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CEPE02100B1 - CAG-updated Jan 23-14 PDF
CEPE02100B1 - CAG-updated Jan 23-14 PDF
Chapter 1
Steam Turbine Theory and Construction
1. Explain why some turbines are designed with double flow through the LP
cylinder.
The design of turbine blading affects the reliability and efficiency of the turbine. The
longer the blade the greater the bending force at the root, or fixing point, of the blade.
There is also a centrifugal force, due to the speed at which the blade is rotating, trying
to throw the blade outwards. These two forces—the bending force and the
throwing-out force—are at maximum in the largest blade wheel at the LP exhaust end
of the turbine. Thus, the stresses which these forces impose limit the size of the
blades and the diameter of the last wheel. This limitation is one of the reasons why
turbines are designed with double flow in the LP cylinder.
In the double flow design, steam enters at the centre of the rotor with half of the
steam flowing to the front of the machine and half flowing toward the rear of the
machine. This design can handle double the flow of steam compared to a single flow
with the same diameter of blading.
2. Sketch and describe a dummy piston used to counteract thrust forces in a steam
turbine.
There is a pressure drop across each row of blades in a reaction turbine, and a
considerable force is set up, which acts on the rotor in the direction of the steam flow.
In order to counteract this force and reduce the load on the thrust bearings, dummy
pistons are designed as part of the rotor at the steam inlet end. The dummy piston
diameter is calculated so that the force of the steam pressure acting upon it in the
opposite direction to the steam flow balances out the force on the rotor blades in the
direction of the steam flow. The size of the dummy piston is designed to keep a small
but definite thrust towards the exhaust end of the turbine. A balance pipe is connected
from the casing, on the outer side of the balance piston, to a tap-off point down the
cylinder. The differential pressure remains constant at varying steam flow conditions.
The letters used in the turbine blading diagrams are from the Greek alphabet:
Alpha
Beta
Delta
Gamma
is the angle of the axis of the nozzle with the direction of blade
movement.
is the inlet angle of the blade. Note that this angle matches the
incoming steam direction exactly so the steam enters the blades
without shock.
The above angles and sides form the inlet blade velocity diagram.
Another triangle is formed by the conditions obtained at the moving blade outlet as
follows:
VR2 represents the steam leaving the blade. VR2 is measured relative to the
moving blade. The only reduction in magnitude of this steam velocity
will be that due to friction as the steam passes over the blade. The
direction of steam leaving the blade (angle ) depends upon the shape
of blade used.
is the angle at which the steam leaves the moving blade, referred to a
fixed point. Hence, this is its angle of approach to the next row of
fixed blades.
a) In some condensing turbines not all of the steam reaches the exhaust. Some of the
steam is bled out of the turbine at one or more locations and used to heat boiler
feedwater. The steam is simply removed (i.e. bled off) at whatever the existing
pressure is at each location. There is no control of the pressure at the bleed points.
This use of bled steam is called a regenerative cycle and the turbine is called a
bleeder turbine.
b) The steam from a bleeder turbine is used to heat feedwater in a boiler feedwater
heater. Steam from an extraction turbine supplies at a lower pressure for process
use.
Double casings are used for very high steam pressure applications. The highest
pressure is applied to the inner casing, which is open at the exhaust end. The turbine
inner casing exhausts to the outer casing. The pressure is divided between the
casings, and more importantly, so is the temperature. The thermal stresses on casings
and flanges are greatly reduced.
Under operating conditions, the temperature of the wheels rises faster than that of the
shaft. This might tend to make the wheel hubs become loose. To avoid any such
danger, care is taken during construction of the rotor to ensure the wheels are shrunk
on tight and correctly stressed. Fig. 14 illustrates a disc type of rotor which is the type
used in the LP cylinder of most designs of large turbines.
b) Disc type rotors are used in the LP cylinder of most designs of large turbines.
9. Steam flows from a nozzle of a simple impulse turbine at a velocity of 550 m/s
and an angle of 21 to the direction of blade motion. Blade velocity is 220 m/s.
Neglecting blade friction, and with equal blade inlet and outlet angles, calculate:
a) The blade inlet angle so that the steam will enter without shock (V2).
b) The magnitude and direction of the absolute velocity of the steam leaving the
blades.
Solution
Values X 1 and X B are added to the diagram for ease of reference and to simplify the
trigonometric calculations.
(a) Blade inlet angle so that the steam will enter without shock ( V2 ).
Vw1 V1 cos
550 m/s cos 21
550 m/s 0.9336
513.47 m/s
V f 1 V1 sin
550 m/s sin 21
550 m/s 0.3584
197.10 m/s
X I VW 1 VB
513.47 m/s - 220 m/s
293.47 m/s
V fl
tan -1
XI
197.10 m/s
tan -1
293.47 m/s
= tan -1 (0.6716)
= 33° 53' (Ans.)
Since VR 2 VR1
X B X1
Then X 1 293.47 m/s
X B 293.47 m/s
VW 0 X E - VB
293.47 m/s - 220 m/s
73.47 m/s
VFB VF 1
But VF 1 197.10 m/s
VFB 197.10 m/s
V2 VFB 2 VWO 2
(197.10 m/s) 2 (73.47 m/s) 2
38848.41 5397.84
44246.25
210.35 m / s (Ans.)
Solution
Vector Diagram
a) Given:
V1 122 m/s
Vb 88 m/s
23
Reaction (or 50% reaction) blading has identical moving and fixed blades. The angles
and vectors around point A are duplicated around point B . The angle required is .
DB
cos 23
V1
Chapter 2 DB =V1 cos 23
122 m/s 0.9205
112.30 m/s
DA DB - AB
112.30 m/s 88 24.30 m/s
CD
sin 23
Vl
CD V1 sin 23
122 m/s 0.3907
47.67 m/s
The total change in the velocity of whirl is required for calculations of work done on
the blading as detailed earlier. This is represented by the length CE on the diagram:
then DA BF
and CE 2 DA AB
Solution
250
10 250 kPa, 500°C 10 000 kPa, 500C 11 000 kPa, 500C -10 000 kPa at 500°C
1000
250
3373.7 kJ/kg 3361.0 kJ/kg - 3373.7 kJ/kg
1000
250
3373.7 kJ/kg -12.70 kJ/kg
1000
3373.7 kJ/kg 3.175 kJ/kg
3370.53 kJ/kg
2. When is a turning gear used? When starting up a turbine, at what point is the
turning gear shut off?
When a turbine is left cold and at a standstill, the mass of the rotor tends to cause
the rotor to sag slightly. This is called bowing. If left at a standstill while the
turbine is still hot, the lower half of the rotor cools faster than the upper half. The
rotor bends upwards. This is called hogging. In both cases, the turbine is
difficult, if not impossible, to start up due to rubbing within the bearings, glands
and diaphragms. To overcome this problem, the manufacturer supplies large
turbines with a turning or barring gear. It consists of an electric motor and sets of
reducing gears that turn the turbine shaft at low speed. Once the turbine rotor is
above 40 rpm, the barring gear is shutoff.
Lubrication Oil
Turbines are the prime movers that many plants depend upon. They must be
provided with a reliable supply of lubrication oil. The size of the turbine
determines whether to use a simple or complex lubricating system. Turbines of
less than 150 kW, used to drive auxiliary equipment, are often provided with ring-
oiled bearings.
Jacking Oil
Large turbines, with heavy rotors, are generally equipped with a jacking oil pump. It
supplies the lower part of the bearings with oil, at approximately 2 000 to 10 000 kPa,
lifting the shaft and supplying lubricating oil. Oil pressure lifts or jacks the shaft a
few millimeters, so there is no metal-to-metal contact during the initial movement of
the rotor. Jacking of the shaft reduces the load on the barring gear motor. Jacking oil
is applied before starting the barring gear and while operating the turbine at slow
speed.
Governor Oil
Governor relay oil acts as a sensitive regulating medium. It transmits oil pressure
signals to various parts of the governor oil system.
Static balancing involves supporting the shaft journals on transverse “knife edges.
Rotors are statically balanced at rest. The tendency of the rotor to roll is measured.
Then mass is added or removed to delete the tendency to roll.
Dynamic balancing is done after the static process in a machine with flexible bearing
supports. The rotor is run up to speed by an electric motor, and vibrations are
measured. Mass is added or removed to the rotor before it is retested. The process is
repeated until the vibration readings are in an acceptable range. The balanced rotor
must have very low vibrations when running at designed speed. New rotors are
balanced at the factory. Overhauled or refurbished rotors must also be dynamically
balanced.
Trip and throttle valves have the following two separate and distinct functions:
When a safety device such as an overspeed governor manually or
automatically trips the trip and throttle valve, it acts as a quick-closing
valve
It also operates as a hand throttle valve for starting and bringing the
turbine up to speed.
6. What are the three methods of speed-sensitive governing used for steam
turbines?
7. What is coupling “lock up”? What types of problems does a locked coupling
cause?
Couplings can lock up (fail to move) transferring axial movement through the shaft.
This can cause overloading of thrust bearings and vibration problems.
Steam turbines operate at speeds higher than the required operating speed of the
driven machine. Reduction gear sets are used to reduce the shaft speed of the turbine
to suit that of the machine being driven.
Applications using speed reduction gears include turbine-driven:
Direct-current generators
Paper making machines
Centrifugal pumps
Blowers and fans
Grid type extraction valves are placed inside the turbine casing after the stage that the
steam is extracted from. It controls the flow of steam to the remainder of the turbine.
The valve consists of a ported stationary disc and a ported grid that rotates. When the
openings in the disc and the grid coincide, the valve is open and a full flow of steam
passes to the remainder of the turbine. When the grid is rotated from the fully open
position, the ports in the disc are partially covered by the grid. The steam flow is
restricted and the desired pressure maintained. A pilot valve, operated by a pressure
governor, controls the oil or steam supply pressure to either side of the operating
piston. The operating piston rotates the grid valve with a gear and teeth. The linkage
from the pressure governor is interlocked with the speed governor. Changes in the
rate of steam extraction do not interfere with the turbine speed.
10. List five variables that are monitored by supervisory equipment. What is
differential expansion?
Differential Expansion
Differential expansion refers to the relative difference in expansion between the rotor
and the turbine case. If excessive, it will lead to the rotor blades rubbing the turbine
diaphragm.
In the following figure, the turbine shaft contains a notched gear wheel. Inductive
sensors, also known as magnetic speed pickups, are mounted in or on the turbine
casing. As the gear teeth pass the sensors, the principle of magnetic induction
generates an AC voltage that can be read by the ECM (Electronic Control Module),
which contains pulse-counting sensors.
These units then convert the electronic pulse signals to revolutions per minute for
calculating the turbine shaft speed. Some steam turbines’ overspeed trip systems,
installed with three magnetic speed pickups, require that two out of the three sensors
agree the unit has reached the overspeed condition before a trip is initiated.
1. Explain why different balancing procedures are used for solid and builtup
rotors.
Methods for balancing built-up and solid rotors differ because of their construction.
With the built up rotors, each wheel or disc is added separately to the shaft. Each
wheel is temporarily fitted to a small shaft where they are statically balanced. Metal
is usually removed from the wheel or disc to balance it. The balanced wheels are then
attached to the permanent rotor.
When all the wheels have been attached, the rotor is then dynamically balanced. Any
remaining parts are added to the rotor. These parts include the thrust bearing disc and
the overspeed trip assemblies. Then a final dynamic balance is done. The rotor is then
ready for installation.
2. Using a simple sketch, explain what is meant by turbine blade clearances. Why
is it important to keep the clearances as close to original specifications as
possible?
Particular care is necessary with the clearances at the velocity stages which are
frequently fitted to the high-pressure end of impulse machines, as shown in the
following figure. A thorough check of clearances is essential if any replacement
blades, nozzles or packing rings have been fitted.
3. What are two types of turbine blade deposits? How do they affect turbine
performance?
Deposits develop from carryover in the steam from the boilers and are principally
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and silica.
Caustic soda melts at 315°C and is soluble in water, hence it will deposit in areas in
the turbine where the temperature is below 315°C and where the steam moisture
content is insufficient to give a blade-washing effect.
Silica vaporizes at pressures above 4150 kPa and is insoluble in water. Deposits of
silica may be spread through the turbine blading and will also combine with the
soluble deposits.
Turbines, especially those with no barring gear, are slow-rolled at 300-500 rev/min.
Rotate at this speed for sufficient time to provide even warming and removal of any
distortion of the rotors that were developed after the last shutdown. This may take 15-
30 minutes or longer.
When the machine has reached normal running speed and is under control of its
governor, the overspeed governor trip operation is tested.
6. Explain the difference between a hot start and a cold start in relation to a steam
turbine start-up.
The longer the downtime the colder the turbine casings and rotors become. They
require more time to be heated to operating temperatures. An 8 hour start would be a
typical hot start; a warm start takes approximately 48 hours while a cold startup takes
150 hours.
7. When starting a steam turbine, when would the barring gear be disengaged?
Why is this important?
The barring gear is disengaged and shutdown when the turbine speed reaches 200-
300 rev/min, depending upon the manufacturer’s run-up program. The barring gear is
not designed to run at the normal operating speed of the turbine. It is only used to
rotate the turbine rotor at a slow speed to allow uniform cooling.
9. What are the things monitored on a steam turbine during normal operation?
The items listed on the daily log will vary with the plant, but a typical set of readings
would give:
Machine load
Steam pressures and temperatures
Lubricating oil pressures and temperatures
Turbine expansion
Vibration readings
Condenser vacuum
Condenser hotwell level and position of level control valve
Circulating water pressure and temperatures
Feed heater pressures and temperatures
Ammeter readings for extraction pumps and feed pumps
Notes on the oil coolers and air ejectors in service
Normal positions of condenser circulating water valves
Records of the steam flow to the machine and the make-up water passing to
the condenser.
a) Low-level jet condenser is a jet condenser that has to use a pump to remove
the condensate from the condenser body.
b) Barometric condenser is a jet condenser which has the condenser body set at
sufficient height above the hotwell that the water will flow out by gravity.
c) Parallel flow is a jet condenser where the air and other gases flow together
with the condensate into the hotwell.
d) Counter flow is a jet condenser where the air and other gases are removed
from the top condenser body, while the condensate flows down to the hotwell.
4. What are the two methods used to deal with the expansion between the turbine
exhaust flange and the condenser?
In small installations this is done by bolting the condenser feet rigidly to the
foundations and fitting an expansion joint such as a corrugated bellows piece between
the turbine exhaust flange and the condenser inlet flange.
For large installations the condenser is bolted to the turbine exhaust flange and
supported on springs, which are so proportioned as to just support the mass of the
condenser when operating full of cooling water and so relieve the turbine exhaust of
any thrust.
5. a) Explain the impact that tube fouling has on the performance of a condenser.
b) Explain the impact that air leakage has on the performance of a condenser.
a) If tube fouling occurs, the cooling water will not be able to absorb heat as well as
it should. The cooling water outlet temperature will go down and the exhaust
steam temperature will rise due to a diminishing vacuum. Thus a widening gap
between the exhaust steam and cooling water outlet temperatures.
b) It increases the condenser pressure and hence the turbine back pressure. It tends to
cling to the outsides of the condenser tubes and impede the heat flow from steam
to cooling water, and it lowers the condensate temperature.
1.2
H g at 36.2°C H g at 35°C
5
H g at 40°C H g at 35°C
1.2
2565.3 kJ/kg 2574.3 kJ/kg 2565.3 kJ/kg
5
2565.3 kJ/kg 0.24 9 kJ/kg
2565.3 kJ/kg 2.16 kJ/kg
2567.46 kJ/kg
4.6
H f at 34.6°C H f at 30°C
5
H f at 35°C H f at 30°C
125.79 kJ/kg 0.92 146.67 kJ/kg 125.79 kJ/kg
125.79 kJ/kg 0.92 20.88 kJ/kg
125.79 kJ/kg 19.21 kJ/kg
145.00 kJ/kg
These readings are compared with the original readings taken when the condenser
was first put into service. When the condenser is new, the temperature of the steam
exhaust, the condensate, and the cooling water outlet are relatively close. A graph
(like the one in Fig. 17 – Objective 3) is developed to show the reduction of the
condenser vacuum. Comparisons of these various readings indicate whether the
performance of the condenser is deteriorating. In order to troubleshoot condenser
performance issues, the following four items are examined:
Terminal difference
Loss of vacuum
Air leaks
Insufficient circulating water
Terminal Difference
A comparison of the temperature differential or difference between the exhaust steam
temperature and the cooling water outlet is called the condenser terminal difference
and this figure is sometimes used as a guide to condenser fouling.
Loss of Vacuum
The most frequent cause of low vacuum is slime and mud on the waterside of the
tubes. This acts as an insulator and slows down the rate of heat transfer from steam to
circulating water. Increased partial pressure due to uncondensed steam adversely
affects the vacuum and the temperature at turbine exhaust rises. The temperature of
the condensate also rises because the vacuum has dropped. There is no sub-cooling of
the condensate because the heat cannot be transmitted through the condenser tubes.
In this case, both the steam exhaust and condensate temperatures rise above normal
operating conditions and the cooling water outlet temperature is low.
Air Leaks
Increased air leakage into the condenser vacuum creates a widening difference
between the temperature of the exhaust steam and the temperature of the condensate.
Another way to determine if there is an increase in air infiltrating the condenser is to
compare the readings taken from the air flow meter. Faulty air extraction also
compounds the problem of air leakage.
Referring to the figures, HP steam delivered to the steam nozzle passes into the air
chamber with high velocity and produces an area of low pressure in its wake. Air and
other gaseous vapours drawn from the condenser into this low-pressure area, become
entrained in the jet of steam, and are carried through the diffuser to the discharge.
a) This filter is a belt type of filter. The influent water flow goes through both
the ascending and descending filter panels, with the filtered effluent exiting
from the center of the filter. Therefore, only clean filtered water is allowed to
flow downstream to the pump. The water jets used to clean the debris from
the filter panels are above the operating floor.
b) The advantages of this filter over the through –flow filter are:
Water passes through the filter panels only in one direction. Therefore no
chance of debris not removed by the water jets, from being dislodged by
the filtered effluent, and getting into the pumps and condenser.
The only way debris can be carried over with this filter is if one of the
filter panels breaks.
Debris not cleaned from the panels by the water jets simply returns to the
influent water flow, to be removed by the next cleaning cycle.
The filter size for a given screening area can be reduced due to the debris
being removed by the ascending and descending panels. This will result in
a lower initial cost and lower total screen weight.
a) In all cooling towers, the water supply is introduced at or near the top and it
falls by gravity over the fill into the water reservoir at the bottom. The fill
consists of some arrangement of splash bars, generally constructed of
redwood or cypress, or cement asbestos and designed to cause the falling
water to be broken into droplets or to run across the boards in a film, the
object being to present the maximum water surface area to the cooling air.
The natural draft type of tower is often built with closed sides, which are carried
above the level of the water entry. This type is known as the closed or chimney type.
Mechanical Draft
The Mechanical draft also has two different types of designs. They are the:
Forced draft
Induced draft
Forced Draft
The forced draft method includes in its arrangement a fan placed at the bottom of the
tower to draw air from the surrounding atmosphere and force it upwards across the
fill in contra-flow to the falling water.
Induced Draft
The induced draft method is the most widely used at the present time. Advantages
over the forced draft system are:
The fan is placed at the top of the tower and discharges upward. The air is
thereby directed away at high velocity and has little chance of
recirculating by returning to the intake at the bottom of the tower
There is less chance of the fan being subject to icing because it is in the
path of the warm discharge air and noise from the fan is at a minimum
because of its location. Air enters the tower through a very large louver
section too, thus decreasing frost tendency in winter
Finally, air flow and consequently the cooling effect is more evenly
distributed across all sections of the tower
Since the condenser is a closed vessel, it is possible for the back pressure to rise until
it is above atmospheric pressure. This happens, for example, if the cooling water flow
is stopped. The shell is not designed to withstand a pressure from the inside and
would soon burst. The atmospheric relief valve is designed to open when the pressure
in the condenser rises above atmospheric.
Referring to the following figure, under standard conditions, a vacuum holds the
atmospheric valve shut. A water seal, supplied with condensate, prevents air from
leaking through. When the pressure reaches 7 kPa, the force on the disc area is
greater than the water head on the reverse side, thus, the disc lifts relieving the
pressure to atmosphere. The valve is usually fitted with a pivoted lever and a chain
brought to operating level. Its operation can be checked when the machine is off load
and a manual assist can be supplied in the case of failing to open under emergency
conditions.
The four-stroke cycle occurs over two rotations of the engine. It consists of the
following steps:
Induction
As the piston moves down, air is drawn into the cylinder through the intake port. The
exhaust valve is closed. In spark-ignition engines, a mixture of air and fuel is drawn
into the cylinder — unless direct fuel injection is used.
Compression
The intake and exhaust valves are closed and the air (or air-fuel mixture) is
compressed. In spark-ignition engines, an electric spark ignites the air-fuel mixture
just before top dead centre (TDC) and starts the combustion process. In compression-
ignition engines, or fuel injected spark-ignition engines, fuel is injected prior to top
dead centre after which combustion occurs.
Expansion
In spark-ignition engines, combustion is largely finished at the beginning of the
power stroke. The hot gases expand and force the piston down from top dead centre.
The exhaust valve opens just before the end of the stroke. In compression-ignition
engines, combustion continues for most of the power stroke.
Exhaust
The exhaust valve remains open and the products of combustion are exhausted to the
atmosphere. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve
opens. The process then repeats itself.
Spark Ignition
In spark-ignition engines, a spark ignites the air-fuel mixture. Fuel can be pre-mixed
in a carburetor or injected directly into the cylinder.
Compression Ignition
In compression-ignition engines, spontaneous ignition occurs due to the rise in
temperature caused by high compression ratios. This results in a more efficient
engine.
3. List the two types of supercharging and describe how they function.
Turbochargers
Turbochargers use a compressor which is attached to a turbine driven by exhaust
gases. Turbochargers are common on many engines even though they increase the
mechanical complexity of the engine and its control.
Superchargers
Superchargers make use of a blower or compressor that is directly coupled to the
engine. Superchargers are not common in industrial applications because they are less
efficient than turbochargers. However, they respond faster to load changes.
Superchargers usually consist of a positive displacement compressor.
4. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe the design of a lean burn fuel system
used in a spark-ignition engine system.
In a lean-burn fuel system, the main air/gas mixer (carburetor), which has a governor
controlled throttle, mixes the fuel and air. A pressure balance line between the
carburetor and main gas pressure regulator maintains a constant gas-over-air pressure
differential. The main gas pressure regulator ensures that natural gas is provided to
the main air/gas mixer, and to the prechamber air/gas mixer, at the correct pressure.
The prechamber air-fuel mixture is admitted into the cylinder through a separate
manifold and special admission valves.
Engine efficiency is improved when more air is inducted into the cylinder. When the
cylinder walls are cooled, more air can be drawn into the cylinder.
Viscosity
Viscosity measures the resistance of a fluid to deformation under pressure. Oil with a
higher viscosity is better able to withstand the friction forces from two adjacent
components. However, friction losses are higher with a higher viscosity, so the proper
level of viscosity has to be determined for each application. Since viscosity decreases
with temperature, operating temperatures have to be taken into consideration.
Additives
Additives are present in lube oils to improve performance, to prevent deterioration,
and to combat contaminants. Common additives are:
Detergents to clean engine surfaces by reacting with oxidation products
Oxidation inhibitors to prevent increases in viscosity, organic acids or
other compounds
Dispersants to prevent the formation of sludge by keeping contaminants in
suspension
Alkalinity agents to neutralize acids
Anti-wear agents to reduce friction
Pour-point dispersants to counteract the formation of waxes at low
temperatures
Viscosity improvers to increase viscosity at higher temperatures.
Acidity
Acidity must be closely controlled because acids can corrode wetted oil system
surfaces.
Contaminants
Oil quality can deteriorate over time due to heat and use. It can be contaminated
by particles caused by the internal wear of engine components, or by external
contaminants such as dirt or glycol.
Oil can also be affected by fuel contaminants such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S). If
sulphur compounds cannot be totally removed from the fuel, additional precautions,
such as enhanced oil sampling and reduced oil replacement intervals, need to be
taken. The engine manufacturer should be consulted on recommended lube oil type.
Safety Parameters
During startup, relevant safety parameters include:
Low starting gas pressure (for an air or gas starter)
Excessive cranking time due to a bad starter or insufficient start pressure
Low oil pressure caused by cold oil or failure of the prelube pump
a) Pre-Start Inspection
Steps required for the pre-start inspection vary with the type of startup. For automatic
starting and when the engine is in a remote location, these steps cannot be carried out
but protective devices minimize the risks in the control system.
If the equipment is used frequently and no maintenance work has been done, only a
few checks need to be carried out. These may include a walk-around and visual
inspection of the engine to check for:
Leaks from the coolant system, especially from the pump seals, fittings, and
hoses
Leaks from the oil system including pumps, fittings, piping, and tubing
Coolant level
Oil tank and sump level
Air intake obstructions
All guards and covers are in place and securely fastened
General hazards
Diesel fuel day tank levels
b) Startup Sequence
The startup sequence following depends on the type of engine and starting system.
1. To lubricate the engine, operate the prelube pump for a determined time
period after sufficient pressure is obtained.
2. If so equipped, the barring device, used to rotate the engine, should be
engaged.
3. Engage the starter, the engine cranks over, and ignition commences.
4. Once the engine operates on its own, the starter is turned off.
5. The engine operates at idle speed until it warms up.
6. Load the engine by closing the breaker to the generator.
7. If the engine cranks for a determined time period, it will shutdown on
overcrank.
2. Describe the two types of shutdowns and the differences between them.
Normal Shutdown
Upon activation of a normal shutdown, the load is reduced and the engine operates at
idle speed for 15-30 minutes. Closing the fuel valve first and shortly afterwards
(typically 10 seconds) stopping the ignition, stops the engine so that the fuel
downstream of the fuel valve is exhausted and not allowed to collect in the engine.
The prelube pump is operated for a predetermined time as a post-lube to assist with
lubrication on run-down and for cooling.
Emergency Shutdown
In an emergency shutdown, there is no cooldown period and the fuel valve closes
immediately. If the emergency does not endanger the operator or the condition of the
engine, the ignition remains on for a short period so that all of the fuel is burned and
not left in the engine and the exhaust system. For safety-related emergencies, the
ignition is stopped at the same time as the fuel valve is closed. In these cases, when
restarted, the engine should go through a purge cycle and crank for approximately 10
seconds with the fuel valve closed and the ignition system off.
Typical wear will occur with valve seats and valve guides.
Blow-by is caused either by worn piston rings, worn cylinder sleeves (or liners) or a
combination of both of these factors.
1. What factors influence the selection of the type of gas turbine engine for a
specific application?
The selection of a gas turbine engine for a specific application depends on factors
such as:
Performance ratings
Weight and size restrictions
Type of fuel available
Maintenance support resources
Life cycle costs
Performance Ratings
The performance rating and required range of power output are important factors to
consider when choosing a specific gas turbine. Gas turbines operate most efficiently
when running full loaded. Although they can operate down to 50% of full load rating,
the lower operating ranges will cause the turbine output efficiency to drop
substantially, down into the 30% to 40% range.
This makes it important to choose a gas turbine that operates at, or near, its maximum
power capabilities. Smaller gas turbines are less efficient, although waste heat
recovery or combined cycle applications can be very efficient. For short-term peak
power applications, a gas turbine can sometimes be run at higher than rated power
output, but this practice will reduce the life cycle of the turbine and cause an increase
in maintenance and repair costs.
Liquid fuel, such as kerosene, provides reliable operation but may be unsuitable
where emissions are an issue, or where fuel sources are not easily accessible. Lower
grade liquid fuels may be cost-effective, but require fuel treatment and could result in
higher maintenance costs.
2. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe the gas turbine thermodynamic cycle.
The gas turbine thermodynamic cycle, called the Brayton cycle, is shown in the
following figure.. It consists of four steps:
1. The air is compressed, which increases the pressure and temperature and
decreases the volume (from stage 1 to stage 2).
2. Heat is added, which results in a major increase in temperature and a small
increase in volume, but almost no change in pressure (from stage 2 to
stage 3).
3. Then, the air is expanded through the turbine and produces mechanical
work. Pressure decreases to near atmospheric level. The temperature also
decreases, although the air is still quite hot when it exits (from stage 3 to
stage 4).
4. The air is cooled to ambient conditions and returns to its original volume
and density (from stage 4 to stage 1).
4. Explain the advantages for using intercooling to improve the efficiency of the
basic gas turbine cycle.
In some gas turbines, inlet air is compressed in two stages using a dual shaft
arrangement. The air is cooled between the stages in a heat exchanger, or intercooler.
Since isothermal compression (compression without an increase in air temperature)
takes less work than adiabatic compression (compression without removing heat
which increases the air temperature), more turbine power is available for the output
load. Another advantage of intercooling is that the total mass of air that needs to be
circulated through the cycle per kW of energy produced is reduced.
The following figure shows a fairly common aero-derivative design that uses a two-
shaft arrangement for the engine, and a third shaft for the power turbine. The low-
pressure compressor and turbine are connected by a shaft fitted inside the hollow
shaft connecting the high-pressure compressor and turbine. Mechanically, this design
is more complicated (especially for the bearings), but offers greater efficiency and
operational flexibility.
An even more complicated layout positions the load at the cold end, which requires
three shafts on the same centerline.
6. Give a brief explanation of the following types of combustors that are used for
gas turbines:
a) Annular
b) Can-annular
a) Annular
The annular combustor consists of a singular flame tube in an annular
shape. It is smaller in size than the can burner and does not have the
problem of combustion propagation between chambers. Combustion takes
place in a single combustion liner, with an inner and outer casing, that
encircles the centerline of the gas turbine. Fuel nozzles are evenly spaced
around the ring. This is a very simple design that minimizes the
complexity of the combustion and dilution air flows.
b) Can-Annular
Inlet air to the gas turbine is cooled by passing it through a finned coil of tubes which
uses either NH3 (Ammonia) or HFC-134a refrigerant as the cooling medium. The air
temperature must not be less than 5ºC to prevent the formation of ice on the coils.
Refrigeration will always provide the design inlet temperature regardless of the
ambient conditions, unlike the evaporative systems which lose effectiveness in high
humidity conditions.
The following figure shows the lube oil system for an aero-derivative gas turbine
— the General Electric LM6000 (used for power generation). It lubricates the gas
turbine and power turbine bearings. The driven equipment is handled by a
separate system.
This lube oil system is divided into two sections: a supply system and a scavenge
system. To prevent corrosion, all piping, fittings, and the reservoir are Type 304
stainless steel. The lube oil used is synthetic type oil suitable for high
temperatures.
The oil reservoir contains approximately 500L in a 568L tank. It is fitted with
protective devices to guard against low oil level and low oil temperature. A
thermostatically controlled heater in the lube oil tank reservoir ensures that a
minimum oil temperature is maintained to reduce the stresses on the turbine on
startup and to keep moisture from condensing in the reservoir and contaminating
the oil.
An electric motor driven auxiliary lube oil pump is used to initially pressurize the
system and satisfy the permissives to allow the turbine to start.
Then, the oil flows through the bearings and accumulates in the bearing sumps.
The oil temperature is measured at each scavenge line in case of bearing
problems.
Scavenge pumps (also driven by the auxiliary gearbox) provide pressure to flow
the oil from the bearing sumps through another set of filters, and then through
duplex thermostatically controlled water-cooled coolers. Then, the oil flows back
into the reservoir.
b) Chip Detectors
Chip detectors are often located in the sumps to detect metal particles. If a bearing
becomes damaged, metal particles break away and become entrained in the oil.
Chip detectors are basically magnets that attract metal particles and detect when
they accumulate. When the chip detector alarms, the detector will be removed and
the particles that have been captured by the detector will be analyzed. The
quantity and type of material collected will indicate:
Where the problem is
How severe the problem has become
9. Explain, with the aid of a simple sketch, a type of fuel gas system for a gas
turbine.
The General Electric LM6000 fuel gas system is representative of most gas turbines.
A fuel gas flow meter monitors fuel consumption, but is not used for fuel control.
Fuel is metered and controlled by the fuel metering valve, one of the most important
NOx emissions are removed from the burner exhaust gases through the use of a
catalyst. In one process, ammonia is added to the flue gas prior to the gas passing
over a catalyst. The catalyst enables the ammonia to react chemically with the NOx
converting it to molecular nitrogen and water. The catalyst used is a combination of
titanium and vanadium oxides. This system promotes the removal of up to 90% of
nitrogen oxides from the flue gases.
The ammonia reacts with both the nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2)
4 NO 4 NH 3 O2 4 N 2 6 H 2O
2 NO2 4 NH 3 O2 3N 2 6 H 2 0
The NO and NO2 react with the ammonia to form nitrogen and water. The nitrogen is
harmless and can be released back into the atmosphere.
The major function of a control system is to ensure correct sequencing during startup
and shutdown. The control system must safely control the flow of fuel to the
combustors to ensure that the gas turbine efficiently drives the process load under all
conditions. It positions the fuel metering valve based upon load or demand (e.g.
generator frequency or compressor discharge pressure).
Changes in demand loading requires a very controlled “ramp up” or “ramp down”
response from the gas turbine control system as a rapid increase or decrease in
acceleration can cause surge, flame out or other combustion problems..
Additional controls are required for bleed valves and variable guide vanes.
Sometimes, these controls are independent, but it is becoming common to include
them in the main gas turbine control system. Both bleed valve and variable guide
vane operations are controlled by the main gas turbine controller using a calculation
embedded into the logic sequencing that matches their positions to a specific startup
time line and engine speed.
Another function of the control system is to indicate when abnormal levels are
reached by generating an alarm, or by shutting down the gas turbine under certain
conditions.
a) Oil
b) Combustion
If the equipment is used frequently and maintenance work has not been done recently,
only a few checks are required. These may include a walk-around and visual
inspection of the engine to check for:
Leaks in the oil system (including pumps, fittings, piping and tubing)
Oil tank and sump level
Air intake obstructions
Correct placement and secure fastening of all guards and covers
General hazards
If the equipment has been shut down for an extended period of time, the operator
should check that all the following auxiliary equipment and support systems are
activated and energized:
Electrical
Pneumatic
Fuel
Instrumentation
Lubrication
System controllers
If routine, minor, or major maintenance has been done recently, the work area has to
be cleaned and all tools, parts and supplies removed prior to startup. Shutoff valves
may need to be opened or unlocked. Other maintenance-specific steps may need to be
taken, and a more thorough pre-start inspection may be required.
The first step in a controlled shutdown is to reduce the speed, over a specified period
of time, down to “zero load speed”. As the speed is being reduced, the load on the
turbine (electric generator or gas compressor) will be reduced and the entire unit will
be allowed to cool down under even and stable conditions. Once at idle speed, the
power turbine wil be unloaded completely by disconnecting from the main electrical
grid or fully opening the recycle valves if the load is a gas compressor. During this
cool down period, the turbine can be quickly loaded back up if the need arises.
When the cooldown timer timeframe has been completed or the specific minimum set
temperatures across the machine have been reached, the fuel valve is closed and
combustion is eliminated. The rotor speed will decrease and the machine will stop.
As the speed drops, the main lube oil pump (if driven off the rotor) loses pressure. At
a specified point, usually based on oil pressure, the prelube pump starts and continues
to lubricate and cool the bearings for a specified time period. The enclosure or
building fans shut off.
On most heavy-duty gas turbines, the turning gear activates at either 15% of
operating speed or immediately after the rotor stops turning. The turning gear rotates
the rotor at a slow speed for a certain time period — ranging from 5 hours for a small
gas turbine to as many as 60 hours for a very large gas turbine. Restart at any time
during this time period is allowed. This cooldown period prevents bowing of the
rotor, which would cause high vibration on the next startup and could lock-up the
rotor and prevent starter rotation.
The most effective method of compressor cleaning is the offline waterwash. This
consists of stopping the unit, injecting waterwash fluids into the intake of the
compressor while running on the starter, and then restarting the unit. It is also referred
to as the crank-soak method. Online water washing is not as effective as off-line
although it is still a viable alternative if downtime is not acceptable.
To remove oily substances, additional cleaning agents and solvents are mixed with
the water. Acceptable cleaners are often specified by gas turbine vendors. However,
the most effective cleaning agents are also the most toxic and require special
handling.
If the temperature is less than 4˚C, a 1:1 mixture of water and ethylene glycol is
recommended to prevent icing. The gas turbine vendor should be consulted since
commercial and automotive anti-freeze products are usually not acceptable.
1. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe how the various cuts of oils are
separated in a fractionating tower.
Crude oil is preheated and continuously pumped into the tower at the approximate
level shown. Heat within the tower is applied by means of steam jets streaming
directly into the charge of crude oil. The crude oil boils and the vapors produced rise
into the tower. These vapors must pass through the bubble caps in each tray in their
progress up the tower and as their temperature falls, condensation of the various
constituents takes place.
Fractionating Tower
b) Pour point of an oil is the lowest temperatureat which an oil will flow.
c) Cloud point is the temperature at which dissolved solids in the oil, such as
paraffin wax, begin to form and separate from the oil
d) Flash point of an oil is the temperature to which it must be heated to give off
sufficient vapor to form an inflammable mixture with air.
a) When lubricating oils react with oxygen, materials are formed that impair the
qualities of the oil. Eventually they become insoluble in the oil, form sludge,
especially with water and foreign suspended matter, and promote the
formation of deposits. On continued oxidation, the oil will develop organic
acids and in severe cases the viscosity will increase significantly.
c) Foam in a lubricating oil is formed by the entrainment of air bubbles. This can
occur when an oil is violently agitated in the presence of air; high viscosity
oils will have a stronger tendency to do this than the lighter oils. The additives
used are silicone polymers and they act so as to reduce the surface tension
between air bubbles so that they tend to combine into larger bubbles which
can rise to the surface of the oil and escape.
d) Rust prevention These are used to prevent rusting of metal parts during shut-
down periods or to protect equipment during storage or shipment. They
consist of sulphonates, amines, or the derivatives of some fatty acids. They act
to absorb certain active materials on a metal surface, neutralize corrosive
acids and form a protective film which repels water.
5. What are the advantages to planning the entire plant lubrication program as one
combined operation?
In almost any plant it will be advantageous to plan the entire plant lubrication as one
combined operation. Savings will be effected through the:
Reduction in the number and variety of lubricants used
Reduction in maintenance costs and plant-outage time
Increased life of equipment due to proper lubrication
In the centrifuge, centrifugal force is produced by rotating the liquid at high speeds,
up to 15 000 rev/min. This facilitates the separation of the contaminants that are
heavier than oil. Sedimentation and separation are continuous and very fast. When
liquid and solid particles in a liquid mixture are subjected to the centrifugal force in a
separator bowl, it takes only a few seconds to achieve what takes many hours in a
tank under the influence of gravity.
The centrifugal bowl is equipped with a series of conical shaped discs which divide
the feed material into layers less than .13 cm in thickness. The oil, water and solids
are fed into the top inlet A. The still mixed feed material travels down the inlet tube
(B) into the centrifuge bowl.
The feed material is forced upward through the holes in the intermediate discs (C)
and into the spaces between them. This is where the centrifugal action immediately
separates the feed material into the heavy and light phases (oil, water, and solids.)
The solids are thrown directly to the bowl wall (D). The oil, with its lighter density,
is displaced inward and travels upward through the space around the inlet tube to the
light phase discharge (E). The water phase, thrown outward by centrifugal force, is
displaced by the incoming feed material and travels upward along the outer edge of
the bowl to the heavy phase discharge (F). Solids may be retained in the bowl or
discharged immediately, depending on bowl design and operating requirements.
Fig. (a) and (b) show a surface X moving at constant velocity across a stationary
surface Y with an oil film between the two. In Fig. (a), the X and Y surfaces are
parallel. In Fig. (b), the X surface is at a slight angle. In each case the triangle abc
represents the quantity of oil entering between the surfaces and the triangle a’b’c’ the
quantity of oil leaving.
Hydro-Dynamic Theory
In Fig. (a), bc = b’c’, the triangles are equal, and the quantity of oil entering the
bearing equals the quantity leaving; there is therefore no upward force acting to
separate the surfaces X and Y.
In Fig. (b) bc is greater than b’c’ and ac than a’c’. Therefore triangle abc is greater
than a’b’c’. Thus more oil can enter than is able to leave and a vertical force results
which tends to separate X from Y.
In both Fig. (a) and 20 (b), there is a horizontal force shearing the oil but only in (b)
is there a resultant vertical force. This simple basic principle explains why moving
surfaces must be designed to provide a wedge if full fluid film lubrication is to be
achieved, and machinery is to carry high loads without wear.
1. List the properties that contribute to the suitability and economy of a given pipe
material.
The following properties contribute to the attractiveness and economy of a given pipe
material:
Ability to be bent or formed
Suitability for welding or other methods of joining
Ease of heat treatment
Uniformity and stability of the resultant microstructure
2. a) Calculate the required thickness for NPS-16 (DN400) plain end steam
pipe to operate at 7 250 kPa and 540°C. The material is to be seamless
alloy steel SA-335P21.
Solution
P 7.25 MPa (given)
S 43.5 MPa (for 550o C, Table 1A)
E = 1.0 (for seamless pipe)
y 0.7 (Table 104.1.2(a), B31.1))
A 0
PDo
tm +A
2S E P y
7.25 MPa 406.4 mm
+0
2 43.5 MPa 7.25 0.7
2946.4mm
2 48.575
2946.40
97.15
30.3 mm
Since this is between 26.19 mm and 30.94 mm, select the next heavier
thickness of 36.53mm. The minimum required wall thickness is
36.53mm (Schedule 140) (Ans).
2 SE (t m A)
P
Do 2y (t m A)
2 43.5MPa 1.0 36.53
406.40 - 2 0.7 36.53
3178.11 MPa
406.40 51.14
3178.11 MPa
355.26
8.95 MPa (Ans)
3. With the aid of a simple sketch, show how the probes are located in relation to
the weld in time-of-flight diffraction.
TOFD is utilized over the entirety of the weld seam lengths for expedient detection
and classification of inherent flaws and creep damage. The small, high intensity beam
spot achieved in this inspection has proven effective in detecting incipient creep
damage to a very early form of cavitation.
The following figure shows the typical TOFD arrangement for the detection of deep-
seated damage, with the probes set relatively broadly such that the intersection point
of the beam centers lies at a depth of approximately 2/3 wall. This inspection can be
implemented in a single scan pass, with the transducers straddling the weld.
Tensile Strength
As the temperature is increased, the properties of the pipe material will change. The
tensile strength of the material will rapidly decrease above a certain temperature. This
is indicated in Table 1A of the ASME Code, Section II, Part D. For any material
listed in this table, the maximum stress allowed will decrease as the temperature
increases. For example, steel pipe of material SA-53E/A is allowed a maximum
allowable stress of 80.7 MPa at 300°C. But, at 450°C, the maximum allowable stress
is only 47.5 MPa.
a) Expansion Bends
Advantages of expansion bends are:
Most trouble-free method as there is no maintenance involved
Leakage is unlikely
Any temperature, pressure or fluid can be handled by proper selection
of material and thickness
Valve Operation
In the case of a valve being quickly closed in a pipeline through which water is
flowing, the first effect is the sudden decrease in the velocity of the water and a
correspondingly increase in pressure at the valve. This causes a pressure wave to
travel back upstream to the inlet end of the pipe where it reverses and surges back and
forth through the pipe, getting weaker with each successive reversal. This pressure
wave due to water hammer is in addition to the normal water pressure within the pipe
and depends upon the magnitude and rate of change in velocity as well as the
elasticity of the pipe and of the water. Complete stoppage of flow is not necessary to
produce water hammer as any sudden change in velocity will bring it about to a
greater or less degree depending upon the above conditions.
Where too rapid closing of a valve is the cause of the water hammer, the remedy is to
ensure that the valve is closed slowly. The period of effective closing of a gate valve
takes place in the last 20% of the valve travel and this portion should be undertaken
as slowly as possible. If the valve is equipped with a bypass, the bypass should be
opened to equalize the pressure on both sides of the valve. Then the bypass valve is
closed.
When opening a gate valve, the first 20% of the valve travel is the most critical
portion. If so equipped, the bypass should be opened to allow for pressure
equalization. Then the valve should be opened as slowly as possible. As a general
rule, all valves should be opened and closed slowly and cautiously.
Showing interior details with hidden feature lines in orthographic drawings is very
difficult. For internal details in orthographic drawings, “Sectioning” is used. It is a
cutaway type of view showing internal details.
2. With reference to the following pressure vessel drawing, what is the distance
from the centre of nozzle N1 to the outside of the flange on N2?
Distance from the centre of nozzle N1 to the outside of the flange on N2:
A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID), unlike the simplified Process Flow
Diagram, includes details. The P&ID visually summarizes all the system and process
calculations that were based on flow rates, pressures, temperatures, and general
layout of the process flow diagram.
P&IDs come in sets for a particular plant or section of a larger plant. The set of
drawings includes a legend showing all the following symbols used in the drawing.
This legend could include the following list of piping symbols:
Valve Symbols - these symbols identify different types of valves such as
globe valves, plug valves, control valves, and ball valves; each type of
valve has its own symbol
Line Symbols - these symbols identify different types of piping, such as
normal piping, instrument airlines, and instrument and electrical lines
Flow Diagram Abbreviations - these abbreviations stand for standard
terms that are used on P&ID drawings; some examples are NO for
normally open for valves, SO for steam out, and CO for car seal open
Miscellaneous Symbols - they are used for specific items that are not
common on all P&ID drawings; examples are spectacle blinds and
specialty piping items
When more information than is found on P&ID drawings is needed, the isometric
piping drawings are used. The piping line numbers from the P&ID are used to
reference the isometric drawings. The isometric view shows three sides of the piping
in one practical and easy to read view.
Isometric piping spool drawings reference flanges, piping and fitting details. These
materials are itemized on a bill of materials for each spool drawing. The Bill of
Materials is used for construction of the piping on the spool drawing and for repairs
to existing piping. Included on the Bill of Materials are such details as the quantity
and type of fittings, flanges, bolts and gaskets.
Pictorial drawings have the objective of approximating a camera snapshot. They give
the reader a three dimensional view of the object being shown. This makes it easier
to visualize the object as it would appear when constructed. Isometric and oblique
drawings are both types of pictorial drawings. In isometric drawings, the angles used
are: vertical and 30º angles to the vertical.
Oblique drawings are also pictorial three dimensional drawings. Lines are drawn
vertical, horizontal and at a 30º angle to the horizontal.