gas turbine engines.

When airborne sand is ingested it usually accumulates on the NGV and turbine blade leading edges. It has a sandy colour and becomes baked on by
the combustion process and is not easily removed even at engine overhaul.
It can cover some cooling holes but does not usually cover significant NGV or turbine blade defects. Its effect on inspections is therefore minimal, but
its overall effect is to shorten engine life.
4. RECORD OF DAMAGE:
When damage is found it must be recorded in the engine records.
This is the case whether the inspection was routine or a special one. Increases in crack length, for instance, can then be assessed over a period of
time, thus giving time to arrange for repairs or removal.
Some operators have introduced inspection sheets for use when carrying out routine and special inspections. The sheets detail the preparation work
necessary before inspection and also include drawings which depict blades or flame tubes; engineers then mark in observed defects and identify the
drawings accordingly.
These representations of the internal state of each engine then form part of the engine’s records and can be used in future assessments of damage
and the growth of existing damage. Photographic records may also be kept, using a still camera or video tape recording.
The Maintenance Manual will sometimes define a defect as acceptable for a finite number of flying hours or cycles.
Engineers should, therefore, ensure that additional entries are made in log books and/or technical logs to limit engine operation to the periods allowed.
If, however, inspection reveals that different defects exist which are related, each with a finite allowable number of flying hours, the engineer should
consider certifying such defects as allowable only for a shorter time than the most restrictive of the allowances given.
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V. COMPRESSOR WASHING / CLEANING
1. GENERAL:
As gas turbines have become bigger in output, with higher air mass flow and larger dimensions in air inlet conduits, experience with on line
compressor washing has shown the need to improve the penetration and distribution of droplets into and across the air inlet stream to achieve uniform
wetting of compressor vane surfaces.
Gas turbines have become bigger and bigger, and the need for regular on line compressor washing is maintained in the competitive merchant plant
environment.
Compressor washers create a uniform distribution of very small water droplets under low operating pressure, and enables good wetting and cleaning
of first row vanes.
However, as gas turbine output has grown, mass flow has increased along with machine diameters and overall dimensions of the air inlet system. As a
result it has been found that the droplets cannot penetrate across the air inlet stream so easily, and are instead deflected in their mid-course
trajectories. This reduces the efficiency of wetting the blades, and reduces the effectiveness of on line cleaning.
The challenge, then, was to develop a nozzle which would allow droplets in the same small size range to penetrate much further into and across the
air stream, and thereby provide more effective wetting of the blade surfaces.
The risk of compressor blade erosion is greatly reduced due to very low total mass flow, small droplet size range, and optimised positioning of nozzles
upstream and downstream of the bell mouth.
2. DETAILED STUDY:
2.1. Introduction:
In the late 70s performance loss as the result of compressor fouling was generally regarded as a necessary evil inherent in the operation of gas
turbines.
Little was done about it apart from shutting the machine down from time to time to carry out a time consuming and laborious crank-soak compressor
washing or other cleaning procedures to restore lost performance.
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2.2. Off-line and online cleaning methods:
a) Off-line cleaning methods:

 Crank-soak chemical washing using in-built chemical injection water rinsing systems.
 Crank-soak chemical cleaning using hand held hose or lance.
 Partial hand cleaning (e.g. Struts. IGV's. 1st stage rotor & stator blading) using chemicals, rags, brushes and water rinse.
 Full hand cleaning with compressor covers removed using chemicals, various types of abrasives or even light shotblasting techniques
 Steam cleaning.
b) On-line cleaning methods:

 Injection of abrasives (e.g. crushed nutshells) into the compressor airstream to displace blade deposits by high velocity impingement.
 Injection of plain water to remove water soluble deposits.
 Injection of special chemical solutions (solvent 8 aqueous based) to chemically dissolve and remove surface deposits from the blades.
However, with the popular resurgence of the gas turbine as an industrial prime mover over the past decades, serious interest in the problem of lost
performance and increased fuel consumption caused by fouling has led to the development of so-called 'on-line' or 'fired wash' compressor cleaning
systems.
The objective of these systems being to chemically clean the compressor while the engine remains in operation at up to full speed and load in order to
extend the output for longer and avoid increase in heat rate and subsequent increases in fuel consumption.
In reality, the number of companies and individuals that have been seriously involved in the development of fired wash systems over the years are
few and far between.
However, since the process has, of recent, gained the official blessing of some major gas turbine manufacturers, there has been a sudden proliferation
of system suppliers and even more running wash chemical suppliers - who, in many cases, may have scant knowledge or experience of the fired wash
process and the gas turbines to which it is being applied.
If done properly, fired washing can be a very safe and successful method of keeping gas turbines running more efficiently and the process is being
constantly improved and perfected and is, without doubt, here to stay as more and more gas turbine manufacturers offer running wash systems as a
standard fit or recommended option.
However, it can also be a dangerous process if injection systems or chemicals are incorrectly designed, fitted or used and operators should be
cautious when selecting any on-line cleaning system.
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2.3. Questions to ask about the injection system when selecting an on-line cleaning system:
 How long has vendor been in the business?

 An installation reference list?
 Is the system known to engine manufacturers Do they approve it or have no objection to its installation and use?
 Is the system a recommended option or installed as standard in new gas turbines by any manufacturers/packagers?
 Does the vendor design, manufacture, install service and guarantee the system himself (If not, why not)?
 Are the materials of the system of good quality?
 How long does the vendor say it should take to install the system. Some can take a few hours to install, others can take weeks to install if it
involves drilling thick casting etc.?
 Is the design safe?
 Could it possibly damage the engine or injure those using it?
 Does the vendor have sufficient liability insurance?
Since on-line washing has rather suddenly come into vogue even though deep rooted knowledge and experience of the process is known to relatively
few system supplier and operators it is hoped that this paper will be of sound practical help to those operators who would like to adopt online chemical
washing procedures but who are unfamiliar with the concept.
2.4. Questions to ask about the chemicals when selecting an on-line cleaning system:
 Does the vendor also manufacture special cleaning chemicals for use with the system and are they tried, tested and approved was the
chemical on offer solely developed for on-line cleaning or was it originally developed for some other application not connected with gas
turbines.
 Does the vendor offer a choice of chemicals (i.e. solvent based and water based) to suit particular fouling and/or environmental
requirements.
 Is the chemical supplied as a concentrate to save storage and transportation costs. Paying for water in ready-to-use chemical solutions can
be very expensive and unnecessary.
 Can the chemical offered also be used safely and effectively for off-line compressor washing if need be.
 Does the vendor offer ex-warehouse availability of chemical.
If the vendor only supplies chemicals are you sure it is safe to use them in your injection system.
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Recommendation: Be very wary of using any chemical especially for on-line. fired washing, unless it has been property tested and approved and has a
good long term safety record behind it.
2.5. Advantages & disadvantages of off-line compressor washing:
2.5.1. Advantages:
When carried out correctly can effectively clean compressor and restore majority of lost performance.
2.5.2. Disadvantages:
 Gas turbine must be shut down completely.
 Time consuming process.
 Labor intensive process.
 Costly problems in disposing of waste chemical and rinse water.
 Lost power output cannot be recovered.
 Increased fuel consumption cannot be recovered.
 Shut down/start up thermal cycles for off-line wash are damaging.
 Extra wear and tear on starting system during off-line wahing.
 Can wash salt and corrosives into inaccessible parts of engine.
 Only a short term cure & not a prevention for compressor fouling.
This should be more than sufficient incentive for any turbine operator to at least investigate the potential benefits of on-line washing to control
compressor fouling when the machine is running because the alternative of off-line crank-soak washing can only be a temporary cure and not a
prevention of the fouling and performance loss that only takes place when the machine is running.
Lost performance is precisely that - lost!
Increased fuel consumption is, of course, only part of the story of compressor fouling and loss of power output can be an even greater cost penalty if
available power is directly related to production; such as in the case of an offshore oil production facility.
In that instance loss of power can equate directly with loss of production and revenue.
Similarly, co-generation facilities which sell excess energy to guarantee profitable survival can find themselves with major problems if projected
amounts of saleable excess power are reduced due to performance loss and/or total shutdown to perform off-line washing to restore lost performance.
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2.6. Costs:
2.6.1. On day to day operating costs:

 Higher fuel costs due to increased heat rate.
 Reduction in power output & loss of related production revenue.
 Use of more expensive external power supplies to make up shortfall.
2.6.2. On longer term operating and maintenance costs:

 Reduction in life of all hot section components due to higher EGT's.
 Higher maintenance costs in more frequent replacement of components.
2.6.3. On safety:
 Possibility of compressor stall & subsequent engine damage.
 Possibility of rotor imbalance, vibration and catastrophic breakup.
2.6.4. On capital expenditure:

 More frequent replacement of expensive hot section components.
 Greater investments in non-productive standby plant and redundancy.
 Shorter amortisation periods for entire gas turbine.
2.7. Compressor fouling and washing of compressors:
There are many sources of compressor fouling but the worst and the most common is the ingestion of oily vapors which can readily pass through
filtration systems.
 Passage of oily vapors through filtration system.
 Ingestion of oily vapors through breaches in air inlet plenum.
 Leakage of oil from oil-bath type filtration systems.
 Passage of very fine particulate matter through breaches in plenum.
 Re-ingestion of exhaust gasses through filtration system & breaches in air inlet plenum casing.
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 Ingestion of saturated salt droplets or salt crystals through filters and/or breaches in plenum casings.
 Ingestion of seasonal tree and plant gums.
 Ingestion of wide variety of chemicals & other pollutants generated at the site of gas turbine operation.
Typically these oily vapors are the catalyst to compressor fouling in most cases.
After re-starting the gas turbine with a clean, dry compressor a film of oily/greasy deposit can build up rapidly on the compressor airfoils (roughly in the
first third of the compressor) and this forms a perfect 'fly-trap' to catch and absorb dry particulate matter which would otherwise have passed
harmlessly through the compressor.
In more than 20 years of designing and developing compressor cleaning systems the writer has observed that classic compressor fouling - particularly
in polluted industrial environments - is basically a three phase affair.
 First, there is the laying down of the oily film and the rapid absorption and entrapment of dry particulates. This can occur within days or even
hours after restarting a cleaned engine and
there can be a substantial reduction in output in a relatively short period of time.
 Next, there is a slowing down of performance loss as the surface deposit gradually dries and the rate of fouling decreases.
 Finally, there is a relatively long phase of slow decline over a period of weeks or even months followed by a further sharp decline as the
aerodynamic tolerance of the compressor
decreases and/or the surface deposit once more becomes sticky with more oily residues.
A finger nail scratch into the apparent dry, carbonaceous surface deposit on the bell mouth struts of many a compressor is almost sure to reveal the
initial oily substrate that was laid down shortly after the cleaned engine was put back into
service.
In general, one could say with confidence that compressor fouling would be much diminished if all traces of oil and grease could be prevented from
entering the compressor and in this regard close attention to the complete integrity of the air inlet
plenum after the filters is strongly recommended since even small breaches can allow inordinately large quantities of unfiltered vapors and particulates
to pass freely into the compressor.
Since it is almost impossible to prevent some degree of compressor fouling the logical approach is to try and find a way of controlling and reducing the
rate of fouling and ultimately to control it to a point that it does not affect performance at all.
This means regular compressor cleaning on a sufficiently frequent basis to prevent any meaningful amounts of deposit from building up between each
wash and that could mean once per day or once per week depending on operating circumstances.
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2.8. Other Online compressor cleaning methods:
The question is, is on-line chemical washing the only on-line cleaning method?
The answer is no but of the other available choices it may be the most efficient, safe and practical on-line procedure.
The first alternative - and probably as old as the gas turbine itself - is abrasive cleaning using a variety of crushed nutshells or carbon-based pellets
but in general this method is impractical for most modern gas turbines because, among other problems and drawbacks, the abrasive medium can
damage coatings and plug turbine cooling holes with possible catastrophic results.
The second alternative to on-line chemical cleaning is on-line plain water washing which has been advocated by some as a cheap solution with the
apparent simplistic argument that water must be inexpensive and chemical must be expensive.
This would, of course, be the perfect solution if all compressor fouling was water-soluable and the water used was virtually free of all dissolved and
suspended solids so as to avoid corroding the engine in the process of trying to clean it.
Unfortunately, compressor fouling is rarely, if ever, of a water-soluble nature and good quality pure water is not always easy to come by and many a
gas turbine has been badly corroded by poor attention to water quality particularly when applied to a hot engine.
Water washing should not be confused with the use of so called water-based or aqueous chemicals. Generally, water-based chemicals are formulated
from various types of surfactants (surface acting agents) and corrosion inhibitors with water being in the majority (between about 80 and 98%
depending on the brand) as the carrying agent.
Some of the new formula water-based materials (some using very pure food-grade surfactants) are quite effective at breaking down stubborn
oily/greasy deposits so are proving quite successful even for fired-washing but are particularly attractive for off-line washing because of their high
biodegradability factor which makes the disposal of the waste chemical a lot easier.
There are now a number of water-based chemicals on the market for on-line washing but to the authors knowledge there is only one generally
recognised and approved solvent-based material available worldwide for on-line compressor cleaning and this material is 'FYREWASH SB' which has
been produced by his company, Rochem, in it's current formulation for almost 20 years.
In more recent years a water-based formula 'FYREWASH WB' has also been added to the range and either material can be used in the patented
FYREWASH injection system.
15-21 - 86
Level  1  2  3
VI. FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE
1. GENERAL:
With the aircraft "flying together" with other moving elements in air (birds...), collision risks exist; this risk is called "aircraft risk". It is in the airports
surroundings, during take off or landing, that the collision risks are the highest.
Birds at the airport

Flight through a cloud of volcanic ash is a very dangerous phenomena.
15-21 - 87
Level  1  2  3
British airways flight 009 and Djakarta volcanic eruption

For this reason the airport authorities often implemented various and varied systems to try to move away the birds from the surroundings of the
runways for takeoff and landing.
Another preventive measure used by some operators consists in painting a white spiral on the black cone of the air intake of the turbojet, the rotation
of the engine producing a visual effect which can frighten some birds.
As in any collision, the total mass of the foreign matter is a significant factor of extended damage: a sparrow compared to a wild goose striking an
engine will certainly not produce the same effects. But the impact speed is an even more significant factor.
15-21 - 88
Level  1  2  3
Remember that kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass concerned and directly proportional to the square of the speed.
Thus, it happens that in known areas of high risk (zone and period of migrations for example), the operators limit their speeds of climb to 250 knots
instead of the usual 320 or 340 knots, in order to reduce the seriousness of a collision.
When an aircraft is in its phase of takeoff or landing, its flaps or slats as well as its trailing edge flaps are more or less extended; its landing gear
deployed. During these phases of flight, it can be said that the aircraft has a profile which exposes it more to the collisions with birds than in flight
during cruising.
During takeoff, the high lift devices are less deployed than for the landing, the collision risk is thus theoretically less.
On the other hand, the engines turn at full power and the intake of several birds by an engine could create serious damage requiring the aircraft to
land immediately.
During landing, all the high-lift devices are deployed, as well as the air-brakes and the landing gear. The current high-lift flaps are often made up of two
or three successive elements which fit into each other during their retraction in the lower-surface. The crew retracts these devices as soon as the
landing is finished
If the crew announced a possible collision with one or more moving elements during landing, the technician inspecting the aircraft must redeploy these
high-lift devices and other devices, in order to have a visual inspection of all the areas exposed to the risk.
 Upon a crew report, the technician must specify the exact configuration of the aircraft at the time of the supposed collision:
 during climb?,
 during approach?,
 landing gears deployed?,
 as well as the impact area:

 rather on the left?,
 or on the right?,
 above or below the aircraft?
This having been specified, if the collision is due to birds, the technician will follow the procedures planned in chapter 5 of the Maintenance Manual.
These procedures are often confused with those which are planned for a "hail strike".
The traces of impact being generally very visible (traces of blood, feathers) this type of inspection is however easier.
15-21 - 89
Level  1  2  3
2. DETAILED STUDY:
2.1. Background:
Foreign object damage presents a serious airworthiness threat to any aircraft not to mention the economic impact on the operator. In extreme cases,
FOD can lead to an accident and loss of life.
FOD damage to airframes and engines can be extremely expensive to rectify and may result in the aircraft being removed from revenue service for
significant periods of time.
There are numerous reports on record of FOD damage to engines (in particular rotating assemblies), nose and main landing gear assemblies and
aircraft structure.
Recent audits of airports, including a 10-month study at one major UK international airport, have revealed that a continuing threat exists from varying
amounts of FOD present on aircraft maintenance areas and airport-manoeuvring areas, including stands, aircraft taxiways and runways.
The study showed the aircraft themselves as the main cause of FOD on the runway and this poses the highest immediate risk.
Here, parts of aircraft become detached or tools and equipment, inadvertently left in the aircraft fall out during take off or landing. The largest item
found on a runway was a wheel chock but metal panels and honeycomb structure were also amongst the larger items.
The FOD found on taxiways and stands came mainly from airport vehicles and the equipment they tow such as baggage trolleys, steps, cargo
equipment etc.
The size and shape of some of this FOD makes it likely to cause tyre damage and subsequent tyre burst. The cleaning of aircraft cabins and the
transfer of waste from cabin to airside rubbish containers is also seen to be a common source of FOD in the stand areas.
Other typical FOD consists of such items as oil cans, spanners, pliers, engineers torches, suitcase items (both internal and external), mobile radios,
aircraft catering equipment, cutlery, landing gear ground lock pins, thrust reverser lock-out pins and broken parts of ground servicing
equipment/vehicles.
Smaller items could be ingested by an engine. In many cases, FOD damage to engine rotating assemblies has led to vibration leading to air turn-
backs, diversions and subsequent engine replacement.
Boroscope inspections of engines following reports of engine surging very often reveal internal damage to the engine – such damage can of course be
very expensive to repair. Typically, damage to the aircraft can range from damage to horizontal stabilizer leading edges to pressure hull penetration by
objects thrown up from the runway, to varying degrees of damage to landing gear assemblies and main-planes.
It is not unusual for tyre treads (nose and main) to detach as a result of FOD damage during take-off and landing causing damage to the fuselage,
wings, trailing edge flaps, lift dumpers, engine intakes and compressors.
Tyre tread detachment often occurs within several takeoffs / landings of an earlier penetration of the tread by an item of FOD. It is known that in some
cases aircraft have been lost due to FOD damage to tyre assemblies and has lead to significant loss of life.
15-21 - 90
Level  1  2  3
2.2. Operator, Maintenance and best practices:
Aircraft operators should not allow their aircraft to be positioned onto arrival/departure stands unless satisfied that the stand is clean and free from
FOD.
Operators should consider the implementation of procedures whereby its staff or contracted ground handling personnel check parking stand
cleanliness standards prior to aircraft arrival on stand and again following its departure from stand prior to being occupied by the next aircraft.
Aircraft operators should ensure that the topic of FOD is placed as a standing agenda item on all airport users committee meetings that it attends and
internal airline safety meetings as necessary in order that the topic is adequately covered and remains visible at all times.
It is suggested that operators may wish to nominate an individual with responsibility for the implementation of the airline’s policy in this area.
Aircraft operators and maintenance organisations should implement procedures that would preclude tools, inspection equipment or other service items
being left in the aircraft installations following routine or unscheduled maintenance (e.g. undercarriage bays, engine intakes) and/or at the airport areas
where the work took place.
Airport authorities and maintenance organisations should ensure that adequate cleaning/sweeping programmes are in place for those aircraft ramp
and maintenance areas under their control.
Airport authorities and maintenance organisations should provide sufficient numbers of strategically positioned FOD bins that should be readily visible
and placarded as to their use.
Aircraft operators, maintenance and ground handling organisations should include FOD in their induction and continuation training programmes.
For example, the practice of putting chocks and other loose equipment on aircraft tugs in positions from where it can fall unnoticed should be
discouraged.
Aircraft operators and maintenance organisations should consider the inclusion of FOD into their ramp area audits ensuring that where problems exist
that the persons responsible are notified without delay.
Where FOD is a persistent problem and no effort is made to rectify the problem, consideration should be given to reporting matters to the Authority.
Aircraft operators should ensure that contracted aircraft cleaning and ground handling organisations are made aware of its policies regarding the
prevention of FOD during cabin cleaning and ground handling operations. This should include the condition of vehicles and the quality of repairs made
to them.
Some aircraft types are permitted to back off the stand using high power reverse thrust settings. Operators of such types are reminded that these
operations can be susceptible to FOD.
Operators carrying out such operations should ensure that they are only carried out in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations and from
clean, contamination free ramp areas.
15-21 - 91

Module 15-21 Gas Turbine Engine: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation

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Module 15-21 Gas Turbine Engine: Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15 – Gas turbine engine

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 21 - Engine monitoring and ground operation

Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation

I. PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUN-UP .................................................................................................................................................. 5

I. PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUN-UP

2. GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES:

3. PREPARATION OF SURROUNDING AREA FOR GROUND RUN-UP:

3.1. Engine danger areas:

 Sound proofing areas at idle speed.

4. SAFETY AND INSPECTIONS:

4.1. External inspection of the aircraft (walk around):

Commercial aircrafts are frequently inspected visually.

Please, consult these videos.

a - static air bleed ports: in state

a - covers and Pitot probes: removed and controlled

Wheels and tires: in state

Passenger forward door: closed

a - air bleed valve / air blowing valve: open / operating

a - wing ventilation air intake: in state

Engine cowlings: closed / locked

a - access door to water filters: closed

Leading edge slat #2 and #3: control

a - static dischargers: control

Spoilers fully deployed

Wheel chocks: control /in position

Hydraulic piping: control

Aft cabin door: control / closed

After cargo door

Tail plane and elevator (horizontal rudder): control

Tail plane, elevator, rudder and APU compartment.

Left-hand landing gear locking indicator: extended

Cabin aft door and water drain

Landing gear well: control

High-lift wings: in state

Roll control surfaces

Static dischargers: control

Wing tip and static dischargers

Navigation lights (nav-lights): control

Pylon drains: control

Access to IDG systems

De-icing air outlet: in state

Emergency escape passenger door

4.2. Statement of weather conditions:

4.3. Engine monitoring and ventilation systems:

There are two types of ventilation systems.

4.4.2. Description of the personnel’s roles during ground operation:

4.4.3. Personnel on board:

4.4.4. Ground personnel:

4.4.5. Calibration of the control instruments:

4.4.6. Control safety check list:

II. INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT AND PARAMETERS

 Throughout the compressor the mass of the fluid underwent an increase:

 The total air temperature remains constant.

 Reading of the parameters:

 Particular study of ATAR 9K50:

III. TREND (INCLUDING OIL ANALYSIS, VIBRATION AND BOROSCOPE) MONITORING

Figure shows typical designs of boroscopes.

Flexible boroscope details

(1) A rigid tube with a series of relay lenses;

(2) A flexible or rigid tube with a bundle of optical fibers; and

Flexible boroscope access

1.3. Non rotating assemblies: