This article was downloaded by: [McMaster University]

On: 10 November 2014, At: 12:45

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Educational Studies
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ceds20

Factors affecting the motivation to

learn among United Arab Emirates
middle and high school students
a a a
Vivian Khamis , Samir Dukmak & Hala Elhoweris
a
UAE University , Al‐Ain, United Arab Emirates
Published online: 13 Jun 2008.

To cite this article: Vivian Khamis , Samir Dukmak & Hala Elhoweris (2008) Factors affecting the
motivation to learn among United Arab Emirates middle and high school students, Educational
Studies, 34:3, 191-200, DOI: 10.1080/03055690701811297

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690701811297

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Educational Studies
Vol. 34, No. 3, July 2008, 191–200

Factors affecting the motivation to learn among United Arab Emirates

middle and high school students
Vivian Khamis*, Samir Dukmak and Hala Elhoweris

UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates

This study was designed to examine the relative contributions of student and parents’ socio-
Educational
10.1080/03055690701811297
CEDS_A_281193.sgm
0305-5698
Original
Taylor
02008
00
vkhamis@uaeu.ac.ae
VivianKhamis
000002008
and
& Article
Francis
(print)/1465-4300
Francis
Studies (online)

demographics, students’ beliefs about learning, parental support of children’s learning, peers’
attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content to students’
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

motivation to learn. The sample consisted of 275 school-age children ranging from 12 to 16
years old. All measures were constructed for the purpose of this study. Hierarchical multiple
regression was used to predict student motivation to learn. Results indicated that students’
beliefs about learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content contributed to the
United Arab Emirates middle and high school students’ motivation to learn. Implications for
research are discussed.
Keywords: motivation to learn; students’ beliefs about learning; parental support of children’s
learning; peers’ attitudes towards learning; teacher–student interaction; curriculum content

Motivation plays a key role in children’s school performance and achievement. It has been
reported that students’ motivation is connected with students’ desire to participate in the learning
process and it concerns the reasons that underlie the student’s involvement, or lack thereof, in
academic activities (Schunk 1991). Researchers have suggested that motivation is the only factor
that directly impacts academic achievement and that all other factors affect achievement through
their effect on motivation (Tucker, Zayco and Herman 2002).
There is a considerable disagreement among researchers regarding the definition of motiva-
tion. For example, Pintrich and Schunk (2002, 5) defined motivation as “the process whereby
goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” whereas Woolfolk (2004, 350) defined moti-
vation as “an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior”. Relating motivation to
education, Ames defined “motivation to learn” as it is characterised by long-term, quality
involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning (Ames 1990).
Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motiva-
tion may differ. According to Goldbeck and Ryan (2003), there are two types of motivation in
human behaviour: intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic motivation refers to the type of motiva-
tion in which students get engaged in an activity for its own sake. Indeed, students with intrinsic
motivation respond to internal needs such as personal interest in a subject, satisfaction or enjoy-
ment in a learning task. Those with extrinsic motivation respond to external rewards such as
teacher’s praise, parent’s praise, stickers and grades (Pintrich and Schunk 2002).
According to the eco-system approach, the influence of significant others, context (e.g., home,
school) and societal influence are all essential to understand human development (Bronfenbrenner
1979). Indeed, several studies in the literature claim that parents, teachers, peers, classroom envi-
ronment, subject matter and students themselves are contributing factors that affect students’

*Corresponding author. Email: vkhamis@uaeu.ac.ae

ISSN 0305-5698 print/ISSN 1465-3400 online

© 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/03055690701811297
http://www.informaworld.com
 192 V. Khamis et al.

motivation to learn. For example, Sass (1989) indicated that there are several factors that can foster
students’ motivation to learn including interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness
and task difficulty levels. According to Stipek (1993), students who find the classroom’s task
moderately difficult are more likely to experience competence motivation. Zimmerman, Bandura
and Martinez-Pons (1992) also pointed out that students get more involved in learning when they
value the tasks.
Parents and other significant adults also play a role in the development of internalised moti-
vation (Stipek 1993). In a recent study, Bogatay (2005) found that family and peer influence
were significant factors that highly correlated with female students’ motivation and participation
in the physical education class. Additionally, teachers have a direct effect on students’ motiva-
tion to learn (Goldbeck and Ryan 2003). McCombs (1997) indicated that almost everything
teachers do in the classroom (e.g., teaching style and patterns of interaction) has either a positive
or negative effect on students’ motivation to learn. Indeed, most students respond positively to
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

a well-organised course taught by an enthusiastic instructor.

A number of studies have also focused on the relationship between self-esteem and motiva-
tion (Convington 1984; Rusillo and Arias 2004). The findings of Murphy and Roopchand’s
(2003) study demonstrated a highly significant positive correlation between students’ self-
esteem and their intrinsic motivation towards learning. In another study that examined the factors
affecting motivation and participation of 7th- and 8th-grade girls, self-esteem and self-confi-
dence were the significant factors that showed the strongest correlation to motivation and partic-
ipation (Bogatay 2005).
Gender differences were found in students’ motivational level and functioning. Research on
gender differences in achievement motivation has often reported inconsistent findings. Several
researchers have found out that boys and girls differ in the attributional analysis of their success
and failure (Rusillo and Arias 2004). For example, some studies indicated that boys showed
greater extrinsic motivation than girls (Anderman and Anderman 1999; Rusillo and Arias 2004).
Also, in a cross-cultural study that investigated age, sex and cultural differences in achievement
motivation, Salili (1996) found that female students of both cultures (British and Chinese) had
higher scores on their achievement motivation than their male counterparts.
The individualism-collectivism perspective has been widely used in cross-cultural studies to
explain differences between cultural groups in motivation. While for Western students intrinsic
motivation is a precursor of the desired deep learning strategies (Biggs 1987), for Chinese students
the adoption of deep strategies is a result of mixed motivational factors, including personal ambi-
tion, family face, peer support, material reward and interest (Watkins and Biggs 1996). In Western
societies, achievement motivation is viewed as highly individualistic, whereas in East Asian soci-
eties the notion of success has been interpreted in the literature in a collectivist framework which
may involve significant others – i.e., the family, peers or even society as a whole (Holloway 1988;
Salili 1996). In a comparative study between Asian and American students, Tang (1996), cited
in Watkins (2000), found that Hong Kong students spontaneously collaborated to study outside
the classroom more than Western students did. In previous cross-cultural studies, Brazilians
showed greater correspondence between their individual intentions and behavioural norms than
would Americans (Bontempo, Lobel and Triandis 1990). Similarly, in a study that assessed intrin-
sic motivation among populations of European American and Asian American children under
conditions in which the children made choices for themselves, Iyengar and Lepper (1999) found
that whereas European American children displayed more intrinsic motivation for a task they had
selected than for one that had been selected for them, Asian American children displayed more
intrinsic motivation in the condition in which their mothers had selected the activity for them.
It is apparent from this review of the literature that parents, teachers, peers, classroom envi-
ronment, subject matter and students themselves are factors that affect students’ motivation to
 Educational Studies 193

learn (Goldbeck and Ryan 2003; Rusillo and Arias 2004; Sass 1989). Additionally, previous
cross-cultural research indicated that in the collectivist cultures, social expectations are associ-
ated with students’ motivation to learn. The aims of this research, therefore, are to examine the
relative contributions of student and parents’ socio-demographics, students’ beliefs about learn-
ing, parental support of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student
interaction and curriculum content to United Arab Emirates (UAE) middle and high school
students’ motivation to learn. It is hypothesised that the significant others will be related to UAE
middle and high school students’ motivation to learn.

Method
Participants
The participants were 275 students, of whom 119 were boys and 156 were girls representing
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

the various UAE locations (e.g., Abu Dhabi, Dubai, etc). They ranged in age from 12 to 19 years
(M = 15.36, SD = 1.47). For the entire sample, the mean level of education for mothers and
fathers was some preparatory, with the range extending from illiteracy to graduate study.
Approximately 75.3% were from intact families. Most of the mothers reported their occupation
as housewives (81.1%) and the remaining were working either as teachers or employees. On the
other hand, the majority of the fathers (67.6%) were working, mainly in the army or police
(38.1%) or as employees (18.2%), and the remaining worked in the business sector and very few
in various occupations. The family size ranged from four to 25 (M = 10.17, SD = 3.38). Families’
combined gross income ranged from 2500 to 30,000 UAE Dirham.

Instrumentation
The measures in this study were administered as a battery of questionnaires focusing on
students’ motivation and factors that may affect their motivation in the UAE context. All the
scales that are reported below have been constructed for the purpose of this study in order to
capture the peculiarities of the UAE culture. The statements of these scales were generated from
previous observations and interviews of teachers, students and their families, and from a review
of related theoretical and empirical research. Also, four specialists in the areas of psychology,
special education and the UAE society were asked to judge the overall format of the scales and
to assess each scale item for its presumed relevance to the property being measured. Only state-
ments that were unanimously agreed upon were used; this reinforced the content validity of the
scales.

● Family data sheet. This brief questionnaire secured demographic and background infor-
mation about students and their families from parents’ and students’ records. The child
variables considered for this study were age, gender and scholastic achievement (average).
The parents’ socio-demographics were level of education completed by mothers and
fathers, marital status, Emirates (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al-Khaima and Fujairah),
number of siblings and total household income.
● Motivation to learn scale (MLS). The MLS is a nine-item scale measuring the motivation
of students’ learning in regard to the desire to participate in the learning process, the extent
of participation and vigorousness (active force). Students were asked to report to what
extent they felt and experienced each emotion and state during their learning process (e.g.,
“I have a desire to study”). The ratings were made on a four-point scale (0 = not at all; 4
= extremely), with the high scores indicating high motivation and the low scores indicating
low motivation. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale is 0.80.
 194 V. Khamis et al.

● Beliefs about learning scale (BLC). The BLC is a nine-item Likert-type scale that investi-
gates the belief sets about the self in relation to learning. Items reflected the worth of
education and how it reflects positively on self-esteem in regard to personal qualities, grat-
ification and pride. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale is 0.79.
● Parental support of children’s learning scale (PSCL). The PSCL is a nine-item Likert-
type scale that was designed to assess parental support towards their children’s learning.
The scale reflected the degree of support and encouragement that parents provide to their
children’s learning and completion of school, parents’ involvement in their children’s
schoolwork such as helping them in homework and participating in school activities, as
well as parents’ emphasis on the worth of education. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale
is 0.78.
● Peers’ attitudes towards learning scale (PALS). The PALS is a six-item Likert-type scale
that was designed to reflect peers’ attitudes and behaviours towards learning in regard to
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

the amount of effort exerted by peers in studying, their liking versus disliking school,
peers’ attitudes towards students scholastic interest and work such as approval versus
mocking students when they study, and the degree to which students like to model their
peers in studying. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale is 0.70
● Teacher–student interaction scale (TSIS). The TSIS is a seven-item Likert-type scale that
was designed to assess students’ relations with teachers. Items dealt with issues of disci-
plining such as rewarding, blaming or punishing and encouraging student participation in
class, and emotional support such as communicating regards and affection to students.
Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale is 0.74.
● Curriculum content scale (CCS). The CCS is a six-item Likert-type scale that investigates
the degree to which students like or dislike the school work and courses and task difficulty,
and whether the subject matter is interesting or boring. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale
is 0.78.

Procedure
A stratified random sample design was used to draw a sample of 300 school-age children who
ranged in age from 12 to 16 years old. Nine individual schools from the seven Emirates in the
UAE were selected according to three primary standardisation variables: gender, grade level and
Emirates (i.e., Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah). Classes were then selected randomly from each
school by the help of school personnel and all students were asked to participate. Of the
300 students who were selected for entry into the study, only 25 children declined to participate
and as a result the return rate was 91.7%.
In addition to the information, which was gathered from the self-report questionnaires, other
information on student characteristics was collected such as students’ gender, age, grade level,
scholastic achievement, parents’ educational level, family size and household income.

Methods of analysis
A series of procedures were used to analyse the data. First, Multivariate Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA) was employed to investigate the effect of gender on motivation to learn. Second,
Pearson correlation was used to examine the general relations between the dependent variable as
measured by the Motivation to learn scale (MLS) and independent variables including child and
parents’ socio-demographics, beliefs about learning, parental support of children’s learning,
peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content. Third,
hierarchical multiple regressions was used to predict students’ motivation to learn from four
 Educational Studies 195

blocks of predictor variables. The four-predictor blocks were: (a) student characteristics, (b)
parents’ socio-demographics, (c) beliefs about learning and (d) parental support of children’s
learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.

Results
Selection of variables for inclusion in analyses
To simplify data analyses the number of predictor variables was reduced. This was accomplished
by identifying variables significantly associated with motivation to learn. With respect to child
characteristics, Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was employed to examine the
differences between males and females in regard to students’ motivation to learn, beliefs about
learning, parental support of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–
student interaction and curriculum content. MANOVA results indicated that there were signifi-
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

cant differences between boys and girls on the motivation to learn F (1,204) = 4.29, p < 0.0001.
Boys reported lower levels of motivation to learn than did girls. Also gender had a significant
effect on teacher–student interaction, indicating that girls had better relations with their teachers
compared to boys. No statistically significant effect for gender was found on beliefs about learn-
ing, parental support of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning and curriculum
content (Table 1).
On the other hand, age of the student was not associated with students’ motivation (see
Table 2). Scholastic achievement (i.e., average) was intended as a third factor; however, many
students didn’t report their average, and as a result this variable was not analysed. However,
instances of missing data on the remaining variables were rare.
In regard to parents’ socio-demographics, only family size was associated with motivation to
learn. Students with large family size had lower levels of motivation to learn in comparison to
students with small family size (Table 2).
The inter-correlations of independent variables and outcome variables are presented in
Table 2. Moderate positive correlations were found between students’ motivation to learn and
beliefs about learning, parental support of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning,
teacher–student interaction and curriculum content. Also, the relations among independent vari-
ables were consistent, but moderate, suggesting that the independent variables are related, but
discriminate factors affecting students’ motivation to learn.

Table 1. Means and SDs of motivation to learn, beliefs about learning, parents’ support of children’s
learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.
Males (n = 119) Females (n = 156)
Variable M SD M SD F
MLS 30.41 5.85 33.63 4.89 20.80***
BLS 23.01 3.22 23.71 2.56 0.41
PSCLS 27.23 5.51 28.23 4.70 1.72
PALS 22.11 4.34 22.94 4.60 0.97
TCIS 24.26 5.60 26.06 4.77 6.52**
CCS 17.94 4.54 17.81 4.02 0.16
Motivation to learn scale (MLS); Beliefs about learning scale (BLS); Parental support of children’s learning scale
(PSCLS); Peers’ attitudes towards learning scale (PALS); Teacher–student interaction scale (TCIS); Curriculum content
scale (CCS).
*P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.0001.
 Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

196

Table 2. Correlation of independent and dependent variables.

V. Khamis et al.

Student’s Father’s Mother’s Family

Variables Gender age education education size MLS BLS PSCLS PALS TCIS CCS
1. Gender – −0.01* −0.05 −0.09 −0.08 −0.29** −0.12 −0.1 −0.09 −0.17** 0.01
2. Student’s age −0.13* – −0.12 −0.08 0.00 −0.01 −0.00 −0.11 −0.02 −0.07 −0.07
3. Father’s education −0.05 −0.12 – 0.69** −0.12 0.09 0.07 0.16* 0.03 −0.02 −0.04
4. Mother’s education −0.09 −0.08 0.69** – −0.34** 0.12 0.04 0.1 −0.00 0.05 −0.06
5. Family size 0.08 0.00 −0.12 −0.34** – −0.13* −0.03 0.01 −0.05 −0.07 −0.04
6. MLS −0.29** −0.01 0.09 0.12 −0.13* – 0.31** 0.19** 0.26** 0.35** 0.35**
7. BLS −0.12 −0.00 0.07 0.04 −0.03 0.31** – 0.28** 0.25** 0.27** 0.14*
8. PSCLS −0.01 −0.11 0.16* 0.10 0.01 0.19** 0.28** – 0.24** 0.19** 0.24**
9. PALS −0.09 −0.02 0.03 −0.00 −0.05 0.26** 0.25** 0.24** – 0.37** 0.38**
10. TCIS −0.17** −0.07 −0.02 0.05 −0.07 0.35** 0.27** 0.19** 0.37** – 0.38**
11. CCS 0.02 −0.07 −0.04 −0.06 −0.04 0.35** 0.14* 0.24** 0.38** 0.38** –
Gender is coded: Male = 1; Female = 0; Motivation to learn scale (MLS); Beliefs about learning scale (BLS); Parental support of children’s learning scale (PSCLS); Peers; Attitudes
towards Learning Scale (PALS); Teacher–Student interaction scale. (TCIS); Curriculum content scale (CCS).
*P<0.05; ** P<0.01; *** P <0.0001;*** P<0.0001.
 Educational Studies 197

The prediction of motivation to learn

Hierarchical multiple regression was used to predict students’ motivation to learn from four
blocks of predictor variables. The four-predictor blocks were: (a) student characteristics, (b)
parents’ socio-demographics, (c) beliefs about learning and (d) parental support of children’s
learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.
The predictor blocks were entered in the order listed. This order was based upon chronology
of occurrence. The early entry of a variable block into the regression equation provided a statis-
tics control for the impact of those variables upon students motivation to learn.
Table 3 indicates that the model containing all four predictor blocks accounts for 32.2% of
students’ motivation to learn variance. Each predictor block separately accounted for the follow-
ing percentage of motivation to learn variance: 8.6% by child characteristics, 1.5% by parent’s
socio-demographics, 9% by beliefs about learning and 12.7% by parental support of children’s
learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

The absolute increase in R2 is small for child characteristics, 0.086; parents’ socio-
demographics, 0.016; beliefs about learning, 0.139; and medium for parental support of chil-
dren’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum
content, 0.161, obtained by dividing the percentage of additional variance by the percentage of
unexplained variance prior to entry. Cohen’s (1988) guidelines for small, medium (those typical
in behavioural research) and large effect sizes are 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 respectively.
In Table 3 the column denoted beta contains the standardised or beta coefficients of the seven
individual variables contained in the model. The absolute magnitude of the beta coefficients indi-
cated the relative strength of seven variables as predictors of students’ motivation to learn. Beta
coefficients are particularly good indexes of the relative importance of variables as they express
the unique variance attributable to a predictor while controlling for all other predictors within the
final regression model.
Of the child characteristics, only students’ gender was significantly associated with motiva-
tion to learn. Girls reported higher levels of motivation to learn than did boys. Among parents’

Table 3. Prediction of motivation to learn by family size, beliefs about learning, parental support of
children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.
Predictor Variable B R R2 F df p<
Block 1: Child characteristics
Child’s gender −2.63***
0.293 0.086 18.65 2.174 0.0001
Block 2: Parents’ demographics
Family size −0.16
0.318 0.101 11.10 6.170 0.0001
Block 3: BLS 0.35**
0.437 0.191 15.38 7.169 0.0001
Block 4: PSCLS 0.10
PALS 0.03
TCIS 0.14*
CCS 0.31***
0.568 0.322 13.03 8.168 0.0001
Motivation to learn scale (MLS); Beliefs about learning scale (BLS); Parental support of children’s learning scale
(PSCLS); Peers’ attitudes towards learning scale (PALS); Teacher–student interaction scale (TCIS); Curriculum content
scale (CCS).
*P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.0001.
 198 V. Khamis et al.

Table 4. Means and standard deviations for males and females on beliefs about learning, parental support
of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content.
Males Females
Low motivation High motivation Low motivation High motivation
(n = 70) (n = 39) (n = 59) (n = 85)
Variables M SD M SD T M SD M SD T
BLS 22.80 3.28 23.82 2.63 −1.55 22.64 2.64 24.36 2.33 −4.06****
PSCLS 27.14 4.88 27.94 5.87 −0.722 26.73 5.33 29.22 4.04 −3.14***
PALS 21.73 4.20 23.05 4.63 −1.44* 21.40 4.25 23.92 4.48 −3.38***
TCIS 23.37 5.85 26.32 4.90 −2.48** 24.81 4.82 26.66 4.60 −2.24*
CCS 16.83 4.23 20.08 4.58 −3.62**** 16.31 4.14 18.83 3.82 −3.71****
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

Motivation to learn scale (MLS); Beliefs about learning scale (BLS); Parental support of childrens learning scale
(PSCLS); Peers’ attitudes towards learning scale (PALS); Teacher–student interaction scale (TCIS); Curriculum content
scale (CCS). *P < l 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.0001; ***P < 0.0001.

socio-demographic variables, family size was not a significant predictor of student’s motivation
to learn. However, students’ beliefs about learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum
content stood out as significant predictors of motivation to learn. Students were highly motivated
when they reported higher levels of self-esteem derived from their education, as well as higher
levels of support received by their teachers. Also, the impact of teachers on students was
evidenced, thereby reporting higher levels of motivation to learn. Students who reported positive
patterns of interaction with their teachers, such as rewarding, encouraging participation in class,
and providing emotional support, had higher levels of motivation to learn. Also the impact of
curriculum content was evidenced on students’ motivation to learn. Students who reported that
they like the subject matter, school work courses and tasks were more likely to report higher
levels of motivation to learn.

Discussion
This study extends cross-cultural research on motivation by examining the relative contributions
of student and parents’ socio-demographics, students’ beliefs about learning, parental support of
children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning, teacher–student interaction and curricu-
lum content to students’ motivation to learn among UAE middle and high school students.
Hierarchical multiple regression was used to predict student motivation to learn from four
blocks of predictor variables. The findings of this study revealed that students’ beliefs about
learning, teacher–student interaction and curriculum content contributed significantly to UAE
middle and high school students’ motivation to learn. These findings corroborate the findings of
Murphy and Roopchand (2003), who found a significant positive correlation between students’
self-esteem and their intrinsic motivation. The fact that curriculum content and student–teacher
interaction contributed to students’ motivation to learn, in this study, provides empirical
evidence to previous researchers who claim that student–teacher interaction, interest in subject
matter and task difficulty level affect students’ motivation to learn (McCombs 1997; Sasss
1989; Stipek 1993). The pattern of results from this study shows an association between gender
and motivation to learn. Consistent with previous findings (Salili 1996), girls were motivated
more than boys. From the UAE cultural perspective, girls’ educational achievement is consid-
ered important and necessary in securing a good job, whereas for boys the high status is usually
obtained by just being a boy.
 Educational Studies 199

Moderate positive correlations were also found between students’ motivation to learn and
beliefs about learning, parental support of children’s learning, peers’ attitudes towards learning,
teacher–student interaction and curriculum content. These findings were consistent with the
findings of cross-cultural researchers (Bogatay 2005; Bontempo et al. 1990; Iyengar and Lepper,
1999; Watkins and Biggs, 1996) who reported that in the collectivist cultures social expectations
are associated with student’s motivation.
Drawing on the results of this study, it is crucial for middle and high school teachers and
school administrators to devote themselves fully to engendering and maintaining students’ moti-
vation to learn. For an increase in school productivity, greater emphasis must be placed on moti-
vating students to learn. Educators must enhance students’ self-esteem through regular feedback,
using a variety of instructional approaches including multimedia, creating students’ interest in
all subject matter, making it relevant, and increasing students’ probability of success and satis-
faction. Indeed, a more supportive teacher–student relationship must be a focus of public UAE
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

middle and high schools. According to Lumsden (1994), when students experience the class-
room as a caring, supportive place where there is a sense of belonging and everyone is respected,
students will tend to participate more fully in the learning process.
The findings and implications of this study should necessarily be viewed within its limita-
tions. First, unquestionably, the use of a self-report questionnaire is a limitation in this study.
Second, because the responses were drawn from UAE middle and high schools, external validity
may therefore be restricted. A culturally diverse sample might yield results that provide broader
and more generalisable insights. The results of this study indicated that gender contributed to the
UAE middle and high school students’ motivation to learn. Future research might explore why
UAE girls were more motivated to learn than boys.

Notes on contributors
Dr. Vivian Khamis is an associate professor at the United Arab Emirates University in UAE.

Dr. Samir Dukmak is an associate professor at the United Arab Emirates University in UAE.

Dr. Hala Elhoweris is an associate professor at the United Arab Emirates University in UAE.

References
Ames, C.A. 1990. Motivation: What teachers need to know. Teachers College Record 91, no. 3:
409–21.
Anderman, L.H., and E.M. Anderman. 1999. Social predictors of changes in students’ achievement goal
orientations. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25: 21–37.
Biggs, J. 1987. Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational
Research.
Bogatay, L. 2005. Motivation and participation in same-sex physical education at the middle school level.
Examples of action research projects conducted by students at Southern Oregon University. http://
www.sou.edu/education/ ActionResearch/examplebogatay.htm (accessed 18 March 2005).
Bontempo, R., S. Lobel, and H. Triandis. 1990. Compliance and value internalization in Brazil and the
United States, Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 27, no. 2: 200–13.
Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and Design.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Convington, M.V. 1984. Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Goldbeck, A., and T. Ryan. 2003. Motivating students in today’s classroom: Using information effectively
in education, 1–5. http://tiger.towson.edu/-agoldb1/research/paper.htm (accessed 18 March 2005).
 200 V. Khamis et al.

Holloway, S. 1988. Concepts of ability and effort in Japan and the US. Review of Educational Research
58: 327–45.
Iyengar, S.S., and Lepper M.R. 1999. Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic
motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, no. 3: 349–66.
Lumsden, L.S. 1994. Student motivation to learn (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 370200).
McCombs, B. 1997. Understanding the keys to motivation to learn. http://w ww.mcrel.org/products/
noteworthy/noteworthy/barbaram.asp (accessed 25 June 2002).
Murphy, H., and N. Roopchand. 2003. Intrinsic motivation and self-esteem in traditional and mature
students at a post-1992 university in the north-east of England. Educational Studies 29, no. 2–3:
243–59.
Pintrich, P.R., and D.H. Schunk. 2002. Motivation in education: Theory, research, and application. 2nd
edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Rusillo, M.T.C., and P.F.C. Arias. 2004. Gender differences in academic motivation of secondary school
students. Electronic Journal of Educational Psychology 2, no. 1: 97–112.
Salili, F. 1996. Achievement motivation: A cross-cultural comparison of British and Chinese students.
Educational Psychology 16, no. 3: 1–7.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 12:45 10 November 2014

Sass, E.J. 1989. Motivation in the college classroom: What students tell us. Teaching of Psychology 16,
no. 2: 86–8.
Schunk, D.H. 1991. Self-efficacy and academic motivation. In Motivation in education: Theory, research,
and application, 2nd edn, ed. P.R. Pintrich and D.H. Schunk. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Stipek, D.J. 1993. Motivation to learn. 2nd edn. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Tang, K.C.C. 1996. Collaborative learning: The latent dimension in Chinese students’ learning. In The
Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and cultural influences, ed. D. Watkins and J. Biggs,
183–204. Comparative education research centre/Australian Council for Educational Research.
Tucker, C.M., R.A. Zayco, and K.C. Herman. 2002. Teacher–child variables as predictors of academic
engagement among low-income African American children. Psychology in the School 39, no. 4:
477–88.
Watkins, D. 2000. Learning and teaching: Across cultural perspective. School Leadership and Management
20, no. 2: 161–73.
Watkins, D., and J. Biggs. 1996. The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences.
(Hong Kong: Australian Council for Educational Research/Comparative Education Research Center).
Woolfolk, A.E. 2004. Educational psychology. 9th edn. New York: Pearson.
Zimmerman, B.J., A. Bandura, and M. Martinez-Pons. 1992. Self-motivation for academic attainment:
The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal
29: 663–76.