Chap 5.

Series
Series representations of analytic functions

60. Convergence of Sequences

An infinite sequence
z1, z2 , ...........,zn ,..........
of complex numbers has a limit z if, for each positive ,
there exists a positive integer n0 such that
zn  z   whenever n  n0.  lim zn  z
n

For sufficieutly large n, the points

zn lie in any given  neighborhood of z.
n0, in general, depends on  .

1
When the limit exists, the sequence is said to converge to z.
lim z  z
n n
Otherwise, it diverges.

Theorem.
Suppose zn  xn  iyn , z  x  iy then
lim zn  z iff lim xn  x, and lim yn  y.
n n n
𝑧𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

2
 Suppose zn  xn  iyn , z  x  iy then
lim zn  z iff lim xn  x, and lim yn  y.
n n n
proof : (Optional)
lim x  x, and lim y  y.
n n n n

 xn  x  whenever n  n1
2 1
 x  iy
yn  y  whenever n  n2
2 2 xn  iyn    x  iy 

 let n0  max(n1 , n2 ) yn  y

  xn  iyn
xn  x  and yn  y  whenever n  n0 xn  x
2 1 2
2
 
 z  z   xn  iyn    x  iy    xn  x   i  yn  y   xn  x  i ( yn  y )    
n 2 2
 z  z   xn  iyn    x  iy    whenever n  n0 31 2
n
 lim z  z
n n
 Suppose zn  xn  iyn , z  x  iy then
lim zn  z iff lim xn  x, and lim yn  y.
n n n
proof : (Optional)

lim z  z
n n
 z  z   xn  iyn    x  iy    whenever n  n0
n
 xn  x   xn  x   i  yn  y    xn  iyn    x  iy   

yn  y   xn  x   i  yn  y    xn  iyn    x  iy   

 xn  x   and yn  y   whenever n  n0
x  iy
 lim x  x, and lim y  y. x  iyn    x  iy 
n n n n
n

yn  y

xn  iyn
xn 4 x
5
61. Convergence of Series
An infinite series

 zn  z1  z2  ......... zn  ............... (6)
n1
of complex numbers converges to the sum S
We write

 zn  S
n1

Theorem. Suppose zn  xn  iyn , S  x  iy

  
Then  zn  S iff  xn  x and  yn  y
n1 n1 n1
𝑧𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛 𝑆 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
級數 數列 級數 數列 級數 數列
N N N
Suppose  zn  SN ,  xn  xN ,  yn  yN , zn  xn  iyn , SN  xN  iyN 級數以數列型式
n 1 n 1 n 1
表示，即可利用
Then lim SN  S iff lim xN  x, and lim y  y. 數列性質來證明
N  N  N  N
級數性質

6
 
A necessary condition for the convergence of series  zn is that
lim zn  0  n 1
n  zn : convergent  lim zn  0
n 
n 1

The terms of a convergent series of complex numbers are,

therefore, bounded, i.e., zn  M . 

 zn : convergent | zn | M
n 1

Absolute convergence:
 
 zn   xn  yn
2 2
converges
n 1 n 1

Absolute convergence of a series of complex numbers implies

convergence of that series.  

| z
n 1
n | : convergent   z n : convergent
n 1

Proof: (See the next slide)

7
  

| z
n 1
n | : convergent   z n : convergent
n 1
𝑧𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛

Proof: 0

𝑧𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛

(1) σ∞ ∞ 2 2 ∞ 2 ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑧𝑛 = σ𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ≥ σ𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛 = σ𝑛=1 |𝑥𝑛 | ≥ σ𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛
convergent convergent convergent

𝑧𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛

σ∞ ∞ 2 2 ∞ 2 ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑧𝑛 = σ𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ≥ σ𝑛=1 𝑦𝑛 = σ𝑛=1 |𝑦𝑛 | ≥ σ𝑛=1 𝑦𝑛
convergent convergent convergent

𝑥𝑛 + 𝑖𝑦𝑛 = 𝑧𝑛

(2) σ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛 +𝑖 σ𝑛=1 𝑦𝑛 = σ𝑛=1 𝑧𝑛
convergent convergent convergent
 Cauchy Integral Formulas for derivatives:
⊕
f ( n ) ( z0 ) 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
62. Taylor Series 
n!
(1)
Thm. Suppose that a function f is analytic throughout an open disk
z  z0  R0. Then at each point z in that disk, f(z) has the power series

representation
(2) 
f ( z)   an ( z- z0 )n
n0
where 1
f (n) ( z0 )
an  n  0,1, 2, .....
n!

That is, the power series here converges to f(z)

when z- z0  R0.

Example:
Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0): z
1   z n ( z  0 1)
1 z n
1
9
0
 This is the expansion of f(z) into a Taylor series about the point z0
(or Taylor series at 𝑧0 or Taylor series in powers of 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )

Taylor series:

f ( z)   an ( z- z0 )n
n0
63. Proof of Taylor’s Theorem (Optional) where
pf . (a) when z0  0 ~ Maclaurin series an 
f (n) ( z0 )
n  0,1, 2, .....
 f (n) (0) n n !
prove f ( z)   z ( z  R0 )
n0 n !
z0=0的case
Let C0 : Circle z  r0

Positively oriented within z  R0

and z is interior to it.

10
 
a
  ar n , | r | 1
1 1 z N zN N 1 z N
1  r n 0
(i)     zn 
1 z 1  z 1  z n 0 1 z
N 1 N
zz / s1 ( z / s )
   ( z / s) n 
1  z / s n 0 1 z / s
1
 N 1 z n
 1 1 1 ( z / s) N
  n 1 
s
 
 f ( s )
s  z  s 1  z / s n 0 s sz
C0 ds
f ( s )ds N 1 f ( s )ds n f ( s )ds N
    n 1
z   z
C0 sz n 0
C 0 s C 0 (s  z)s
N

N 1 f ( n ) (0) f ( s )ds N An extension of Cauchy integral

  2i z n  z formula:
n 0 n! C0 (s  z)s N
f ( n ) ( z0 ) f ( z )dz

1
 2i  
2i 1 f ( s )ds n! C ( z  z ) n 1

2i C0 s  z
(ii)  f ( z )  0

N 1 f ( n ) (0)
1 f ( s )ds N
 z n   N ( z ),  N ( z )   z
n 0 n! 2i C 0 (s  z)s N

 f ( n ) (0)
Hint : lim |  N ( z ) | 0  lim  N ( z )  0  lim f ( z )   zn 11
N  N  N  n!
n 0
 (iii) Suppose that z  r , | s | r0 , r0  r
C00 : s  r0 ei , s( )  r0 ei i
then if s is a point on C
s  z  s  z  r0  r | z  z || z |  | z |
1 2 1 2

| f ( s) | M | z1  z2 | | z1 |  | z2 |

1 f ( s)ds N 1 M Mr0 r N
|  N ( z ) |    
N
z 2 r r ( )
2 (s  z)s 2 (r0  r )r0 (r0  r ) r0
N N 0
C0

1 f ( s)ds N | f ( z ) | M , L   | dz |
2i C0 ( s  z ) s N
 N ( z)  z C z2
  C
f ( z )dz  ML z1

z1 z2
z1 z2
(iv) lim |  N ( z ) | 0  lim  N ( z )  0 z1
N  N 

 N 1 f ( n ) (0) n 
 lim f ( z )  lim  
z2
z   N ( z) 
N  N 
 n 0 n !  N 1 f ( n ) (0)

f ( n ) (0) n f ( z)   z n   N ( z)
 z n 0 n!
n 0 n! 12
(b) For arbitrary z0
Suppose f is analytic when z  z0  R0 and note that the
composite function f ( z  z0 )

must be analytic when ( z  z0 )  z0  R0

13
(i) Let g ( z)  f ( z  z0 ).
The analyticity of g(z) in the disk z  R0 ensures
the existence of a Maclaurin series representation:

 g (n) (0) n
g ( z)   z ( z  R0 )
n0 n!
 f (n) ( z0 ) n
or f ( z  z0 )   z
n0 n!
(ii) Replace z by z - z0 ,
 f (n) ( z0 )
f ( z)   ( z  z0 )n
n0 n!

14
 助憶證明mnemonic:
(a) z0  0
 f (n) (0) n ~ Maclaurin series
prove f ( z)   z
n0 n !

z0  z f ( z0 )  1 c f z-
( z)dz
z0 Cauchy integral formula
2π i
zs
C  C0 1 f ( s )ds
f ( z)  
2 i 0 s  z
C
(i)
1 1
 
1 1  1  ( z / s) N ( z / s) N 
   
s  z s 1 z / s s  1 z / s 1 z / s 
1  N 1 ( z / s ) N
 N 1 z n ( z / s ) N
(ii) 1  N 1 z n ( z / s) 
N
    ( z / s) 
n
   n 1 
f ( s )   n 1
2 i C0
f ( z)    ds  sz
 n 0 s sz  s  n 0 1 z / s  n 0 s
N 1 z0  z
f ( n ) (0) n
 z  N ( z) zs
n ! f ( n ) ( z0 ) 1 f ( z )dz
2 i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
n 0 
n! C  C0
1 f ( s )ds N
2 i C0 ( s  z ) s N
N ( z)  z
(iv)
lim |  N ( z ) | 0  lim  N ( z )  0 ML inequality
N  N 
(iii) 1 f ( s)ds N 1 M Mr0 r
|  N ( z ) |
2 
C0 (s  z)s N
z 
2 (r0  r )r0N
2r0 r N  ( )N
(r0  r ) r0
| f ( s) | M (r / r0 )  1
15
s  z  s  z  r0  r
助憶證明mnemonic:
(b) For arbitrary z0

(1) f (z): analytic when z  z0  R0

z  z  z0
 f (z+z0 ): analytic when ( z  z0 )  z0  R0  z  R0

(i)
N 1
g ( n ) (0) n
(2) g ( z )   (
z , g ( z ) : analytic when z  R0 ) ~ Maclaurin series
n 0 n!

N 1
f ( n ) ( z0 ) n
f ( z  z0 )   z Alternatively,
n 0 n! N 1
g ( n ) (0) n
(ii)(3) z  z0  z : (i ) g ( z )   z
n 0 n !
N 1
f ( n ) ( z0 ) N 1
f ( z)   ( z  z0 ) n f ( z  z0 )  
f ( n ) ( z0 ) n
z
n 0 n! n 0 n!
(ii ) z  z0  z ( z  z  z0 ) :
N 1
f ( n ) ( z0 )
f ( z)   ( z  z0 ) n
n 0 n! 16
⊕
64. Examples Maclaurin series:
Example.  f ( n ) ( 0)
f ( z)   zn
(i) f ( z)  ez is entire. n 0 n!
It has a Maclaurin series representation which is valid for all z.

f ( n) ( z )  e z , f (n) (0) 1
 z n z 3 z  (3 z ) n
  ( z )  e   n!

ez   f ( n ) (0) n
z
3 z

n0 n!
n 0 n! n 0

(ii) g ( z )  z 2e3z is also entire.

 (3z )
n
 n
z 2e3z  z 2     3 z n2
n0 n! n0 n!
 3n  2 n
  z ( z )
n2 (n- 2)! n2n nn2
n2n
0 2
17
⊕ Example. Find Maclaurin series representation of f ( z)  sin z
m  2n : f (2n) ( z)  (1)n sin(z)  f (2n) (0)  0
Sol 1: m  2n 1: f (2n1) ( z)  (1)n cos(z)  f (2n1) (0)  (1)n f (1) (0)  f (5) (0)  f (9) (0)  1

 z 2n 1
f (3) (0)  f (7) (0)  f (11) (0)   1
sin z   f m!(0) z   (-1) ( z  )
 (m) n
m

m0
n0 (2 n  1)!
1 1 1
sin( z )  z  z 3  z 5  
1! 3! 5!
Sol 2: 1 iz  n
sin( z )  [e  e  iz ] ez   z ( z  ), eiz  e z |ziz , eiz  e z |ziz
2i n0 n!

Maclaurin series:
 f ( m ) (0)
f ( z)   zm
m 0 m18!
⊕
Example. Find Maclaurin series representation of f ( z)  sinh z

 z 2n1 ( z  )  1 z
sin z   (-1)
n 1 3 1 5 1 7
 z  z  z 
sin (iz)  i  sinh z n0 (2n 1)! 1! 3! 5! 7!

2n1  z 2n1
1 1 n (iz )
 sinh z  sin (iz)   (1) 
i i n 0 (2n 1)! n0 (2n 1)!
1
(1) n (i ) 2 n1  (1) n (i) 2 n  (1) n (1) n  (1) 2 n  1
i
(i ) 2  1

1 1 1
sinh( z )  z  z3  z5 
1! 3! 5!

19
⊕
Example. Find Maclaurin series representation of f ( z)  cos z
m  2n : f (2n) ( z)  (1)n cos(z)  f (2n) (0)  (1)n
f (0) (0)  f (4) (0)  f (8) (0)  1
m  2n 1: f (2n1) ( z)  (1)n sin(z)  f (2n1) (0)  0 f (2) (0)  f (6) (0)  f (10) (0)   1
Sol 1:
 z 2n
cos z     (-1) ( z )
 n
f ( m ) (0) m
z
m0 m!
n0 (2n)!
1 0 1 2 1 4
1 iz cos(z )  z  z  z  
Sol 2: cos( z )  [e  e  iz ]  0! 2! 4!
2
 n
ez   z ( z  ), eiz  e z |z iz , eiz  e z |z iz
n0 n!
Example. Find Maclaurin series representation of f ( z)  cosh z
(i ) 2  1

(1) n (i ) 2 n  (1) n (1) n  (1) 2 n  1

 n (iz)2n  2n
cosh z  cos (iz)   (-1)   z
n0 (2n)! n0 (2n)!

cos z   (-1) z
2n
 z  z  z  z  z   ( z  )
n 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 4 6 8

n0 (2n)! 0! 2! 4! 6! 8!
1 0 1 2 1 4
cosh( z )  z  z  z 
0! 2! 4!
20
⊕

0≤ 𝑧 <1

0≤ 𝑧 <∞

0≤ 𝑧 <∞

0≤ 𝑧 <∞

0≤ 𝑧 <∞

0≤ 𝑧 <∞

21
 Maclaurin series:
Example.  f ( n ) ( 0)
f ( n) ( z )  n! f (n) (0)  n! f ( z)   zn
(1 z)n1 n 0 n!
1  f 
  z n ( z 1)
 (n)
(0) n
1 z 

f ( z)  1
  r n ,| r | 1
z
n0
1 n 0 n!
1  r n 0

1   zn z  z
1 z n
0
1  1   ( z) n   (1) n z n
Maclaurin series
(  z 1 z 1)
1 z 1 ( z) n
0

n0

22
⊕
65. Negative Power of (𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )
Example .

z z 2 z3 z 4
e  1     ( z  )

zn
z

n 0 n !
1! 2! 3! 4!
2 3 4
z z z z
 z1  (nz!)  z1 (1     )
z  n
e
z2 2
n 0
2
1! 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 z z2
 2      (0  z )
z z 2! 3! 4!
|z|≠ 0
Negative Power
⇒We can not find a
Maclaurin series for f(zሻ
since it is not analytic at 0.

23
 1

z 2 1 =0  z 2 =-1=ei  We can not find a

Maclaurin series for f ( z)
  2 n  3
i i i since it is not analytic at z  0.
 z=e 2  e 2 , 2e 2
Example . =i, i -1

f ( z)  1 2z  1 2z 1
2 2 2
z3  z5 z3 z 2  1 𝑧 2 + 1 2𝑧 2 + 1
 1 (2  1 ) 2𝑧 2 + 2
z3 1 z 2 ------------
-1 1   zn z  z2
1 z n
0
1  1 
  ( z 2 )n
 1 (2 -1 z 2  z 4  z6   ) 1 z 2 1 ( z 2) n0
z3 1 z 2  z 4  z6 
 1  1z  z  z3  z5........... (  z 2 1 z 1)
z3
Negative Power (0 < z < 1)
|z|≠ 0 24
 Cauchy Integral Formulas for derivatives:
⊕
f ( n ) ( z0 ) 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
66. Laurent Series 
n!
If a function f fails to be analytic at a point z0, we can not
apply Taylor’s theorem at that point. Taylor Series :

f ( z)   an ( z- z0 )n
However, we can find a series representation for f(z) n0
( n)
f ( z0 )
involving both positive and negative powers of (z-z0). an  n  0,1, 2, .....
n!
(1)
Theorem. Suppose that a function f is analytic in a domain
R1  z  z0  R2 , and let C denote any positively oriented

simple closed contour around z0 and lying in that domain.

Then at each z in the domain
(2-1)

Form I:

f ( z)   Cn ( z- z0 )n (R1  z  z0  R2 )
n-
where Cn  1 c f ( z) dz (n  0, 1,  2, .....)
2π i ( z- z0 )n1

25
⊕ Cauchy integral formulas for derivatives: Taylor series:
f ( n ) ( z0 ) 1 f ( z ) dz 
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
 fv( z)   an ( z- z0 )n
n! n0
( n)
f ( z0 )
f ( z): analytic inside and on C an  n  0,1, 2, .....
n!
analytic at z0 f ( z) : analytic throughout z  z0  R0
C
analytic at z0 Tatlor series at 𝒛𝟎: 𝑧=𝑧0可
微分;包含z=𝑧0 的圓盤狀
z0 z − 𝑧0 < 𝑅0 可微分
Laurent series:

f v( z)   Cn ( z- z0 )n
n-
Cn  1 c f ( z) dz
2π i ( z- z0 )n1
f ( z) : analytic in R1  z  z0  R2
not analytic at z0 Laurent series at 𝒛𝟎: Example:
𝑧=𝑧0 不可微分;不包含z=𝑧0 的中
空環狀𝑅1 < z − 𝑧0 < 𝑅2 可微分 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   z n ( z  0 1)
Example: 1 z n
0
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
26
⊕
(2-2)
  bn Cauchy Integral Formulas for derivatives:
Form II: f ( z)   an ( z- z0 )  
n
n f ( n ) ( z0 )
( z- z 1 f ( z )dz
n0 n1 )
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
0 
n!
an  1 c f ( z) dz (n  0,1, 2, ......)
2π i ( z- z )n1
0

bn  1 c f ( z) dz (n 1, 2, .......)
2π i ( z- z )n1
0
  1
f ( z)  c
n  
n ( z  z0 )   cn ( z  z0 ) 
n

n 0
n
c
n  
n ( z  z0 ) n
   
  cn ( z  z0 )   cn ( z  z0 )
n n
  an ( z  z0 )   bn ( z  z0 ) n
n

n 0 n 1 n 0 n 1
n  n cn  an cn  bn
67. Proof of Laurent’s Theorem (Optional)

Proof:
( a ) z0  0
(i) Extented Cauchy-Goursat theorem:
f (sf)(dss) ds- f ((ss))dsds f (fs)(ds
s)ds
C2 cs2 s zz Cc11 ss zz  s sz z 0
 
 fCauchy
2i
( z ) integral formula
2πi f ( z0)!
1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds
2i C2 s  z 2i C1 s  z
 f ( z)  

1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds
2i C2 s  z 2i C1 z  s
  28
(ii) Similar to the proof for Taylor series:
1 1 z N zN N 1 z N

    zn 
1 z 1  z 1  z n 0 1 z
N 1 N
zz / s1 ( z / s )
   ( z / s) n 
1  z / s n 0 1 z / s
1
 N 1 z n N
 1  1 1 ( z / s )
  n 1 
s
 
 s  z  s 1  z / s n 0 s sz

z  s , n  n 1 N
1 N
1 1 1 s
    n 1 n  N
z  s n 1 s z zs 1 f ( s )ds
z f ( z) 
2i C 2 sz

(iii) From (i)(ii):
1 f ( s )ds
2i C1
N 1 N
f ( z )   an z n   N ( z )   bn z  n   N ( z ) zs
n 0 n 1

1 f ( s )ds N 1 s N f ( s )ds
2i C2 ( s  z ) s N 
 N ( z)  z ,  ( z ) 
2iz N zs
N
C1

1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds
2i C2 s n 1 2i C1 s  n 1
an  , bn  29
 c1 , c2 :| f ( s ) | M , | z | r
(iv) Similar to the proof for Taylor series: 1 f ( s)ds N
1 f ( s )ds N 1 M  2R2 N
 N ( z) 
2i  (s  z)s N
z
|  N ( z ) | |
C
z | r 2

2 C2 ( s  z ) s N 2 ( R2  r ) R2N
c2 :| s | R2 , R2  r
M  R2 r N
 ( ) | s  z | | s |  | z |  R2  r
R2  r R2
1 1 s N f ( s ) ds
2i C1 ( z  s ) z N
1 s N f ( s )ds 1 R1N  M  2R1  N ( z) 
2 C1 ( z  s ) z N
|  N ( z ) | | |
2 (r  R1 )r N
M  R1 R1 N c1 :| s | R1 , R1  r
 ( )
r  R1 r | z  s | | z |  | s |  r  R1
1

 lim  N ( z )  0, lim  N ( z )  0
N  N 
N   
1
 f ( z )   an z   bn n

n 0 n 1 zn
1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
2i C z n 1 2i C z  n 1
an  , bn 

30
(b) z0 : arbitrary
Similar to the proof for Taylor series :
  1 g ( z )dz 1 g ( z )dz
b
(i ) g ( z )   an z   nn
n an 
2i C z n 1
, bn 
2i C z n 1
n 0 n 1 z
1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
f ( z  z0 ) an  
2i C z n 1
, bn  
2i C z n 1

(ii ) z  z0  z ( z  z  z0 ) :
 
bn
f ( z )   an ( z  z0 )   n

n 1 ( z  z0 )
n
n 0
1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1 2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
an  , bn 

31
 助憶證明mnemonic:
 
1
(a) z0  0 prove f ( z )   an z   bn n
n

n 0 n 1 z
1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
2 i C z n 1 2 i C z  n 1
an  , bn 

(i) 2π1 i c f z-
( z)dz
z0 Form of Cauchy integral formula
2
z0  z f ( z)
zs 1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s ) ds 0!

2 i C2 s  z 2 i C1 s  z 2 i  s  z
  Extented Cauchy-Goursat theorem
f ( s)
sz
:analytic in R1  s  R2 , f ( s)
sz
: analytic in s  z   ,

1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds (ii) Similar to the proof

2 i C2 2 i C1
f ( z)   for Taylor series
sz sz 1 1 1 N 1
zn ( z / s) N
(iii) 1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds   
2 i C2 2 i C1
  s  z s 1  z / s n 0 s n 1 sz
sz zs z  s , n  n 1
1 N
1 1 1 sN
    n 1 n  N
N 1 N
z  s n 1 s z z zs
f ( z )   an z n   N ( z )   bn z  n   N ( z )
n 0 n 1

1 f ( s )ds N 1 s N f ( s )ds (iv)

 N ( z)  
2 i C2 ( s  z ) s N
z , N ( z) 
2 iz N C1 zs Similar to the proof for
Taylor series
1 f ( s )ds 1 f ( s )ds
an  
2 i C2 s n 1
, bn  
2 i C1 s  n 1 lim  N ( z )  0
N 

lim  N ( z )  0 32
N 
 助憶證明mnemonic:
(b) For arbitrary z0 Similar to the proof for Taylor series

(0) f (z): analytic when R1  z  z0  R2

z  z  z0
 f (z+z0 ): analytic when R1  ( z  z0 )  z0  R2  R1  z  R2

 
bn
(i ) g ( z )   an z   n
(
n
, g ( z ) : analytic when R1  z  R2 )
n 0 n 1 z
1 g ( z )dz 1 g ( z )dz
2i C z 2i C z n 1
an  n 1
, bn 

 
bn
f ( z  z0 )   an ( z  z0 )   n 1 f ( z  z0 )dz 1 f ( z  z0 )dz
2 i C 2 i C
an  , b 
n 1 ( z  z0 )
n
z n 1 z  n 1
n
n 0

(ii ) z  z0  z :
 
bn
f ( z )   an ( z  z0 )  
1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1 2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
an  
n
, b
n 1 ( z  z0 )
n n
n 0

33
  
bn
f ( z )   an ( z  z0 )  
n

n 1 ( z  z0 )
n
n 0

1 f ( z )dz 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1 2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
an  , bn 

C dz
dz (1)
  f ( z )dz  b1   b1  2 i Cauchy Integral Formulas for derivatives:
C C z  z0 f ( z )dz f ( n ) ( z0 )
C ( z  z0 )n1  2 i n !
 f ( z)  1
dz 1
n  0:  2 i  2 i
C z z 0!
0

dz 0
n  1, 2, :  2 i 0
C ( z  z ) n 1 n !
0

(2) Cauchy-Goursat Therorem:

C
( z  z0 ) n dz  0, n  0,1, 2,
34
⊕
68. Examples
The coefficients in a Laurent series are generally found by means
other than by appealing directly to their integral representation.
1
Example.
C
e dz  ?
z

C : 0 | z | 
C

 zn
e  
z ( z  )
n0 n!
replace z by 1z
1  1 1 1  1  1  ......... (0  z  )
e z  z 2!z 2 3!z3
n0 n! z
n

Laurent series z0

1
 1 1 1  1
Sol:
C e z
dz  C  z 2! z 2 3! z 3 
1    

dz  C z
dz  2 i
Sec. 53
b1  1

 b1  2 i  2 i
35
1
 Example.
1
𝑓 𝑧 = Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.
1−𝑧
Sol:
(1) Taylor series at 0 : 𝑧 < 1
1
1
𝑓 𝑧 = = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
𝑛
1−𝑧
Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
𝑧 < 1) 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
(2) Laurent series at 0 : 𝑧 > 1 1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = = = σ∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0( ሻ = σ𝑛=0 = σ∞
𝑛=1
1−𝑧 𝑧 1−1 𝑧 1−1 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑧𝑛
𝑧 𝑧
1 n 1  n
( < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 > 1)
𝑧 0 1

36
 Example.
1
𝑓 𝑧 = Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.
1+𝑧
Sol:
(1) Taylor series at 0: 𝑧 < 1
-1
1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = = σ∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=0(−𝑧ሻ = σ𝑛=0(−1ሻ 𝑧
1+𝑧 1−(−𝑧ሻ
Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
( −𝑧 < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 < 1) 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
(2) Laurent series at 0 : 1 < 𝑧
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = = = = σ∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0(− ሻ = σ𝑛=0(−1ሻ
𝑛
1+𝑧 𝑧 1+1 𝑧 1−(−1ሻ 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑛+1
𝑧 𝑧
1 1
(− <1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 > 1)
𝑧 𝑧

(−1ሻ 𝑛−1
= σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑧𝑛
n 1  n 37
0 1
 Example.
1
𝑓 𝑧 = Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z-1. 1
𝑧
Sol:
Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
(1) Taylor series at 1: 𝑧 − 1 < 1 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0

1 1 1
= = = σ∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0[− 𝑧 − 1 ] = σ𝑛=0[− 𝑧 − 1 ]
𝑛
𝑧 1+(𝑧−1ሻ 1−[− 𝑧−1 ]
− 𝑧−1 <1⇒ 𝑧−1 <1

= σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1ሻ 𝑧 − 1
𝑛
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
(2) Laurent series at 1: 𝑧 − 1 > 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 𝑛
= = = = σ∞ ( ሻ
𝑧 1+(𝑧−1ሻ 𝑧−1 1+ 1 𝑧−1 1−( −1 ሻ 𝑧−1 𝑛=0 𝑧−1
𝑧−1 𝑧−1

−1 1
( <1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 − 1 > 1)
𝑧−1 𝑧−1
1 1
= σ∞
𝑛=0(−1ሻ
𝑛 = σ∞
𝑛=1(−1ሻ
𝑛−1
(𝑧−1ሻ𝑛+1 (𝑧−1ሻ𝑛
n 1  n
38
0 1
 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
Example. 1   zn ( z 1)
1 z n
0
1
𝑓 𝑧 = Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z-2.
𝑧
Sol:
2

(1) Taylor series at 2: 𝑧 − 2 <2

Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1
=
1
=
1 1
= σ∞
1 1 𝑛 1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
𝑧 2+(𝑧−2ሻ 2 1− [−1 𝑧−2 ] 𝑛=0[−2 𝑧 − 2 ]
2 11/ z n
2 0
−12 𝑧 − 2 <1⇒ 1
2
𝑧−2 <1⇒ 𝑧−2 <2
1
= σ∞
𝑛=0 (−1ሻ𝑛 𝑧 − 2 𝑛
2𝑛+1
(2) Laurent series at 1: 𝑧 − 2 >2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −2 𝑛
= = = = σ∞ ( ሻ
𝑧 2+(𝑧−2ሻ 𝑧−2 2 +1 𝑧−2 1−( −2 ሻ 𝑧−2 𝑛=0 𝑧−2
𝑧−2 𝑧−2

−2 2
( <1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 − 2 > 2)
𝑧−2 𝑧−2
1 1
= σ∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1ሻ 2 = σ∞
𝑛=1(−1ሻ
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
2
(𝑧−2ሻ𝑛+1 (𝑧−2ሻ𝑛
n 1  n 39
0 1
 Example.
1 + 2𝑧 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 3 Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.
𝑧 + 𝑧5
Sol:

1 + 2𝑧 2 1 1 + 2𝑧 2 1 2𝑧 2 + 1 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 3 = = 3 2
𝑧 + 𝑧5 𝑧3 1 + 𝑧2 𝑧 𝑧 +1 𝑧 2 + 1 2𝑧 2 + 1
1 −1
= 3 (2 + 2 ሻ
𝑧 𝑧 +1
2𝑧 2 + 2
------------
1 -1
Suppose 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 + 1=0⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑖
𝑧 2 +1
+𝑖
(1) Taylor series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 < 1

1 1
𝑔 𝑧 = = = σ∞ 2 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛=0(−𝑧 ሻ = σ𝑛=0(−1ሻ 𝑧
𝑧 2 +1 1−(−𝑧 2 ሻ -𝑖

( −𝑧 2 < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 2 > 1 ⇒ 𝑧 < 1) Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):

1   z n ( z 1)
=1− 𝑧2 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧6 + 𝑧8 − +⋯ 1 z n
0
1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = (2 − 𝑔 𝑧 ሻ = 3 [2 − 1 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 6 + 𝑧 8 − +⋯ ]
𝑧3 𝑧
1 1 40
(𝑧 ≠ 0) = 3 + − 𝑧 + 𝑧3 − 𝑧5 + − ⋯ 0< 𝑧 < 1 for 𝑓(𝑧ሻ
𝑧 𝑧
 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
Example. 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0
1 + 2𝑧 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 3 Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z. +𝑖
𝑧 + 𝑧5
1
Suppose 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 + 1=0⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑖
𝑧 2 +1
-𝑖
Sol: (Cont’d)
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
(2) Laurent series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 > 1 1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0

1 1 1 1 1 1 ∞ 1 𝑛 1
𝑔 𝑧 = = = = σ (− ሻ = σ∞
𝑛=0(−1ሻ
𝑛
𝑧 2 +1 𝑧 2 1+ 12 𝑧 2 1−(− 12 ሻ 𝑧 2 𝑛=0 𝑧2 𝑧 2𝑛+2
𝑧 𝑧
1 1
(𝑧 ≠ 0) (− <1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 2 < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 > 1)
𝑧2 𝑧2

1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + − +⋯
𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6 𝑧8 𝑧 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑧 = 3 (2 − 𝑔 𝑧 ሻ = 3 [2 − 2 − 4 + − + − +⋯ ]
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧6 𝑧8 𝑧 10
(𝑧 ≠ 0)
2 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + − + −⋯ 𝑧 > 1 for 𝑓(𝑧ሻ
𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧7 𝑧9 𝑧 11 𝑧 13 41
 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
Example. 1   z n ( z 1)
5𝑧 − 2 1 z n
0
𝑓 𝑧 = 2 Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z+1.
𝑧 +𝑧
Sol: 5
5𝑧−2 5𝑧−2 1 5𝑧−2 1 1 𝑧 5𝑧 − 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 2 = = = (5 − 2 ሻ
𝑧 +𝑧 𝑧(𝑧+1ሻ 𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧+1 𝑧 5𝑧
( 𝑧 ≠ 0, −1 ) ------------
1 (𝑧 + 1ሻ ≠ 1,0 −2
Suppose 𝑔 𝑧 =
𝑧
(1) Taylor series at -1 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 + 1 < 1
1 1 −1 0 < 𝑧 + 1 < 1 for 𝑓(𝑧ሻ
= = = − σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧 + 1
𝑛
𝑧 −1+(𝑧+1ሻ 1−(𝑧+1ሻ Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
𝑧+1 <1 1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
(2) Laurent series at -1 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 + 1 > 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑛
= = = 1 = σ∞ ( ሻ
𝑧 −1+(𝑧+1ሻ −1
𝑧+1 +1 𝑧+1 1− 𝑧+1 𝑛=0 𝑧+1
𝑧+1 𝑧+1

1
( <1⇒ 𝑧+1 >1
𝑧+1
-1
1 1
= σ∞
𝑛=0 (𝑧+1ሻ𝑛+1 = σ∞
𝑛=1 (𝑧+1ሻ𝑛
𝑧 + 1 > 1 for 𝑓(𝑧ሻ 42
n 1  n
0 1
 Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
Example. 1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
f ( z)  1
 1  1  1 11/ z n
0
z 2 3z  2 ( z 1)( z  2) z 1 z  2 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
has two singular points z=1 and z=2, and is 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0
analytic in the domains
D1 : z 1
D2 : 1 z  2
D3 : 2  z

Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.

43
 1
(1) g z =
𝑧−1

(1.1) Taylor series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 < 1 1


1 1
 (1)  (1) z n
z 1 1 z n 0 Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   z n ( z 1)
( 𝑧 < 1) 1 z n
0
Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0

(1.2) Laurent series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 > 1

1 1 1 1  1 n  1 n 1  1
( )  ( )  ( )   n
z  1 z 1  1/ z z n 0 z n 0 z n 1 z

(𝑧 ≠ 0) ( 1/𝑧 < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 > 1 ) n 1  n

0 1
44
 1
(2) h 𝑧 =
𝑧−2

(2.1) Taylor series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 <2

2

1 1 1 1  z n  1 n
 ( )  ( ) ( )   n 1 z
z2 2 1 z / 2 2 n 0 2 n 0 2

𝑧
( < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 < 2) Taylor series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   z n ( z 1)
2
1 z n
0

(2.2) Laurent series at 0 for 𝑔(𝑧ሻ: 𝑧 > 2

Laurent series at 0 (in powers of z  0):
1   (1/ z)n (1/ z 1 z 1)
11/ z n
0
1 1 1 1  2 n  2n 
2n 1
( )   ( )   n 1   n
z2 z 1  2 / z z n 0 z n 0 z n 1 z

(𝑧 ≠ 0) 2 n 1  n
( < 1 ⇒ 𝑧 > 2) 0 1
𝑧

45
(a) 𝑍 in Region D1 | z | 1

f ( z)  1  1
z 1 z  2
Taylor series Taylor series
at 0 at 0
an

1 n 
1
  z   n 1 z   (1  n 1 ) z n
n

n 0 n 0 2 n 0 2
(1.1) (2.1) 
f ( z)   an ( z- z0 )n
n0

46
(b) 𝑍 in Region D2 1 | z | 2
f ( z)  1  1
z 1 z  2
Laurent Taylor series
series at 0 at 0

1  1 n
  n   n 1 z
n 1 z n 0 2

(1.2) (2.1)

bn an
 
1 1
  n   n 1 z n
n 1 z n 0 2

 bn 
f ( z)   n   an ( z- z0
)n
n1 ( z- z0 ) n0

47
(c) 𝑍 in Region D3 | z | 2
f ( z)  1  1
z 1 z  2
Laurent series Laurent series
at 0 at 0


1  2n 1
  n  n
n 1 z n 1 z

(1.2) (2.2)

bn

1  2n 1
 n
an  0
n 1 z
 bn 
f ( z)   n   an ( z- z0 )n
n1 ( z- z0 ) n0

48
 Example.
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 sin( ሻ Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.
𝑧
Sol:

z z3 z5 z7
sin z       , | z | 
1! 3! 5! 7!
1 1 1 1 1
z 2 sin( )  z 2 [     ]
z 1!z 3! z 3 5! z 5 7! z 7
(𝑧 ≠ 0) 1 1 1
 z  3
 5
 (𝑧 ≠ 0)
3! z 5! z 7! z

49
 Example.
1
𝑓 𝑧 = exp( 2 ሻ Express f(z) as an infinite series in powers of z.
𝑧
Sol:

(𝑧 ≠ 0)

(𝑧 ≠ 0)

50
 69. Absolute and uniform convergence of power series (Optional)

| an ( z1  z0 ) n | M , n  0,1,2, 
Theorem.

If a power series  an (z - z0 )n converges when z  z1 (z1  z0 ),
n0
then it is absolutely convergent at each point z in the open disk z - z0  R1 , where R1  z1  z0 .


| a
n 0
n ( z  z0 ) n |~ convergent

  an ( z  z0 ) n ~ convergent
n 0

51
 

• The greatest circle centered at z0 such that series  a n 0

n ( z  z0 ) n

converges at each point inside is called the circle of convergence

of series  an ( z  z0 ).n
n 0

• The series CAN NOT converge at any point z2 outside the circle
of convergence ; otherwise the circle of convergence is bigger.
Proof of Theorem: 
(i) The power series a
n 0
n ( z  z0 ) n converges at z1 . The terms an ( z1  z0 ) n
are thus bounded; i.e.,
for some positive constant M (Sec. 56)
| an ( z1  z0 ) n | M , n  0,1,2, 
(ii) Since | z1  z0 || z  z0 | , then
 | z  z0 | / | z1  z0 | 1
(iii)   | an ( z  z 0 ) n | 
M
| a
n 0
n ( z  z0 ) |  | an ( z1  z0 ) |
n

n 0
n

| an ( z1  z0 ) n |
 Mn 
n 0 1 
~ convergent


  an ( z  z0 ) n ~ convergent
n 0 52
 助憶證明mnemonic: | an ( z1  z0 ) n | M , n  0,1,2, 
(i) | z  z0 |
Theorem. 1
 | z1  z0 |
If a power series  an (z - z0 )n converges when z  z1 (z1  z0 ), (ii)
n0
then it is absolutely convergent at each point z in the open disk z - z0  R1 , where R1  z1  z0 .
(iii)
 | an ( z1  z0 ) n |
  | an ( z  z 0 ) n | 
M
 | an ( z  z0 ) |  | an ( z1  z0 ) |
n 0
n

n 0
n

| an ( z1  z0 ) n |
 Mn 
n 0 1 
~ convergent

 | an ( z1  z0 ) n | M 0
| z  z0 |n

| z1  z0 |n
 n

| z  z0 |
 1
| z1  z0 |

53
70.Continuity of Sums of Power Series (Optional)

Theorem. A power series:


S ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n (1)
n0
represents a continuous function S(z) at each point inside its circle
of convergence | z  z0 | R . The proof is omitted here.

If z1 is a point inside the circle of convergence of series (1),

then lim S ( z)  S ( z1 ) .
z  z1

For each positive number  , there is a positive number  such

that
| S ( z)  S ( z1 )|< whenever| z  z1 |<

54
71. Integration and Differentiation of Power Series (Optional)

We have just seen (Theorem1 in Sec. 64) that a power series


S ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n (1)
n0
represents continuous function at each point interior to
its circle of convergence.
We state in this section that the sum S(z) is actually
analytic within the circle of convergence.
(i)
Theorem. Let C denote any contour interior to the circle of
(ii)
convergence of the power
(iii)
series (1), and let g(z) be any function
that is continuous on C. The series formed by multiplying each
term of the power series by g(z) can be integrated term by term
over C; that is,
    n
c g ( z ) S ( z )dz  c g ( z ) 
  an ( z  z0
)n  dz 
  an c g ( z ) ( z- z0
) dz
 n0 n0
 


 55
S ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n
n0
 
S ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n (1)
n0
Theorem.
The power series (1) can be differentiated term by term. That is,
at each point z interior to the circle of convergence of that series,

SS'((zz))
nna
a n(( z
z- 
z )nz0 )
1 n 1
n 0
nn01

1   (-1)n ( z 1)n ( z-1 1)

Example. z 
n0 1 
  z n ( z  1)
1 z n  0

substitute 1 - z for z
1 1 
=   (1) n ( z  1) n (1  z  1)
Differentiation z 1  (1  z ) n  0

 1   (-1)n n( z-1)n-1 z-1 1
z 2 n1

 1   (-1)n (n 1)( z 1)n z-1 1
z 2 n0
56
72. Uniqueness of series representation (Optional)

Theorem. If a series
(i) f ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n
n0

 an ( z  z0 )n converges to f ( z)
n0 z  z0  R
(ii)
at all points interior to some circle z  z0  R ,
then it is the Taylor series expansion for f in powers
of z  z0 . a 
f ( n ) ( z0 )
n
Proof : n!

(i) f ( z)   am( z  z0 )m (1)
m0
nm
Define g ( z)  1 1
(2) and C : z  z0  R
2 i ( z  z0 )n1
(ii.i) 1 f ( z) f ( n ) ( z0 )
 g ( z) f ( z)dz   n 1
dz 
C 2 i C ( z  z 0 ) n!
f ( n ) ( z0 ) 1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
(2) Cauchy Integral Formulas for derivatives: 
dz n!
(ii.ii) g ( z) f ( z)dz   am  

n1m
dz  an
C 2 i C ( z
m 0  z 0 )
dz
(1)(2)  n 1 m
dz  0, m  n
C ( z  z0 ) 2 i, m  n

f ( n ) ( z0 )
(iii) From (ii.i) (ii.ii) an  57
n!
 (i)
Theorem. If a series
 
f ( z)   cn ( z  z0 )n  Cn ( z- z0 )n R1  z  z0  R2
n n
(ii)
converges to f(z) at all points in some annular domain
about z0, then it is the Laurent series expansion for f
in powers of z  z0 for that domain. c  1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
n

Proof :

(i) f ( z)   cm( z  z0 )m (1)
m
nm
Define g ( z)  1 1
(2) and C : z  z0  R
2 i ( z  z0 )n1
(ii.i) g ( z) f ( z)dz  1 f ( z)
  n 1
dz
C 2 i C ( z  z 0 )

(2) cm dz



(ii.ii)  g ( z ) f ( z )dz   n1m

dz  cn
C 2 i C
m ( z  z 0 )
dz
 n 1 m
dz  0, m  n
(1)(2) C ( z  z0 ) 2 i, m  n

1 f ( z )dz
2i C ( z  z0 ) n 1
(iii) From (ii.i) (ii.ii) cn  58
73. Multiplication and Division of Power Series (Optional)
 
Suppose f ( z)   an ( z  z0 )n and g ( z)   bn ( z  z0 )n
n0 n0
converges within z  z0  R ,
then f(z) and g(z) are analytic functions in z  z0  R

f ( z) g ( z)   cn ( z  z0 )n z  z0  R
n0
n
cn   a b Cauchy product
k 0 k n-k
  

p



  q


 nc ( z  z0
)n =   a p ( z  z0
)    bq ( z  z0 ) 
n0  p0




 q0 


( f  g ) |n 0 f | p 0  g |q 0
c0 ( z  z0 )0  a0 ( z  z0 )0 b0 ( z  z0 )0  c0  a0 b0
( f  g ) |n 1 f | p 0  g |q 1 f | p 1  g |q 0
c1 ( z  z0 )1  a0 ( z  z0 )0 b1 ( z  z0 )1  a1 ( z  z0 )1 b0 ( z  z0 )0  c1  a0b1  a1 b0
( f  g ) |n  2 f | p 0  g |q 2 f | p 1  g |q 1 f | p 2  g |q 0
c2 ( z  z0 ) 2  a0 ( z  z0 )0 b2 ( z  z0 ) 2  a1 ( z  z0 )1 b1 ( z  z0 )1  a2 ( z  z0 ) 2 b0 ( z  z0 ) 0
59
 c2  a0 b2  a1 b1  a2b0
 1   z n ( z 1)
1 z n
0
Example.
ez
The Maclaurin series for 1 z is valid in disk z 1
 n
ez   z ( z )
ez n0 n! -1

1 z 1

1 
  ( z ) n ,|  z | 1 | z | 1
1 1  z 1  ( z ) n 0
 ez
1 z
 (1 z  1 z 2  1 z3  .....)(1- z  z 2  z3  ........)
2 6
1 1 z 2  1 z3  ..... z 1
2 3

1 1
an  {a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , }  {1,1, , , }
2 6
bn  {b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , }  {1, 1,1, 1, }
n
1 1
cn   ak bn  k  {1, 0, ,  , }
k 0 2 3
60
 Example.

(i)
1 1 3 1 5
sin z  z  z  z  , | z | 
1! 3! 5!
1 1 3 1 5
sinh z  i sin(iz )  z  z  z  , | z | 
1! 3! 5!

(ii) 1 1
 ,
sinh z 1 1 3 1 5
z  z  z 
1! 3! 5!
sinh z  0  z  ik Ch3:sinhz=0 z=ik𝜋
 Laurent series at 0 exists when n | z | ( n  1) , n =0,1,2,
 Textbook : choose 0 | z | 
1 1
 , 0 | z | 
2
z sinh z 1 1 3 1 5 
z2  z  z  z  
 1! 3! 5! 
1

1 1 2 1 4 
z3   z  z  
61
 1! 3! 5! 
(iii) 1 1
 62
z 2 sinh z 1 1 2 1 4 
3
z   z  z  
 1! 3! 5! 