Introduction

There are two type of animal development.

1. Direct
2. Indirect
If the baby is born through direct development Then the larva stage is absent.
Ex : all eutheria, lepisma, (Silver fish/book lice) ,scorpion.
If the indirect development is present in an animal then the larva stage present.
Through metamorphosis this larva changes into adult.
There are four types of metamorphosis we see in invertebrate
1. Ametabolous – In this metamorphosis is absent.
Ex. Silver fish
2. Hemi-metabolous – In this nymph is present.
Ex. Dragon fly , May fly
3. Gradual metamorphosis – In this nymph stage is present. But along with
wings there is genital appendages which are of vestegial types.
Nymph Nymph Adult
Ex. Grashtopor,Aphids
4. Complete metamorphosis :
Egg Larva Pupa Adult
Ex. House fly , Mosquito , Butterfly
(i) Miracidium Larva:
When the conditions turn favorable, the encapsulated
embryos get differentiated into miracidium larva. It is the first larval stage in the
life cycle of liver fluke. These larvae are hatched out with the help of hatching
enzyme. This enzyme dissolves the cementing material of the operculum.

External structure of miracidium larva:

Miracidium larva is small, oval,
elongated and richly ciliated. The anterior end produces mobile, non-ciliated
apical papilla. This larva is multicellular. Its body is covered with ciliated
epidermal plates which are total 21 in number arranged in five rows or tiers. The
number of plates in each tire is fixed.
Tier I: 6 plates. Two dorsal, two lateral and two ventral
Tier II: 6 plates. Three dorsal and three ventral
Tier III: 3 plates. One dorsal and two ventro-lateral
Tier IV: 4 plates. Two right and two left
Tier V: 2 plates. One left and one right
Under these epidermal plates, a fine layer of sub-epidermal musculature is
present. Thus, musculature consists of outer circular and inner longitudinal fibers.
Under this musculature another layer called sub-epithelium is present. Epidermal
plates, sub-epidermal musculature and sub-epithelium together form the body
wall of miracidium.
Internal structure of miracidium larva:
Inside the body of miracidium, numerous
glands, nervous tissue and protonephridia and germ cells are present. A sac-like
multinucleated mass of granular protoplasm is attached to the center of apical
papilla. A large brain with several associated nerve fibers lies dorsally below the
epidermal cell of the second tier. Above the brain, an “X” shaped larval eye with
two crescentic pigmented cells called as eye spots are present. The concavities of
these eyes face each other. These concavities contain refractile material serving
as lens. A pair of long tubular protonephridia or flame cells opens to the exterior
through excretory pores. The germ cells lie in groups called as germ balls in the
rear part of the body of miracidium larva.
Miracidium larva does not feed but swims about desperately are tries to penetrate
any object it may come across. But it can succeeds only if it comes in contact
with the specific intermediate host, snail. All the larvae which do not come in
contact with the suitable host would die within 24 hours. After finding the
suitable host, the larva attaches itself with the apical papilla and performs boring
movements. This movement along with the flesh-dissolving secretions of the
larva, it created a minute bore in the host tissue. Through this minute the larva
squeezes itself into the host body. After entering the body of the host it sheds of
its ciliated epidermis and then enters into the digestive gland of the sheep to
undergo further changes and finally develops into next larval stage called as
sporocyst larva.

(ii) Sporocyst:
The sporocyst is an elongated germinal sac about 0.7 mm
long and covered with a thin cuticle, below which are mesenchyme cells and
some muscles.The glands, nerve tissue, apical papilla and eye spots of
miracidium disappear. The hollow interior of sporocyst has a pair of
protonephridia each with two flame cells it has germ cells and germ balls. The
germ cells have descended in a direct line from the original ovum from the
miracidium developed.The sporocyst moves about in the host tissues and its germ
cells develop into a third type of larva called redia larva. A sporocyst forms 5 to
8 rediae. The rediae larvae pass out of the sporocyst by rupture of its body wall
into the snail tissues with the aid of the muscular collar and ventral processes,
then the rediae migrate to the liver of the snail.
(iii) Redia:
The redia is elongated about 1.3 mm to 1.6 mm in length with two
ventral processes called lappets or procruscula near the posterior end and a birth
pore near the anterior end.
Body wall has cuticle, mesenchyme and muscles, and near the anterior end, just
in front of the birth pore, the muscles form a circular ridge, the collar used for
locomotion. Redia has an anterior mouth, pharynx in which numerous pharyngeal
glands open, sac-like intestine and there is a pair of protonephridia with two pairs
of flame cells. Its cavity has germ cells and germ balls.
The germ cells of redia give rise during summer months to a second generation
of daughter rediae, but in winter they produce the fourth larval stage, the cercaria
larva. Thus, either the primary redia or daughter redia produce cercaria larvae
which escape from the birth pore of the redia into the snail tissues. Each redia
forms about 14 to 20 cercariae.
(iv) Cercaria:
The cercaria has an oval body about 0.25 mm to 0.35 mm long and
a simple long tail. Its epidermis is soon shed and replaced by cuticle; below the
cuticle are muscles and cystogenous glands. It has rudiments of organs of an
adult; there are two suckers (oral sucker and ventral sucker) and an alimentary
canal consisting of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus and a bifurcated
intestine.
There is an excretory bladder with a pair of protonephridial canals (excretory
tubules) with a number of flame cells. An excretory duct originates from the
bladder, travels through the tail and bifurcates to open out through a pair of
nephridiopores.There are two large penetration glands, but they are nonfunctional
in the cercaria of Fasciola.
It also has the rudiments of reproductive organs formed from germ cells. The
cercariae escape from the birth pore of the redia, then migrate from the digestive
gland of the snail into the pulmonary sac from where they pass out into
surrounding water. The time taken in snail from the entry of miracidia to the exit
of cercariae is almost about 35-65 days.
(v)Metacercaria:
The cercariae swim about in water for 2 to 3 days; they then lose
their tails and get enclosed in a cyst secreted by cystogenous glands.The encysted
cercaria is called a metacercaria which is about 0.2 mm in diameter and it is in
fact a juvenile fluke. If the metacercariae are formed in water they can live for a
year, but if they are formed on grass or vegetation then they survive only for a
few weeks, they can withstand short periods of drying.The various larval stages
(the miracidium, sporocyst, redia, and cercaria) are all formed in the same way
from germ cells which are set aside at the first division. There is, thus, a
distinction between germ cells and somatic cells, and germ cells alone form the
various larval stages.
Phylum Arthropoda
Class: Crustacean

(I)NAUPLIUS LARVA
It is the first larvae hatched from egg in most of the crustaceans.It is
free swimming larvae.It is minute and microscopic.The body has indistinct
regions like a simple median eye also called as nauplius eye, three pair of jointed
appendages (uniramous antennule, biramous antennae and mandible).Mandibles
along with antennae are helpful in food collection.
In some forms nauplius larva develops straight away into adult, but in many other
crustacean forms it gives rise to other intermediate larval forms like
metanauplius, protozoaea, zoaea, crypsis, mysis, megalopa, phyllosoma, alima.

(II)METANAUPLIUS LARVA
It is the larva of Apus.It is the second larval stage which
develops from the nauplius larva.The body has an anterior oval cephalothorax,
an elongated trunk-region and an abdomen terminating in a caudal fork provided
with setae.
The anterior end has a pair of frontal sense organs.Dorsal shield of the head grows
back to form carapace.The larvae has three pair of appendages just as in nauplius,
it also develops the rudiments of 4 pairs of appendages, which later become the
maxillae and 2 pairs of maxillipedes of the adults.
(III)CYPRIS LARVA
It is the larvae of Sacculina, Balanus and Lepas.It develops
from nauplius.It is a free swimming larva.It is triangular in shape with bivalent
shell. The larva has seven pairs of appendages, namely a pair of antennules and
six pair of thoracic appendages.A median eye is present.The larva contains a mass
of germ cells.It undergoes a remarkable series of metamorphoses to become the
sessile adult form.

(IV)PROTOZOAEA LARVA
The metanauplius larva is succeeded by the protozoaea stage.It
is divisible into broad segmented cephalothorax covered with a small carapace
and a slender abdomen which is unsegmented. Abdomen terminates in a forked
telson.
The carapace becomes enlarged and covers the dorsal surface anteriorly. The 7
pairs of appendages present in the metanauplius become well-developed and
capable of movements. The rudiments of paired lateral eye begin to appear near
the median eye.The rudiments of the remaining posterior six thoracic segments
are also marked off, but the abdomen is still unsegmented and without limbs. The
protozoaea swims by antennae.Marine prawns, Penaeus hatch in to protozoaea
larva.

(V)ZOAEA LARVA
Zoaea is the second important larvae of the Crustacea, after the
nauplius larva.Protozoaea stage is succeeded by the zoaea stage.The zoaea is
characterized by a distinct cephalothorax and abdomen, 8 pair of appendages and
buds of 6 more, and resembles the adult Cyclops.
The cephalothorax is immensely developed and covered by a helmet-like
carapace, which is produced into two long spines, an anterior median rostral and
a posterior median dorsal. Two lateral spines are also present. The paired lateral
and stalked compound eyes become well-formed and but remaining 6 pair of
thoracic appendages appears in the form of bud. The long abdomen is distinctly
made of 6 segments, and terminates in a caudal furca and still lacking in
appendages. Zoaea swims by means of thoracic limbs.
(VI)MYSIS LARVA
In Penaeus, the zoaea larva, instead of converting into the
megalopa stage, moults into the post larval mysis larva. It has 13 pairs of
appendages. All the thoracic appendages are biramous. Even the 5 pairs of
posterior thoracic legs are biramous with flagellar exopodites which take up the
locomotory function.The abdomen develops similar to that of the adult form, with
5 pairs of biramous pleopods and a pair of uropods and a telson.The mysis larva
metamorphosis in to the adult prawn by the loss of the exopodites on the thoracic
legs.

(VII)MEGALOPA LARVA
In true crabs, the zoaea larva or metazoaea larva passes
through successive moults into the post larval megalopa stage. It has a broad and
crab-like unsegmented cephalothorax. The carapace is produced anteriorly into a
median spine. The eyes are large, stalked and compound. All the thoracic
appendages are well formed of which the last 5 pairs are uniramous. The
abdomen is also well formed, straight and bears biramous pleopods.

(VIII)PHYLLOSOMA LARVA
In the rock- lobster (Palinurus), the newly hatched larva is
called the phyllosoma larva or glass- crab. It is a greatly modified mysis stage. It
is a remarkable for its large size, extremely flattened and leaf- like delicate form
and glassy transparency. A narrow constriction demarcates the head from thorax.
A large oval carapace covers the head and the first two thoracic segments. The
eyes are compound and borne by large stalks. Only anterior 6 pairs of thoracic
appendages are present in the newly hatched larva.
The first thoracic appendages or maxillipedes are rudimentary (Palinurus) or
absent (Scyllarus) and the second are uniramous; succeed by 4 pairs of very long
and biramous legs with exopodites.Last two pairs of thoracic appendages are
usually absent.Abdomen, though indistinctly segmented is very small and
limbless. Phyllosoma undergoes several moults before reaching the adult form.
(IX)ALIMA LARVA
The so-called alima larva of Squilla hatches out from the egg
directly. It is a modified zoaea larva form. It is apeagic larva, having a glass-like
transparency and occurring in large numbers in the plankton. It has a slender
form, and a sort and broad carapace. All the head appendages are present. But
only is 6segmented, having 4 or 5 pairs of pleopods. The alima larva differs from
the zoaea larva in the armature of the telson and a very large raptorial second
maxillipedes.
Larva of class insect
Member of class insect
1. In house fly maggot larva is found
2. In silkworm caterpillar larva is found
3. in mosquito wriggler larva is found

1.Maggot larva
There is indirect development in house fly in which
complete metamorphosis is found.
In this four stages are included.
Egg Larva Pupa Adult
a. Egg :-
Eggs are of centrolecithal type and at a time many eggs are releases
through the body. The process of heching eggs is 12 to 24 hours.
 b. Larva :-
First house fly larva i.e. maggot larva release through egg
and by the molting process it converts into pupa. On the body of maggot
larva 13 segments are appeared. In this larva stage formation of spiracles
takes place.
In this, hook like structure is found for locomotion which helps in feeding
with locomotion.
On the 13th segment posterior spiracles are present, that opens in trachea.
Anal lobe is found on ventral surface of 13th segment that does the formation
of anus in adult.
Till B-12 segment spimifersous pad are found of same size. This pad moves
animals to forward and backward direction and slowly it starts feeding and
coverts into pupa.
c. Pupa :-
Machour from larva and premachour space from house fly is called
pupa.
In pupa development of organs take place but not completely.
Formation of complete organs divided in three pars.
1. Head
2. Thorex
3. Abdoman
Wings helps to fly in adult and colour of adult animal change to light black.

2.Caterpillar larva
Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between
moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as 1 mm
up to 14 cm. Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps) can
appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in
the sawfly suborder. However while these larvae superficially resemble caterpillars,
they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment,
an absence of crochets or hooks on the prolegs (these are present on lepidopteran
caterpillars), one pair of prominent ocelli on the head capsule, and an absence of the
upside-down Y-shaped suture on the front of the head.
Lepidopteran caterpillars can be differentiated from sawfly larvae by:

 the numbers of pairs of pro-legs; sawfly larvae have 6 or more pairs while
caterpillars have a maximum of 5 pairs.
 the number of stemmata (simple eyes); the sawfly larvae have only two, while
caterpillars usually have six.
 the presence of crochets on the prolegs; these are absent in the sawflies.
 sawfly larvae have an invariably smooth head capsule with no cleavage lines,
while lepidopterous caterpillars bear an inverted "Y" or "V" (adfrontal suture).

Diet: Caterpillars mostly eat the leaves of flowering plants and trees, using their
powerful jaws (mandibles). Caterpillars are very limited in their diet; many species
will only eat the leaves of a single type of plant. They usually eat only the plant that
their mother carefully chose to lay their egg on.

Anatomy: The body of the caterpillar (like all insects) is divided into 3 parts,
the head, thorax, and abdomen. They have an exoskeleton, a hard, outer covering.

The ocelli (simple eyes that detect light) are located on the head. The mouth and
jaws (mandibles) are also located on the head. Setae are sensory hairs located all
over a caterpillar's body, giving it a sense of touch. The caterpillar breathes through
holes in its side called spiracles. The six prolegs (attached to the thorax) will become
the legs of the adult. The many prolegs will disappear in the adult stage.
3.Mosquito
The mosquito is a common flying insect that is found around the
world. There are about 2,700 species of mosquitoes. Mosquitoes can fly about 1 to
1.5 miles per hour (1.6-2.4 kph).
Females drink blood and the nectar of plants; the males only sip plant nectar. When
a female bites, she also injects an anticoagulant (anti-clotting chemical) into the
prey to keep the victim's blood flowing. She finds her victims by sight and smell,
and also by detecting their warmth. Not all mosquito species bite humans.
The mosquito is often a carrier of diseases, such as malaria, encephalitis, yellow
fever, dengue fever, dog heartworm, West Nile virus, and many others. The
females, who drink blood, can carry disease from one animal to another as they
feed.

Anatomy:
Like all insects, the mosquito has a body divided into three parts (head, thorax, and
abdomen), a hard exoskeleton, and six long, jointed legs. Mosquitoes also have a
pair of veined wings. They have a straw-like proboscis and can only eat liquids.

Life Cycle:
Mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis; they go through four distinct stages
of development during a lifetime. The four stages are egg, pupa, larva, and adult.
The full life-cycle of a mosquito takes about a month.
Eggs: After drinking blood, adult females lay a raft of 40 to 400 tiny white eggs in
standing water or very slow-moving water.

Larvae: Within a week, the eggs hatch into larvae (sometimes called wrigglers)
that breathe air through tubes which they poke above the surface of the water. Larvae
eat bits of floating organic matter and each other. Larvae molt four times as they
grow; after the fourth molt, they are called pupae.

Pupae: Pupae (also called tumblers) also live near the surface of the water,
breathing through two horn-like tubes (called siphons) on their back. Pupae do not
eat.

Adult: An adult emerges from a pupa when the skin splits after a few days. The
adult lives for only a few weeks.

4.Phylum Echinodermata:

1. Dipleurula Larva:
1. The dipleurula form is reached during development and is characterised by its
bilaterally symmetrical, egg-shaped body.

2. The ventral concave side bears the mouth and is encircled by a circumoral ciliated
band.

3. The anus is disposed ventrally.

4. The digestive canal is differentiated into oesophagus, stomach and intestine.

5. The pre-oral lobe which is situated at the anterior to mouth, bears an apical sensory
plate and a tuft of cilia.

6. The ciliation on the surface of the body becomes reduced to a ciliard band.

This Dipleurula form is regarded by many as the hypothetical ancestral form of

Echinoderm, as this form is universally present. The Dipleurula concept was first
propounded by Bather (1900). The major changes involved in other Echinoderm lar-
vae are due to differential disposition of the ciliated bands.

2. Pentactula Larva:
This larval stage is regarded as the next evolutionary step of the Dipleurula larva.
This concept has been supported by Semon (1888), Burry (1895), Hyman (1955)
and many others.

1. The Pentactula larva has five tentacles around the mouth.

2. The hydrocoel is separated from the rest of the coelom to form the future warer
vascular system.
3. Bipinnaria Larva:
1. This type of larva is characteristic of the class Asteroidea.

2. It possesses two ciliated bands—the pre-oral and the post-oral.

3. The pre-oral ciliated band surrounds the pre-oral lobe of the larva.

4. The pre-oral lobe is highly developed.

5. The post-oral ciliated band appears to be longitudinally placed and forms a

complete ring between the mouth and anus.The bipinnaria larva bears a close resem-
blance with the auricularia larva of Holothurians.

6. The body of bipinnaria larva is externally bilaterally symmetrical but subsequently

the internal structures assume asymmetry.

7. It is a free-swimming larva and the anterior end of the archenteron develops as

mouth and blastopore becomes the anus.

8. The pre-oral and post-oral ciliated bands are continued over a series of
prolongations of the body, called arms.
9. The name and number of the arms developing from pre-oral and post- oral ciliated
bands are as follows:

10. The pre-oral and ventro-median arms develop from the pre-oral ciliated band and
the rest of the arms develop from the post-oral ciliated band.

11. The arms are provided with muscles and are contractile in nature.

12. The antero-lateral arms are absent.

13. These two ciliated bands are regarded to have arisen from a single ciliated band
(as in auricularia) which becomes subsequently divided. This is evidenced by
Asterias rubens and A. glacialis where these two ciliated bands remain initially
dorsally connected.

14. In artificially cultured bipinnaria larvae, sometimes a single ciliated band is seen.
In Asterina gibbosa, the typical bipinnaria larva is slightly modified and it moves by
the action of the cilia present in the larval organ.

15. In the genus Luidia, the bipinnaria larva is peculiar in having a slender long
anterior part which terminates into two wide arms. This larval form is named by Sars
(1835) as Bipinnaria asterigera.

The bipinnaria is a feeding larva and leads a free-swimming life. After a short period
of free-swimming existence it transforms into a lecithotrophic brachiolaria larva.

4. Brachiolaria Larva:
1. This type of larva is present in Asteroidea and is regarded as a modified form of
bipinnaria larva. It possesses the following special features.
2. There are three additional arms which are not ciliated in their courses except in
Bipinnaria papillata. These arms are called the brachiolar arms and are beset with
warts to help in temporary adhesion.

3. These arms are devoid of calcareous rods and have prolongations from the
coelomic cavity.

The bipinnaria stage is followed by the brachiolaria stage in all Asteroids but direct
evidence is only furnished in two cases, e.g., Asterias glacialis and A. vulgaris. In
Astropecten the brachiolaria stage is absent and the bipinnaria larva metamorphoses
directly into adults.

5. Auricularia Larva:
1. The externally bilaterally symmetrical larva is present in Holothuroidea and is
characterised in having a single longitudinal ciliated band.
2. The pre-oral lobe is very well-formed.

3. There are no calcareous rods, being replaced by spheroids or star-shaped or wheel-

like bodies.

4. In certain forms, e.g., Auricularia stelligera and A. sphaerigera, elastic spheres of

unknown consistency are present.

6. Doliolaria Larva:
1. The larval form is observed in Holothuroidea.

2. The auricularia larva transforms into a barrel-like body with five ciliated bands
which subsequently break into pieces.This particular stage is also designated as pupa
stage.
3. During metamorphosis into an adult form, the ciliated bands disappear and further
changes occur.

4. In some species of Holothuroids (Order Dendrochirotida e.g., Cucumaria, Thyone

etc.), a non-feeding barrel- shaped vitellaria larva is seen.

5. This type of larva is also found in crinoids and a few Ophiuroids which possesses
ciliated band but no arms.

6. In Cucumaria planci, the auricularia stage is absent and the embryo transforms
directly into the doliolaria stage. In Cucumaria frondosa, C. saxicola, Psolus
phantapus, both of the larval stages may be absent. In Holothuria floridana, there is
no larval form and the embryo develops directly into a young Holothuroid.

7. Pluteus Larva:
1. This larval form can be regarded as a modification of the auricularia larva of
Holothuroid.

2. Like the auricularia larva it has a single ciliated band, but it possesses long arms
with ciliated bands at the margin.
3. It has comparatively smaller pre-oral lobe.

4. The post-anal part of the body is quite well-developed.

5. The arms are also supported by calcareous rods.

The pluteus larvae are of two kinds:

(1) Ophiopluteus—in Ophiuroidea.

(2) Echinopluteus—in Echinoidea.

Both the larval forms possess the post-oral arms, antero-lateral arms, postero-lateral
arms and postero-dorsal arms. But they differ in detail which are summarised in
Table 21.2—Echinodermata.

6. The typical ophiopluteus may be absent in certain forms.

7. The arms are small in Ophiopluteus metschnikoffi and O. claparedei.

8. In Ophionotus hexactis the ophiopluteus lacks arms.

9. The larva may be elongated and without ciliated bands.

10. The skeletal rods are usually absent; if present, only one in number. This con-
dition is observed in Ophiopluteus annulatus, and O. oblongus.

8. Antedon or Yolk Larva:

1. This particular larva is also called doliolaria larva or Vitellaria larva.

2. This larval stage is present in Antedon and it has many structural pecularities.

3. It has a barrel-shaped body with slightly flattened ventral side.

4. It is free-swimming and exhibits bilateral symmetry.

5. The ciliated bands are in the form of four or five separate transversely placed
bands encircling the body. In Antedon bifida, there are four bands. In Antedon
adriatica and A. mediterranea there are five bands.

6. A tuft of cilia with stiff sensory hair springs from a thickened ectodermal patch,
called apical neural plate, which is comparable to that of Tonaria larva of
Balanoglossus.

7. The anterior ciliated ring is ventrally incomplete.

8. There is a ciliated depression or larval mouth which is ventrally placed between

the second and third ciliated rings.

9. A small adhesive pit develops between the first and second ciliated rings by which
the larva adheres to the substratum.

10. The internal structures become rotated at an angle of 90° from the ventral to the
posterior side.

9. Cystidean or Pentacrinoid Larva:

1. This larval stage is also present in Crinoids. It is the second larval stage of crinoids.

2. The anterior end of the antedon larva, after attachment, is prolonged into an
elongated narrow stalk and the free end becomes broader.

3. The ciliated depression becomes a closed ectodermal vesicle which is gradually

shifted to the free end.

4. The floor of the depression is perforated by mouth and with the disappearance of
the roof; the mouth and the tentacles become exposed.

5. This particular phase is called Cystidean or Pentacrinoid stage. This stage

resembles closely the adult Pentacrinus. The stalk in this form develops from the
pre-oral lobe.

6. This stage is quite similar to that of Asteroidea excepting that it lacks circumoral
vessel.