Materials Science for Energy Technologies 1 (2018) 182–187

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Materials Science for Energy Technologies

CHINESE ROOTS
GLOBAL IMPACT
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/materials-science-for-energy-technologies

Electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries

Amit Mishra a, Akansha Mehta a, Soumen Basu a,⇑, Shweta J. Malode b, Nagaraj P. Shetti b,c,⇑,
Shyam S. Shukla c, Mallikarjuna N. Nadagouda d, Tejraj M. Aminabhavi c
a
School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Patiala, Punjab 147004, India
b
Electrochemistry and Materials Group, Department of Chemistry, K. L. E. Institute of Technology, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Gokul,
Hubballi 580030, Karnataka, India
c
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX 77710, USA
d
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45324, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, the primary power sources for portable electronic devices are lithium ion batteries.
Received 3 July 2018 However, they suffer from many of the limitations for their use in electric means of transportation and
Revised 2 August 2018 other high level applications. This mini-review discusses the recent trends in electrode materials for
Accepted 2 August 2018
Li-ion batteries. Elemental doping and coatings have modified many of the commonly used electrode
Available online 15 August 2018
materials, which are used either as anode or cathode materials. This has led to the high diffusivity of
Li ions, ionic mobility and conductivity apart from specific capacity. Many of the newly reported elec-
Keywords:
trode materials have been found to deliver a better performance, which has been analyzed by many
Li-ion
Battery
parameters such as cyclic stability, specific capacity, specific energy and charge/discharge rate. Hence,
Cathode the current scenario of electrode materials of Li-ion batteries can be highly promising in enhancing the
Anode battery performance making it more efficient than before. This can reduce the dependence on fossil fuels
Electrode such as for example, coal for electricity production.
Ó 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

2. Recent trends and prospects of anode materials for Li-ion batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3. Recent trends and prospects of cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4. Future prospects. . . . . . . . . . .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

1. Introduction
Reducing the CO2 footprint is a major driving force behind the
development of greener and more efficient alternative energy
sources has led to the displacement of conventional and traditional
sources [1]. The new energy translation applications and storage
expertise have gained attention to meet up the mounting necessi-
⇑ Corresponding authors at: Electrochemistry and Materials Group, Department
of Chemistry, K. L. E. Institute of Technology, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technolog-
ical University, Gokul, Hubballi 580030, Karnataka, India (N.P. Shetti).
E-mail address: npshetti@kleit.ac.in (N.P. Shetti).
ties of energy needs. For this purpose, secondary batteries have
attained much importance and in this regard, Li-ion batteries have
been extensively investigated [2]. Lithium-ion batteries comprise
of the anode, cathode, separator and the supporting solution in
which progression of lithium ions from the cathode to anode and
vice versa during charge/discharge process [3–5]. The materials
that are typically used for fabricating the anode are metallic
lithium [6,7], graphitic carbon [8,9], hard carbon [10,11], synthetic
graphite [12], lithium titanate [8,13], tin-based alloys [14], and
silicon-based materials [8,15]. The materials used for making cath-
ode are an oxide of lithium manganese [16], lithium cobalt oxide

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2018.08.001
2589-2991/Ó 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 A. Mishra et al. / Materials Science for Energy Technologies 1 (2018) 182–187
[17], FeS2 [18], V2O5 [19], lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide
[20], lithium ion phosphate [21,22] and electronic conducting
polymers [23,24]. The materials used as electrolytes include LiPF6
[25,26], LiClO4 [27,28], LiAsF6 [29] and LiCF3SO3 [30]. Apart from
these main components, there are other components such as a bin-
der, flame retardant, gel precursor and electrolyte solvent [1].
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been extensively used to supre-
macy a variety of moveable electronic devices because of their
higher energy density and eco-friendly nature. Despite these ben-
efits, the cycle life and power density are still need to be upgraded
for their use in electrically driven vehicles (EVs), large-scale energy
storage and other wide range applications [31].
Even though the battery technology has undergone several
advancements still the available batteries are far behind in meeting
the energy consumption demands in EVs. The primary reason
behind this is the non-monotonic energy consumption along with
the frequent changes during the battery discharge process, which
is dangerous for the battery itself [32]. One of the reliable solutions
to overcome this problem is to join the battery with a super capac-
itor having a similar architecture with that of battery, but with bet-
ter life cycle and energy density so that it can provide excess
energy when the battery fails to do so [32]. Another option is to
develop electrode materials having short diffusion lengths, high
mechanical strength, high surface to dimensions ratio in organiz-
ing and having fully exposed active surfaces to progress the elec-
trochemical recital of LIBs [31,33–37]. Other prime issues
associated with Li-ion batteries are unsteady high-temperature
act and diminish in low-temperature charge-discharge perfor-
mance. It has also been found that charge-discharge performance
of Li-ion batteries decrease upon decrease in temperature, which
is mainly due to increase in SEI layer impedance, low Li+ ion diffu-
sion and decrease in reaction kinetics [38]. Here, in this mini-
review, we present the recent trends in electrode materials and
some new strategies of electrode fabrication for Li-ion batteries.
Some promising materials with better electrochemical perfor-
mance have also been represented along with the traditional elec-
trodes, which have been modified to enhance their performance
and stability.
2. Recent trends and prospects of anode materials for Li-ion
batteries
The high capacity (3860 mA h g 1 or 2061 mA h cm 3) and
lower potential of reduction of 3.04 V vs primary reference
Fig. 1. Schematic design for the formation of durian like NiS2@rGO (Copyright from Elsevier) [46].
183
electrode (standard hydrogen electrode: SHE) make the anode
metal Li as significant compared to other metals [39,40]. But the
high reactivity of lithium creates several challenges in the fabrica-
tion of safe battery cells which can be overcome by using com-
pounds capable of giving Li-ions [41]. Silicon-based materials can
be considered as another promising alternative to Li metal as an
anode for subsequent invention LIBs because of high energy stor-
age capacity, abundance in the earth shell and environmental com-
patibility. However, short ionic and electric conductivity of silicon-
based materials results in huge volume dissimilarity through
lithiation/de-lithiation development which can lead to a severe
diminishing of energy storage capacity of electrodes [42,43].
In order to overcome the above mentioned problems dab-like
defined silicon was synthesized by reaction of silicon tetrachloride
using magnesium powder [44]. After 100 cycles, Li showed a rever-
sible competence of 1125 mA h g 1 at 1 A g 1. The polymers of
conducting properties have also been used as electrode supplies
due to their flexibility, lightweight, renewability, and reasonably
low expenditure. Apart from these qualities, the conductive poly-
mers suffer from low reversibility, low immovability, and slope
energy caused due to conveying of charge carriers within the con-
jugated polymers. Introduction carbonyl groups have overcome
these problems in conducting polymers [45]. Traditional metal
dichalcogenides were found to be promising as an anode for LIBs
mainly due to their high theoretical capacities. By hydrothermal
method, durian like NiS2@rGO was prepared in the presence of
EDTA-2Na which had a decisive role in creation of durian like con-
figuration (Fig. 1) [46]. The as-prepared anode material showed
enhanced performance and delivered reversible expulsion capabil-
ity approximately 1053, 947, 885, 798 and 603 mA h g 1 at current
rates of 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 2000 mA g 1 (Fig. 2). SnO2 layered
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) amalgamated anode
was fabricated by a simple wet synthesis method [47]. It, however,
showed unstable behavior during the charge/discharge process
due to the presence of SnO2 on the external plane of MWCNTs.
Flexible SWNTs were wrapped around graphene foam to form a
binary structure [48]. The resulting composite had elevated con-
ductance, large electrolyte/electrode make contact with the area
and short electron-ion movement length leading to enhanced elec-
trochemical performance. It had the high specific competence of
953 mA h g 1 at current compactness of 0.1 Ag 1 and reversible
capacity of 606 mA h g 1 after 1000 cycles. It had capacity with
holding of 90% over 1000 cycles at 1 A g 1.
Bundle-shaped Sb2O3 was successfully synthesized by a simple
process which requires grounding of the Sb-MOFs template and
184 A. Mishra et al. / Materials Science for Energy Technologies 1 (2018) 182–187
ensuing thermal annealing [49]. As observed from SEM images
(Fig. 3(a) and (b)) the package formed Sb2O3 had normal length
of around 20 lm and was encircled by several elements and had
a bouquet like finish structure. The bundle-formed Sb2O3 had a
high competence of 594.1 mA h g 1 and improved permanence of
277.4 mA h g 1 which reveals it to be a prospective anode matter
for Li-ion battery. TiO2/MoS2 nanofibers were obtained by electro
spinning and subsequent thermal management which also
includes pre-oxidation, hydrothermal treatment and carbonization
[50]. The TiO2/MoS2 composites after 100 cycles exhibited the
reversible capability of 479.78 mA h g 1 and it can retain capacity
up to 97% when it was assessed as anode substance for LIBs. S/N
double doped carbon nanosheets were fixed with CoxOy nanoparti-
cles [51]. The resulting material after 400 cycles showed excellent
charge competence of 1200 mA h g 1 and 1000 mA h g 1 for Li-ion
cargo space. The greater performance and simple preparation
procedure clearly justify the candidature for the as-prepared
substance as an anode for high-performance LIBs.
Fig. 2. Charge /discharge curvature at 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000 mA g 1 after stable
circulation over the voltage range of 3–0.01 V of durian like NiS2@rGO anodes
(Copyright from Elsevier) [46].
Fig. 3. (a) and (b) SEM images of bundle shaped Sb2O3 (Copyright from Elsevier) [49].
3. Recent trends and prospects of cathode materials for Li-ion
batteries
The cathodes used along with anode are an oxide or phosphate-
based materials routinely used in LIBs [38]. Recently, sulfur and
potassium were doped in lithium-manganese spinal which
resulted in enhanced Li-ion mobility [52]. The Li-ion diffusivity
was also enhanced, and it was exposed beneath elevated currents,
and this also consents to materials to preserve high competence
through charging/discharging progression. The galvano static stud-
ies further confirmed the stability and its candidature for high
power applications. In another similar attempt, LiCoO2 cathodes
were coated with magnesium (Mg) and phosphorus (P) (MP
coated) [53]. The MP coated LiCoO2 with loading density of 3.6 g
cc 1 showed exceptional rate with the capability of 112 mA h g 1
at 10 °C that was 14 times superior to uncoated LiCoO2 at 4.35 V
finish. Cycle life was also found to get enhanced with high power
compactness of about 400 W h kg 1. The surface-coated electrode
also showed high thermal constancy with compact exothermic
temperature flow. Iron disulfide (FeS2) is widely used as cathode
material for non-rechargeable Li-ion batteries. In a recent report,
biomass-carbon@FeS2 nanocomposite cathode was synthesized
using auricularia auricula by the process of carbonization-
sulfuration [54], in the synthesis process green and renewable
auricularia auricula acts as a carbon source. The as prepared com-
posite has been used as a cathode for a rechargeable Li-ion battery.
Auricularia auricula has sturdy ability to take in Fe ions from
aqueous solutions, which led standardized allocation of FeS2
throughout the biomass medium in the composite. This has led
to elevated precise capacity of about 850 mA h g 1 following 80
cycles at 0.5C and 700 mA h g 1 at 2C following 150 cycles.
Nitrogen-doped carbon (NCNPs-V2O5) coated V2O5 complex were
synthesized by organic solvent assisted in-situ hydrothermal
development process (Fig. 4) [55]. V2O5 as cathode material is
known to have a high theoretical capacity of about 440 mA h g 1
for Li-ion batteries. Its poor conductivity adversely affects the
lithiation/delithiation process, hence the nitrogen doped carbon
coating enhances the electrical conductivity, and this promotes
Li-ion diffusion. Triplite type LiFeSO4F has gained significant con-
sideration as cathode material for future Li-ion batteries due to
high redox potential based on earth-abundant Fe2+/3+ [56]. Triplite
LiFeSO4F was created by a solid state practice which consists of
generally detached and indistinct crystal province. This was due
 A. Mishra et al. / Materials Science for Energy Technologies 1 (2018) 182–187 185

Fig. 4. Illustrative representation of NCNPs-V2O5 composites (Copyright from Elsevier) [55].

Fig. 5. HAADF-STEM image of triplite LiFeSO4F (Copyright from Elsevier) [56].

to the field with nearby assorted border-end arrangements of Li/Fe
supported on HAADF-STEM analysis (Fig. 5).
Triplite LiFeSO4F with the high columbic efficiency of 100% dis-
seminated a stable lifecycle up to 40 cycles without competences
decompose. Due to an efficient reduction of charge/discharge
polarization, the energy effectiveness reached 93% because of a sig-
nificant reduction of indicating the excellent was observed. The
preservation of energy about 80 mA h g 1 at 1C and 60 mA h g 1
at 5C electrodes preserved. Similarly, a novel poly-(1, 4-
anthraquinone)/CNT (P14AQ/CNT) nanocomposite was synthe-
sized by in-situ polymerization [57]. From the characterization
results, it was observed that CNTs were uniformly distributed
throughout the composite. It delivered outstanding cycling perma-
nence with a specific competence of 233 mA h g 1 in 100 cycles
and enhanced performance by retaining 165 mAh g 1 at 5C rate.
A conventional solution combustion method was employed to
prepare Li[Li0.2Ni0.13x+y/3Co0.13-x+y/3Mn0.54-x+y/3]AlxZryO2 [58].
Theco-substituted Zr-Al were uniformly distributed in Li[Li0.2-
Ni0.13Co0.13Mn0.54]O2. It was found that increasing Zr content
resulted in increasing of lattice volume due to an augmentation
in lattice limitations. In addition to this, Al content enhances the
structural stability. The model having Al(x = 0.02) and Zr(y =
0.015) had towering emancipation capability and better cycle per-
formance (Fig. 6(a) and (b)). The discharge capacity was calculated
to be 245 mA h g 1 at 25 mA g 1 with capability maintenance of
98% after 50 cycles when compared with that of the bare electrode
which was having a discharge capacity of 239 mA h g 1 at 25 mA
g 1 and 93% capacity retention after 50 cycles.
Rapulenyane et al. [59] fabricated Li0.2Mn0.6Ni0.2O2, a lithium
and manganese-rich cathode through a simple one-pot co-
precipitation process at different pH such as 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5 result-
ing in the formation of agglomerated particles. However, particles
formed at pH 10 were less agglomerated and had a high surface
area. The cathode materials performed exceptionally well deliver-
ing more than 200 mA h g 1 at a current density of 20 mA g 1 in
the voltage range 2–4.8 V. Material prepared at pH 10
provided high initial discharge capacity of about 266 mA h g 1 at
20 mA g 1 maintaining a discharge capacity of 220 mA h g 1 at
186 A. Mishra et al. / Materials Science for Energy Technologies 1 (2018) 182–187
Fig. 6. (a) Charge/discharge and (b) Cyclic performance of Li[Li0.2Ni0.13x+y/3Co0.13-x+y/3Mn0.54-x+y/3]AlxZryO2 sample having Al (x = 0.02) and Zr (y = 0.015) (Copyright from
Elsevier) [58].
50 mA g–1 after 50 cycles. Novel LiVPO4/C was manufactured by a
one-step practice at 60 °C. It had a high operational voltage of
about 4.2 V [60]. The specific capacities of LiVPO4/C at 0.2 and 5C
are 139.3 and 116.5 mA h g 1. The electrochemical investigation
revealed that LiVPO4/C had exceptional reversibility during mining
and incorporation process and less charge relocation impedance.
Bismuth oxyfluoride was impregnated on mesoporous carbon
CMK-3 by simple nano casting approach [61]. CMK-3 was able to
effectively hamper the aggregation of bismuth oxyfluoride parti-
cles and provided the rapid passages for Li-ions and electrons.
The bismuth oxyfluride@CMK-3 nanocomposite showed better
cycle stability and rate stability than pure bismuth oxyfluoride.
4. Future prospects
For Li-ion battery, crucial components are anode and cathode.
Many of the recent attempts are focusing on formulating the elec-
trodes with the elevated specific capability and cycling steadiness.
In addition, efforts have been directed to prepare the electrodes via
simple and facile methods. For Li-ion battery, novel materials such
as Sb2O3, TiO2/MoS2 have the high potential as anode substance.
Even many of the recently reported materials have been found to
be highly promising as cathodes such as P14AQ/CNT nanocompos-
ite and Triplite LiFeSO4F. Apart from these some commonly used
electrode materials have been modified by elemental doping, coat-
ing, and compositing with other materials. This has led to high Li
ion diffusivity, enhancement in conductivity, ionic mobility and
high capacity during charging/discharging. Hence, the upcoming
newer electrode materials and the development of the latest tech-
niques for electrode fabrication may have high potential in making
Li-ion batteries more efficient than ever before for their large-scale
applications.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Nagaraj P. Shetti and Dr. Tejraj M. Aminbhavi are thankful to
Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas, USA. Dr. Shyam S. Shukla
appreciates the support from Robert Welch Foundation (grant
number V-0004) to carry out this work.
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